This article is the seventh publication of the series "Myths of Housing and Public Utilities", dedicated to debunking. Myths and false theories, widespread in the housing and communal services of Russia, contribute to the growth of social tension, the development of "" between consumers and performers utilities leading to extremely negative consequences in the housing industry. The articles of the cycle are recommended, first of all, for consumers of housing and communal services (HCS), however, specialists in housing and communal services may also find something useful in them. In addition, the dissemination of publications from the series "Myths of Housing and Utilities" among consumers of housing and communal services can contribute to a deeper understanding of the housing and utility sector by residents of apartment buildings, which leads to the development of constructive interaction between consumers and providers of utilities. A complete list of articles in the cycle "Myths of housing and communal services" is available

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This article deals with a somewhat unusual question, which, nevertheless, as practice shows, worries quite a significant part of the consumers of utilities, namely: why is the unit of measurement for the standard of consumption of utilities for heating is "Gcal / sq. Meter"? Misunderstanding this issue led to the advancement of an unreasonable hypothesis that the alleged unit of measurement of the standard for heat energy consumption for heating was chosen incorrectly. The considered assumption leads to the emergence of some myths and false theories of the housing sector, which are refuted in this publication. Additionally, the article explains what is a communal heating service and how this service is technically provided.

The essence of false theory

It should be noted right away that the incorrect assumptions analyzed in the publication are relevant for cases where there are no heating meters - that is, for those situations when it is used in the calculations.

It is difficult to clearly formulate false theories following from the hypothesis about the wrong choice of the unit for measuring the heating consumption rate. The consequences of such a hypothesis are, for example, statements:
⁃ « The volume of the coolant is measured in cubic meters, heat energy is in gigacalories, which means that the standard for heating consumption should be in Gcal / cubic meter!»;
⁃ « Utility heating is consumed to heat the space of an apartment, and this space is measured in cubic meters, not square meters! It is illegal to use the area in the calculations, the volume must be used!»;
⁃ « Fuel for preparing hot water used for heating can be measured either in units of volume (cubic meter) or in units of weight (kg), but not in units of area (square meter). The standards are calculated illegally, incorrectly!»;
⁃ « It is absolutely unclear in relation to what area the standard is calculated - to the area of ​​the battery, to the cross-sectional area of ​​the supply pipeline, to the area land plot, on which the house stands, to the area of ​​the walls of this house or, perhaps, to the area of ​​its roof. It is only clear that it is impossible to use the area of ​​premises in the calculations, since in multi-storey building the premises are located one above the other, and in fact, their area is used in calculations many times - approximately as many times as there are floors in the house».

Various conclusions can follow from the above statements, some of which boil down to the phrase “ It's all wrong, I won't pay", And in addition to the same phrase, some also contain some logical arguments, among which the following can be distinguished:
1) since the denominator of the unit of measurement of the standard indicates a lower degree of magnitude (square) than it should be (cube), that is, the applied denominator is less than the one to be applied, then the value of the standard, according to the rules of mathematics, is overestimated (than less denominator fractions, the greater the value of the fraction itself);
2) an incorrectly selected standard unit of measurement implies additional mathematical actions before being substituted into formulas 2, 2 (1), 2 (2), 2 (3) of Appendix 2 of the Rules for the provision of utilities to owners and users of premises in apartment buildings and residential buildings approved by the RF Government dated 06.05.2011 N354 (hereinafter referred to as Rules 354) values ​​NT (standard for consumption of utility services for heating) and TT (tariff for heat energy).

As such preliminary transformations, actions that do not stand up to criticism are proposed, for example * :
⁃ The NT value is equal to the square of the standard approved by the subject of the Russian Federation, since the denominator of the unit of measurement indicates “ square meter";
⁃ The TT value is equal to the product of the tariff by the standard, that is, TT is not a tariff for heat energy, but a certain specific cost of heat energy consumed for heating one square meter;
⁃ Other transformations, the logic of which could not be comprehended at all, even when trying to apply the most incredible and fantastic schemes, calculations, theories.

Since an apartment building consists of a set of residential and non-residential premises and places common use(common property), while the common property on the basis of the right of common share ownership belongs to the owners of individual premises of the house, the entire volume of heat energy entering the house is consumed by the owners of the premises of such a house. Consequently, the payment for the heat consumed for heating should be made by the owners of the apartment buildings. And here the question arises - how to distribute the cost of the entire volume of heat energy consumed by an apartment building between the owners of the premises of this apartment building?

Guided by quite logical conclusions that the consumption of heat energy in each specific room depends on the size of such a room, the Government of the Russian Federation has established a procedure for distributing the amount of heat energy consumed by the whole house among the premises of such a house in proportion to the area of ​​these premises. This is provided for both by Rules 354 (the distribution of readings of a general house heating meter in proportion to the shares of the area of ​​premises of specific owners in the total area of ​​all premises of the house in the property), and Rules 306 when establishing a standard for heating consumption.

Clause 18 of Appendix 1 to Regulation 306 provides:
« 18. The standard of consumption of utility services for heating in residential and non-residential premises (Gcal per 1 square meter of the total area of ​​all residential and non-residential premises in an apartment building or residential building per month) is determined by the following formula (formula 18):

where:
- the amount of heat energy consumed during one heating period by apartment buildings that are not equipped with collective (common building) heat energy metering devices, or residential buildings not equipped with individual heat energy metering devices (Gcal), determined by formula 19;
— total area all residential and non-residential premises in apartment buildings or the total area of ​​residential buildings (sq. m);
- a period equal to the duration of the heating period (the number of calendar months, including incomplete ones, in the heating period)».

