Unitary republics Federal republics Unitary monarchies Federal monarchies
7. Least of all in the world there are: Unitary republics Federal republics Unitary monarchies Federative monarchies
8. Republican countries are: Spain, France and Turkey Argentina, Pakistan and Nigeria Japan, Norway and Malaysia Italy, Morocco and Belgium
9. Countries with a monarchical form of government are: Spain, France and Indonesia Argentina, Brazil and Mexico The Netherlands, Sweden and the United Arab Emirates Italy, Thailand and Denmark
10. Absolute monarchies are: Sweden and Malaysia Malaysia and Nepal Nepal and Kuwait Kuwait and Saudi Arabia
11. The main part of the explored reserves of oil and natural gas concentrated in: Asia Australia and Oceania Africa Latin America
12. Examine the table data: Indicator Oil reserves (2001) billion tons Oil production (2000) million tons Saudi Arabia 36.0 400 Kuwait 13.3 106 Libya 3.8 81 Venezuela 11.2 173 If the volume of production does not change Saudi Arabia Kuwait Libya Venezuela
13. Examine the table data: Index Oil reserves (2001) billion tons Oil production (2000) million tons Iran 12.3 193 UAE 13.0 121 Great Britain 0.7 127 Iraq 15.2 133 then the country least provided with oil reserves should be considered: Iran UAE Great Britain Iraq
14. Examine the data in the table: Indicator Explored coal reserves billion tons Coal production volume (2000) million tons Poland 25,162 China 105,1045 Australia 85,285 India 23,333 If the volume of production does not change, then the country with the most coal reserves should be considered: Poland China Australia India
15. Examine the data in the table: Indicator Explored iron ore reserves billion tons Iron ore production (2000) million tons Sweden 3.4 20.6 Canada 25.3 37.8 