Thus, it is precisely this formula that stipulates that the standard for the consumption of utility services for heating is measured precisely in Gcal / sq. Meter, which, among other things, is directly established by subparagraph "e" of paragraph 7 of Rules 306:
« 7. When choosing a unit of measurement of standards for the consumption of utilities, the following indicators are used:
f) with regard to heating:
in residential premises - Gcal per 1 sq. meter the total area of ​​all premises in an apartment building or residential building».

Based on the foregoing, the standard for the consumption of utility services for heating is equal to the amount of heat consumed in an apartment building for 1 square meter the area of ​​premises owned per month during the heating period (when choosing a payment method, it is applied evenly throughout the year).

Calculation examples

As indicated, we will give an example of calculation according to the correct method and according to the methods proposed by false theoreticians. To calculate the cost of heating, we will accept the following conditions:

Suppose that the heating consumption standard is approved at 0.022 Gcal / sq. Meter, the heat energy tariff is approved at 2500 rubles / Gcal, the area of ​​the i-th room is assumed to be 50 square meters. To simplify the calculation, we will accept the conditions that payment for heating is carried out, and there is no house technical capability installation of a common house metering device for heat energy for heating.

In this case, the amount of payment for the utility service for heating in the i-th residential building not equipped with an individual metering device for heat energy and the amount of payment for the utility service for heating in i-th residential or non-residential premises in an apartment building, which is not equipped with a collective (common building) metering device for heat energy, when making payment during the heating period, it is determined by formula 2:

Pi = Si× NT× TT,

where:
Si is the total area of ​​the i-th premise (residential or non-residential) in an apartment building or the total area of ​​a residential building;
NT is the standard for the consumption of communal heating services;
TT - the tariff for heat energy, established in accordance with the legislation Russian Federation.

The following calculation will be correct (and universally used) for the example under consideration:
Si = 50 square meters
NT = 0.022 Gcal / sq. Meter
TT = 2500 RUB / Gcal

Pi = Si × NT × TT = 50 × 0.022 × 2500 = 2750 rubles

Let's check the calculation by dimensions:
"Square meter"× "Gcal / sq. Meter"× × "Rub. / Gcal" = ("Gcal" in the first factor and "Gcal" in the denominator of the second factor are reduced) = "rub."

The dimensions are the same, the cost of the Pi heating service is measured in rubles. The resulting calculation result: 2750 rubles.

Now let's calculate using the methods proposed by pseudo-theoreticians:

1) The NT value is equal to the square of the standard approved by the subject of the Russian Federation:
Si = 50 square meters
NT = 0.022 Gcal / square meter × 0.022 Gcal / square meter = 0.000484 (Gcal / square meter) ²
TT = 2500 RUB / Gcal

Pi = Si × NT × TT = 50 × 0.000484 × 2500 = 60.5

As can be seen from the presented calculation, the cost of heating was equal to 60 rubles 50 kopecks. The attractiveness of this method lies precisely in the fact that the cost of heating is not 2750 rubles, but only 60 rubles 50 kopecks. How correct is this method and how correct is the calculation result obtained from its application? To answer this question, it is necessary to carry out some transformations admissible by mathematics, namely: we will carry out the calculation not in giga calories, but in mega calories, respectively, transforming all the values ​​used in the calculations:

Si = 50 square meters
NT = 22 Mcal / square meter × 22 Mcal / square meter = 484 (Mcal / square meter) ²
TT = 2.5 rubles / Mcal

Pi = Si × NT × TT = 50 × 484 × 2.500 = 60500

And what do we get as a result? The cost of heating is already 60,500 rubles! Immediately, we note that in the case of applying the correct method, mathematical transformations should not affect the result in any way:
(Si = 50 square meters
NT = 0.022 Gcal / square meter = 22 Mcal / square meter
TT = 2500 rubles / Gcal = 2.5 rubles / Mcal

Pi = Si× NT× TT = 50× 22 × 2.5 = 2750 rubles)

And if, in the method proposed by pseudo-theoreticians, the calculation is carried out not even in megacalories, but in calories, then:

Si = 50 square meters
NT = 22,000,000 cal / sqm × 22,000,000 cal / sqm = 484,000,000,000,000 (cal / sqm) ²
TT = 0.0000025 rubles / cal

Pi = Si × NT × TT = 50 × 484,000,000,000,000 × 0.0000025 = 60,500,000,000

That is, heating a room with an area of ​​50 square meters costs 60.5 billion rubles a month!

In fact, of course, the considered method is incorrect, the results of its application do not correspond to reality. Additionally, we will check the calculation by dimensions:

"Square meter"× "Gcal / sq. Meter"× "Gcal / sq. Meter"× "RUB / Gcal" = ("square meter" in the first factor and "square meter" in the denominator of the second factor are reduced) = "Gcal"× "Gcal / sq. Meter"× "RUB / Gcal" = ("Gcal" in the first factor and "Gcal" in the denominator of the third factor are reduced) = "Gcal / square meter"× "rub."

As you can see, the dimension "rub." as a result, it does not work, which confirms the incorrectness of the proposed calculation.

2) The value of TT is equal to the product of the tariff approved by the constituent entity of the Russian Federation by the consumption standard:
Si = 50 square meters
NT = 0.022 Gcal / sq. Meter
TT = 2500 rubles / Gcal × 0.022 Gcal / square meter = 550 rubles / square meter

Pi = Si × NT × TT = 50 × 0.022 × 550 = 60.5

The calculation according to the specified method gives exactly the same result as the first incorrect method considered. The second applied method can be refuted in the same way as the first one: convert gigacalories to mega- (or kilo-) calories and check the calculation in terms of dimensions.

conclusions

The myth of the wrong choice " Gcal / square meter»As a unit of measurement of the standard of consumption of utility services for heating is refuted. Moreover, the consistency and validity of the use of just such a unit of measurement has been proven. The incorrectness of the methods proposed by pseudo-theoreticians is proved, their calculations are refuted elementary rules mathematics.

It should be noted that the overwhelming majority of false theories and myths of the housing sector are aimed at proving that the amount of payment presented to owners for payment is overstated - this fact contributes to the "vitality" of such theories, their dissemination and the growth of their supporters. It is quite reasonable that consumers of any service want to minimize their costs, however, attempts to use false theories and myths do not lead to any savings, but are aimed only at, at introducing into the minds of consumers the idea that they are being deceived, unreasonably charged from them cash... Obviously, the courts and supervisory authorities empowered to deal with conflict situations between the performers and consumers of utilities, they will not be guided by false theories and myths, therefore, there can be no savings and no other positive consequences either for the consumers themselves or for other participants in housing relations.

Let's start with the concepts of "work" and "power". Work is a part of the internal energy expended by a person or a machine over a period of time. In the process of such work, a person or a machine warms up, generating heat. Therefore, both internal energy and the amount of released or absorbed heat, as well as work, are measured in the same units - joules (J), kilojoules (kJ) or megajoules (MJ).

The faster work is done or heat is released, the more intensively the internal energy is consumed. By a measure of this intensity is the power, measured in watts(W), kilowatts (kW), megawatts (MW), and gigawatts (GW). Power is the work done per unit of time (whether it be engine work or work electric current). Thermal power is the amount of heat transferred per unit of time to the heat carrier (water, oil) from the combustion of fuel (gas, fuel oil) in the boiler.

Calorie was introduced back in 1772 Swedish experimental physicist Johann Wilke as a unit of measurement for heat. Currently, a unit multiple of a calorie, a gigacalorie (Gcal), is actively used in such spheres of life as utilities, heating systems and heat power engineering. Its derivative is also used - a gigacalorie per hour (Gcal / h), which characterizes the rate of heat release or heat absorption by one or another equipment. Now let's try to calculate what one calorie is equal to.

Back in school, in physics lessons, we were taught that in order to heat any substance, it must be given a certain amount of heat. There was even such a formula Q = c * m * ∆t, where Q means an unknown amount of heat, m is the mass of the heated substance, c is the specific heat capacity of this substance, and ∆t is the temperature difference by which the substance is heated. So, a calorie is called a non-systemic unit of heat, defined as "the amount of heat spent on heating 1 gram of water per 1 degree Celsius at an atmospheric pressure of 101325 Pa."

Since heat is measured in joules, then using the above formula, we find out what is 1 calorie (cal) in joules... To do this, take from the physics reference book the value of the specific heat capacity of water under normal conditions (atmospheric pressure p = 101325 Pa, temperature t = 20 ° C): c = 4183 J / (kg * ° C). Then one calorie will be equal to:

• 1 cal = 4183 [J / (kg * ° C)] * 0.001 kg * 1 ° C = 4.183 J.

However, the calorie value depends on the heating temperature, so its value is not constant. For practical purposes, the so-called international calorie or simply calorie is used, which is 4.1868 J.

Memo 1

• 1 cal = 4.1868 J, 1 kcal = 1000 cal, 1 Gcal = 1 billion cal = 4186800000 J = 4186.8 MJ;
• 1 J = 0.2388 cal, 1 MJ = 1 million J = 238845.8966 cal = 238.8459 kcal;
• 1 Gcal / h = 277777.7778 cal / s = 277.7778 kcal / s = 1163000 J / s = 1.163 MJ / s.

Gigacalories or kilowatts

Let's finally figure out what is the difference between these units of measurement. Let us have heating device for example a kettle. Let's take 1 liter cold water from the tap (temperature t1 = 15 ° C) and boil it (heat it to t2 = 100 ° C). Electric power kettle - P = 1.5 kW. How much heat will the water absorb? To find out, we apply the familiar formula, while taking into account that the mass of 1 liter of water m = 1 kg: Q = 4183 [J / (kg * ° C)] * 1 kg * (100 ° C-15 ° C) = 355555 J = 84922.8528 cal≈85 kcal.

How long does it take for a kettle to boil? Let all the energy of the electric current go to heating the water. Then we will find the unknown time using the energy balance: "The energy consumed by the kettle is equal to the energy absorbed by the water (excluding losses)." The energy consumed by the kettle during the time τ is equal to P * τ. The energy absorbed by water is equal to Q. Then, based on the balance, we obtain P * τ = Q. Hence, the heating time of the kettle will be: τ = Q / P = 355555 J / 1500 W ≈ 237 s ≈ 4 min. The amount of heat transferred by the kettle to the water per unit of time is its thermal power. In our case, it will amount to Q / τ = 84922.8528 cal / 237 s≈358 cal / s = 0.0012888 Gcal / h.

Thus, kW and Gcal / h are units of power, and Gcal and MJ are units of heat and energy. How can such calculations be applied in practice? If we receive a receipt for the payment of heating, then we pay for the heat that the supplying organization supplies us through the pipes. This heat is taken into account in gigacalories, that is, in the amount of heat consumed by us during the billing period. Do I need to convert this unit to joules? Of course not, because we're just paying for a specific number of gigacalories.

However, it is often necessary to choose one or another for a house or apartment. heating devices e.g. air conditioner, radiator, boiler or gas boiler. In this connection, you need to know in advance heat output required to heat the room. Knowing this power, you can select the appropriate device. It can be specified both in kW and in Gcal / h, as well as in BTU / h units (British Thermal Unit - British Thermal Unit, h - hour). The following checklist will help you convert kW to Gcal / h, kW to BTU / h, Gcal to kWh and BTU to kWh.

Memo 2

• one W = one J / s = 0.2388459 cal / s = 859.8452 cal / h = 0.8598 kcal / h;
• one kW = one kJ / s = 1000 J / s = 238.8459 cal / s = 859845.2279 cal / h = 0.00085984523 Gcal / h;
• one MW = one MJ / s = one million J / s = 1000 kW = 238845.8966 cal / s = 0.85984523 Gcal / h;
• one Gcal / h = one billion cal / h = 1163000 W = 1163 kW = 1.163 MW = 3968156 BTU / h;
• one BTU / h = 0.2931 W = 0.0700017 cal / s = 252.0062 cal / h = 0.2520062 kcal / h;
• one W = 3.412 BTU / h, one kW = 3412 BTU / h, one MW = 3412000 BTU / h.

How is BTU / h defined and what is it used for? 1 BTU is the amount of heat required to heat 1 pound of water 1 ° Fahrenheit (° F). This unit is mainly used to indicate the heat output of installations such as air conditioners.

Calculation examples

So we come to the most important thing. How to convert one value to another using the above ratios? It's not all that difficult. Let's look at some examples.

Example 1

The thermal power of the boiler is 30 kW. What is its equivalent power, expressed in Gcal / h?

Solution. Since 1 kW = 0.00085984523 Gcal / h, then 30 kW = 30 * 0.00085984523 Gcal / h = 0.0257953569 Gcal / h.

Example 2

It is estimated that an air conditioner with a capacity of at least 2.5 kW is required to cool an office. An air conditioner with a capacity of 8000 BTU / h was chosen for the purchase. Is there enough air conditioner capacity to cool the office?

Solution. Since 1 BTU / h = 0.2931 W, then 8000 BTU / h = 2344.8 W = 2.3448 kW. This value is less than the calculated 2.5 kW, so the selected air conditioner is not suitable for installation.

Example 3

The heat supply organization supplied 0.9 Gcal of heat per month. How much power does a radiator need to install so that it produces the same amount of heat per month?

Solution. Suppose that heat was supplied to the house evenly within one month (30 days), therefore, the heat output supplied by the boiler house can be found by dividing the total amount of heat by the number of hours in a month: P = 0.9 Gcal / (30 * 24 h) = 0.00125 Gcal / h. This power in terms of kilowatts will be equal to P = 1163 kW * 0.00125 = 1.45375 kW.

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1 kilocalorie (IT) per hour [kcal / h] = 0.001163 kilowatt [kW]

Initial value

Converted value

watt exawatt petawatt terawatt gigawatt megawatt kilowatt hectowatt deciwatt deciwatt sanewatt milliwatt microwatt nanowatt picowatt femtowatt attowatt horsepower horsepower metric horsepower boiler horsepower electrical horsepower pumping horsepower British horsepower British horsepower thermal unit (int.) per hour Brit. thermal unit (IT) per minute Brit. thermal unit (IT) per second Brit. thermal unit (thermochemical) per hour Brit. thermal unit (thermochemical) per minute Brit. thermal unit (thermochemical) per second MBTU (international) per hour Thousand BTU per hour MBTU (international) per hour Million BTU per hour ton of refrigeration kilocalorie (IT) per hour kilocalorie (IT) per minute kilocalorie (IT) second kilocalorie (term) per hour kilocalorie (term) per minute kilocalorie (term) per second calorie (IT) per hour calorie (IT) per minute calorie (IT) per second calorie (term) per hour calorie (therm) per minute calorie (therm) per second foot pound-force per hour foot lbf / minute foot lbf / second pound-foot per hour pound-foot per minute pound-foot per second erg per second kilovolt-ampere volt-ampere newton-meter per second joule per second exjoule per second petajoule per second terajoule per second gigajoule per second megajoule per second kilojoule per second hectojoule per second decjoule per second decijoule per second centijoule per second microjoule per second per second nanojoule per second picojoule per second femtojoule per second attojoule per seconds joule per hour joule per minute kilojoule per hour kilojoule per minute Planck power

More about power

General information

In physics, power is the ratio of work to the time it takes to do it. Mechanical work is a quantitative characteristic of the action of force F on the body, as a result of which it moves a distance s... Power can also be defined as the rate at which power is transmitted. In other words, power is a measure of the health of a machine. By measuring the power, you can understand how much and at what speed the work is being done.

Power units

Power is measured in joules per second, or watts. Along with watts, horsepower is also used. Before the invention of the steam engine, the power of engines was not measured, and, accordingly, there were no generally accepted units of power. When the steam engine began to be used in mines, engineer and inventor James Watt began to improve it. In order to prove that his improvements made the steam engine more efficient, he compared its power to the performance of horses, since horses have been used by people for many years, and many could easily imagine how much work a horse could do in a given amount of time. In addition, not all mines used steam engines. On those where they were used, Watt compared the power of the old and new models of the steam engine with the power of one horse, that is, with one horsepower. Watt determined this value experimentally by observing the work of draft horses at a mill. According to his measurements, one horsepower is 746 watts. Now it is believed that this figure is exaggerated, and the horse cannot work in this mode for a long time, but they did not change the unit. Power can be used as an indicator of productivity, since as power increases, the amount of work performed per unit of time increases. Many realized that it was convenient to have a standardized power unit, so horsepower became very popular. It began to be used to measure the power of other devices, especially transport. Although watts are used almost as long as horsepower, the automotive industry is more likely to use horsepower, and many buyers have a better understanding of when these units are used to indicate the power of an automobile engine.

Household electrical appliances power

Household appliances are usually marked with wattage. Some luminaires limit the power of the bulbs that can be used in them, for example, no more than 60 watts. This is because higher wattage bulbs generate a lot of heat and the luminaire with the socket may be damaged. And the lamp itself at a high temperature in the lamp will not last long. This is mainly a problem with incandescent bulbs. LED, fluorescent and other lamps usually operate at lower wattage at the same brightness and, if used in luminaires designed for incandescent lamps, there is no power problem.

The more the power of the appliance, the higher the energy consumption, and the cost of using the appliance. Therefore, manufacturers are constantly improving electrical appliances and lamps. The luminous flux of lamps, measured in lumens, depends on the wattage, but also on the type of lamp. The higher the luminous flux of the lamp, the brighter its light looks. For people, it is the high brightness that is important, and not the power consumed by the lamp, therefore, in recent times alternatives to incandescent bulbs are becoming more and more popular. Below are examples of lamp types, their wattage and the luminous flux they generate.

• 450 lumens:
• Incandescent lamp: 40 watts
• Compact fluorescent lamp: 9-13 watts
• LED lamp: 4-9 watts
• 800 lumens:



• Incandescent lamp: 60 watts
• Compact fluorescent lamp: 13-15 watts
• LED lamp: 10-15 watts
• 1600 lumens:
• Incandescent lamp: 100 watts
• Compact fluorescent lamp: 23-30 watts
• LED lamp: 16-20 watts

From these examples, it is obvious that with the same created luminous flux LED bulbs consume the least amount of electricity and are more economical than incandescent bulbs. At the time of this writing (2013) the price is LED lamps many times higher than the price of incandescent lamps. Despite this, some countries have banned or are about to ban the sale of incandescent lamps due to their high power.

Power household electrical appliances may differ depending on the manufacturer, and is not always the same during the operation of the device. Below are the approximate capacities of some household appliances.



• Household air conditioners for cooling a residential building, split system: 20-40 kilowatts
• Monoblock window air conditioners: 1-2 kilowatts
• Ovens: 2.1-3.6 kilowatts
• Washers and dryers: 2-3.5 kilowatts
• Dishwashers: 1.8-2.3 kilowatts
• Electric kettles: 1-2 kilowatts
• Microwaves: 0.65-1.2 kilowatts
• Refrigerators: 0.25-1 kilowatts
• Toasters: 0.7-0.9 kilowatts

Power in sports

Performance can be judged by power not only for machines, but also for people and animals. For example, the power at which a basketball player throws the ball is calculated by measuring the force she applies to the ball, the distance the ball flew, and the time that force was applied. There are sites that allow you to calculate the work and power during physical exercise... The user selects the type of exercise, enters height, weight, exercise duration, after which the program calculates the power. For example, according to one of these calculators, the power of a person who is 170 centimeters tall and weighs 70 kilograms, who did 50 push-ups in 10 minutes, is 39.5 watts. Athletes sometimes use devices to measure the power at which muscles are working during physical activity... This information helps determine how effective their chosen exercise program is.

Dynamometers

To measure power, special devices are used - dynamometers. They can also measure torque and force. Dynamometers are used in various industries, from technology to medicine. For example, they can be used to determine the power of a car engine. Several basic types of dynamometers are used to measure the power of vehicles. In order to determine the engine power using dynamometers alone, it is necessary to remove the engine from the car and connect it to the dynamometer. In other dynamometers, the force to be measured is transmitted directly from the wheel of the vehicle. In this case, the car's engine drives the wheels through the transmission, which, in turn, rotate the rollers of the dynamometer, which measures the engine power under various road conditions.

Dynamometers are also used in sports and medicine. The most common type of dynamometer for this purpose is isokinetic. Typically, this is a sensor-based gym equipment connected to a computer. These sensors measure the strength and power of the entire body or specific muscle groups. The dynamometer can be programmed to issue alarms and warnings if the power has exceeded a certain value. This is especially important for people with injuries during the rehabilitation period, when it is necessary not to overload the body.

According to some provisions of the theory of sports, the greatest sports development occurs at a certain load, individual for each athlete. If the load is not heavy enough, the athlete gets used to it and does not develop his abilities. If, on the contrary, it is too severe, then the results deteriorate due to the overload of the body. Exercise during some exercise, such as cycling or swimming, is influenced by many factors environment such as road conditions or wind conditions. Such a load is difficult to measure, however, you can find out with what power the body resists this load, and then change the exercise pattern, depending on the desired load.

Do you find it difficult to translate a unit of measurement from one language to another? Colleagues are ready to help you. Post a question to TCTerms and you will receive an answer within a few minutes.

What is Gcal? Gcal is a gigacalorie, that is, a measuring unit in which it is calculated thermal energy... You can calculate Gcal yourself, but having previously studied some information about thermal energy. Consider in the article general information about the calculations, as well as the formula for calculating Gcal.

What is Gcal?

A calorie is a certain amount of energy that is needed to heat 1 gram of water to 1 degree. This condition observed under atmospheric pressure conditions. For the calculation of thermal energy, a large value is used - Gcal. A gigacalorie equals 1 billion calories. This value has been used since 1995 in accordance with the document of the Ministry of Fuel and Energy.

In Russia, the average consumption per 1 sq. M. is 0.9342 Gcal per month. In each region, this value can change up or down depending on weather conditions.

What is a gigacalorie when converted to normal values?

1. 1 Gigacalorie equals 1162.2 kilowatt-hours.
2. In order to heat 1 thousand tons of water to a temperature of +1 degrees, 1 gigacalorie is required.

Gcal in apartment buildings

In apartment buildings, gigacalories are used in thermal calculations. If you know the exact amount of heat energy that remains in the house, then you can calculate the bill for paying for heating. For example, if a house-wide or individual heating device is not installed in the house, then you will have to pay for centralized heating based on the area of ​​the heated room. In the event that a heat meter is installed, then wiring is implied horizontal type or sequential, or collector. In this version, two risers are made in the apartment for the supply and return pipes, and the system inside the apartment is determined by the residents. Such schemes are used in new homes. That is why residents can independently regulate the consumption of thermal energy, making a choice between comfort and economy.

The adjustment is made as follows:

1. Due to throttling of the heating batteries, the passage of the heating device is limited, therefore, the temperature in it decreases, and the consumption of thermal energy decreases.
2. Installation of a common thermostat on the return pipe. In this embodiment, the flow rate of the working fluid is determined by the temperature in the apartment and if it increases, then the flow rate decreases, and if it decreases, then the flow rate increases.

Gcal in private houses

If we talk about Gcal in a private house, then tenants are primarily interested in the cost of heat energy for each type of fuel. Therefore, we will consider some prices for 1 Gcal for different kinds fuel:

• - 3300 rubles;
• Liquefied gas - 520 rubles;
• Coal - 550 rubles;
• Pellets - 1800 rubles;
• Diesel fuel - 3270 rubles;
• Electricity - 4300 rubles.

The price may vary depending on the region, and it should be borne in mind that the cost of fuel periodically increases.

General information about Gcal calculations

To calculate Gcal, it is necessary to make special calculations, the order of which is established by special regulations. The calculation is carried out by utilities, which can explain to you the procedure for calculating Gcal, as well as decipher any incomprehensible points.

If you have an individual device installed, you will be able to avoid any problems and overpayments. It is enough for you to take monthly indicators from the meter and multiply the resulting number by the tariff. The amount received must be paid for the use of heating.

Heat meters

1. Liquid temperature at the inlet and outlet of a certain section of the line.
2. The flow rate of the liquid that moves through the heating devices.

The flow rate can be determined using heat meters. Heat metering devices can be of two types:

1. Vane counters. Such devices are used to meter heat energy, as well as hot water consumption. The difference between such meters and cold water meters is the material from which the impeller is made. In such devices, it is most resistant to high temperatures... The principle of operation is similar for the two devices:

• The rotation of the impeller is transmitted to the accounting device;
• The impeller starts rotating due to the movement of the working fluid;
• The transmission is carried out without direct interaction, but with the help of a permanent magnet.

Such devices have simple design, but their response threshold is low. And they also have reliable protection from distortion of readings. The anti-magnetic shield prevents the impeller from being braked by the external magnetic field.

1. Devices with a differential recorder. Such counters work according to Bernoulli's law, which states that the rate of movement of a liquid or gas flow is inversely proportional to its static movement. If the pressure is recorded by two sensors, it is easy to determine the flow in real time. The counter implies electronics in the construction device. Almost all models provide information on the flow rate and temperature of the working fluid, as well as determine the consumption of thermal energy. You can configure the work manually using a PC. You can connect the device to a PC via the port.

Many residents are wondering how to calculate the amount of Gcal for heating in an open heating system, in which hot water can be taken off. Pressure sensors are installed on the return pipe and the supply pipe at the same time. The difference, which will be in the flow rate of the working fluid, will show the amount of warm water that was spent for domestic needs.

Formula for calculating Gcal for heating

If you do not have an individual device, then you need to use the following formula for calculating heat for heating: Q = V * (T1 - T2) / 1000, where:

1. Q is the total amount of heat energy.
2. V is the volume of hot water consumption. Measured in tons or cubic meters.
3. T1 is the hot water temperature, measured in degrees Celsius. In such a calculation, it is better to take into account the temperature that will be characteristic of the specific operating pressure. This indicator is called enthalpy. If the required sensor is not available, then take the temperature that will be similar to the enthalpy. Usually, the average indicator of such a temperature is in the range of 60-65 degrees Celsius.
4. T2 is the cold water temperature, measured in degrees Celsius. It is known to get to the pipeline from cold water not easy, therefore such values ​​are determined by constant values. They, in turn, depend on climatic conditions outside the house. For example, in the cold season, this value can be 5 degrees, and in the warm season, when there is no heating, it can reach 15 degrees.
5. 1000 is the factor that gives you the answer in giga calories. This value will be more accurate than normal calories.

In a closed heating system, the calculation of gigacalories takes place in a different form. In order to calculate Gcal in closed system heating, you must use the following formula: Q = ((V1 * (T1 - T)) - (V2 * (T2 - T))) / 1000, where:

1. Q is the previous volume of heat energy;
2. V1 is the parameter for the flow rate of the heat carrier in the supply pipe. The heat source can be steam or ordinary water.
3. V2 is the volume of water flow in the outlet pipe;
4. T1 is the temperature in the heat carrier supply pipe;
5. T2 is the temperature at the pipe outlet;
6. T is the cold water temperature.

The calculation of heat energy for heating according to this formula depends on two parameters: the first shows the heat that enters the system, and the second shows the heat parameter when the heat carrier is removed through the return pipe.

Other methods of calculating Gcal for heating

1. Q = ((V1 * (T1 - T2)) + (V1 - V2) * (T2 - T)) / 1000.
2. Q = ((V2 * (T1 - T2)) + (V1 - V2) * (T1 - T)) / 1000.

All values ​​in these formulas are the same as in the previous formula. Based on the above calculations, we can conclude that you can calculate Gcal for heating yourself. But you should seek advice from special companies that are responsible for supplying heat to the house, since their work and calculation system may differ from these formulas and consist of a different set of measures.

If you decide to make a "Warm floor" system in your private house, then the principle of calculating heating will be completely different. The calculation will be much more complicated, since not only the features of the heating circuit should be taken into account, but also the values ​​of the electrical network from which the floor is heated. The companies that are responsible for overseeing the underfloor heating installation will be different.

Many residents have difficulty converting kilocalories to kilowatts. This is due to many manuals of measuring units in the international system, which is called "C". When converting kilocalories to kilowatts, a coefficient of 850 should be used. That is, 1 kW equals 850 kcal. Such a calculation is much simpler than others, since it is not difficult to find out the required amount of gigacalories. 1 gigacalorie = 1 million calories.

During the calculation, it should be remembered that any modern devices have a small error. They are generally acceptable. But you need to calculate the error yourself. For example, this can be done using the following formula: R = (V1 - V2) / (V1 + V2) * 100, where:

1. R is the error of a common house heating appliance.
2. V1 and V2 are the parameters of the water flow in the system already indicated earlier.
3. 100 is a coefficient that is responsible for converting the resulting value into a percentage.
   In accordance with operational standards, the maximum error, which can be 2%. Basically, this figure does not exceed 1%.

Results of calculations of Gcal for heating

If you correctly calculated the consumption of Gcal of thermal energy, then you do not have to worry about overpayments for utilities. If we use the above formulas, we can conclude that when heating a residential building with an area of ​​up to 200 sq. M. it will take about 3 Gcal for 1 month. Considering that the heating season in many regions of the country lasts about 6 months, then the approximate consumption of heat energy can be calculated. To do this, we multiply 3 Gcal by 6 months and get 18 Gcal.

Based on the information indicated above, we can conclude that all calculations for the consumption of thermal energy in a particular house can be done independently without the help of special organizations. But it is worth remembering that all data must be calculated exactly according to special mathematical formulas. In addition, all procedures must be coordinated with special bodies that control such actions. If you are not sure what to do the calculation yourself, then you can use the services professional specialists who are engaged in such work and have materials available that describe in detail the entire process and photos of samples of the heating system, as well as their connection diagrams.

Everyone, at least indirectly, is familiar with such a concept as "calorie". What is it and what is it for? What exactly does it mean? Such questions arise, especially if you need to increase it to kilocalories, megacalories or gigacalories, or convert it to other values, for example, Gcal to kW.

What is a calorie

Calorie is not part of the international metric measurement system, but this concept is widely used to refer to the amount of energy released. It indicates how much energy must be expended to heat 1 g of water so that this volume increases the temperature by 1 ° C under standard conditions.

There are 3 generally accepted designations, each of which is used depending on the area:

• The international value of a calorie, which is 4.1868 J (Joule), and is designated as "calories" in the Russian Federation and cal - in the world;
• In thermochemistry, a relative value approximately equal to 4.1840 J with the Russian designation cal th and the world designation cal th;
• 15-degree calorie index, equal to approximately 4.1855 J, which in Russia is known as "cal 15", and in the world - cal 15.

Originally, calories were used to find the amount of heat released when generating fuel energy. Subsequently, this value began to be used to calculate the amount of energy expended by an athlete when performing any physical activity, since the same physical laws apply for these actions.

Since fuel is needed to generate heat, then, by analogy with heat power in simple life, the body also needs a "refueling" - food that people eat on a regular basis to generate energy.

A person receives a certain amount of calories, depending on which product he consumed.

The more calories a person receives in the form of food, the more energy he receives for sports. However, people do not always consume the amount of calories that is necessary to maintain normal body processes and perform physical activity. As a result, some lose weight (with a calorie deficit), while others gain weight.

Calorie content is the amount of energy received by a person as a result of the absorption of a particular product.

On the basis of this theory, many dietary principles and rules are built. healthy eating... The optimal amount of energy and macronutrients that a person needs per day can be calculated in accordance with the formulas renowned nutritionists(Harris-Benedict, Mifflin-Saint Geor) using the standard parameters:

• Age;
• Height;
• An example of daily activity;
• Lifestyle.

These data can be used by changing them for yourself - for painless weight loss, it is enough to create a deficit of 15-20% of the daily calorie intake, and for a healthy weight gain - a similar surplus.

What is a Gigacalorie, and how many calories are in it

The concept of Gigacalorie is most often found in documents in the field of thermal power engineering. This value can be found in receipts, notices, payments for heating and hot water.

It means the same as a calorie, but in a larger volume, as evidenced by the prefix "Giga". Gcal determines that the original value was multiplied by 10 9. Speaking simple language: 1 Gigacalorie has 1 billion calories.

Like a calorie, a Gigacalorie does not apply to metric system physical quantities.

For example, the table below shows a comparison of values:

The need to use Gcal is due to the fact that when heating the volume of water required for heating and household needs of the population, even one residential building releases a colossal amount of energy. It is too long and inconvenient to write the numbers that represent it in the documents in the format of calories.

Such a value as a gigacalorie can be found in payment documents for heating

You can imagine how much energy is spent during heating season on an industrial scale: when heating 1 block, district, city, country.

Gcal and Gcal / h: what is the difference

If it is necessary to calculate the payment by the consumer for the services of the state heat power industry (heating a house, hot water), such a value as Gcal / h is used. It denotes a reference to time - how many Gigacalories are consumed during heating for a given period of time. Sometimes it is also replaced by Gcal / m 3 (how much energy is needed to transfer heat cubic meter water).

Q = V * (T1 - T2) / 1000, where

• V is the volume of liquid consumption in cubic meters / tons;
• T1 is the temperature of the incoming hot liquid, which is measured in degrees Celsius;
• T2 is the temperature of the supplied cold liquid by analogy with the previous indicator;
• 1000 is an auxiliary coefficient that simplifies calculations, eliminating the numbers in the tenth place (automatically converts kcal to Gcal).

This formula is often used to build the principle of operation of heat meters in private apartments, houses or businesses. This measure is necessary with a sharp increase in the cost of this utility service, especially when the calculations are generalized based on the area / volume of the room that is heated.

If a closed-type system is installed in the room (hot liquid is poured into it once without additional water supply), the formula is modified:

Q = ((V1 * (T1 - T2)) - (V2 * (T2 - T))) / 1000, where

• Q is the amount of heat energy;
• V1 is the volume of the consumed thermal substance (water / gas) in the pipeline through which it enters the system;
• V2 is the volume of the thermal substance in the pipeline through which it returns back;
• T1 is the temperature in degrees Celsius in the pipeline at the inlet;
• T2 - temperature in degrees Aim in the pipeline at the outlet;
• T is the cold water temperature;
• 1000 is an auxiliary coefficient.

This formula is based on the difference between the inlet and outlet values ​​of the heating medium in the room.

Depending on the use of one or another energy source, as well as the type of thermal substance (water, gas), alternative calculation formulas are also used:

1. Q = ((V1 * (T1 - T2)) + (V1 - V2) * (T2 - T)) / 1000
2. Q = ((V2 * (T1 - T2)) + (V1 - V2) * (T1 - T)) / 1000

In addition, the formula changes if the system includes electrical devices(eg underfloor heating).

How Gcal are calculated for hot water and heating

Heating is calculated using formulas similar to the formulas for finding the value of Gcal / h.

An approximate formula for calculating payment for warm water in residential premises:

P i gv = V i gv * T x gv + (V v cr * V i gv / ∑ V i gv * T v cr)

Values ​​used:

• P i gv - the required value;
• V i gv - the volume of hot water consumption for a certain time period;
• T x gv - the established tariff payment for hot water supply;
• V v gv - the amount of energy expended by the company that is engaged in heating and supplying it to residential / non-residential premises;
• ∑ V i gv - the amount of consumption warm water in all rooms of the house in which the calculation is made;
• T v gv - tariff payment for heat energy.

This formula does not take into account the indicator of atmospheric pressure, since it does not significantly affect the final desired value.

The formula is approximate and is not suitable for self-calculation without prior consultation. Before using it, you need to contact your local utilities for clarification and adjustments - perhaps they use other parameters and formulas for calculation.

Calculation of the amount of payment for heating is very important, since often impressive amounts are not justified

The result of the calculations depends not only on the relative temperature values ​​- it is directly influenced by the tariffs set by the government for the consumption of hot water supply and space heating.

The computational process is greatly simplified if you install a heating meter for an apartment, entrance or residential building.

It should be borne in mind that even the most accurate counters can be inaccurate in their calculations. It can also be determined by the formula:

E = 100 * ((V1 - V2) / (V1 + V2))

The presented formula uses the following indicators:

• E - error;
• V1 - the volume of consumed hot water supply upon admission;
• V2 - consumed hot water at the outlet;
• 100 is an auxiliary coefficient that converts the result to a percentage.

In accordance with the requirements, the average error of the calculating device is about 1%, and the maximum allowable is 2%.

Video: example of calculating heating bills

How to convert Gcal to kWh and Gcal / h to kW

On different devices thermal power spheres indicate different metric values. So, on heating boilers and heaters more often indicate kilowatts and kilowatts per hour. On calculating devices (meters), Gcal are more common. The difference in magnitude interferes correct calculation the required value by the formula.

To facilitate the calculation process, it is necessary to learn how to convert one value to another and vice versa. Since the values ​​are constant, it is not difficult - 1 Gcal / h is equal to 1162.7907 kW.

If the value is presented in megawatts, it can be converted back to Gcal / h by multiplying by a constant value of 0.85984.

Below are auxiliary tables that allow you to quickly convert values ​​from one to another:

The use of these tables will greatly simplify the process of calculating the cost of heat energy. In addition, to simplify actions, you can use one of the online converters offered on the Internet that convert physical quantities one into the other.

Self-calculation of the consumed energy in Gigacalories will allow the owner of residential / non-residential premises to control the cost of utilities, as well as the work of utilities. With the help of simple calculations, it becomes possible to compare the results with those in the received payment receipts and contact the relevant authorities in case of a difference in indicators.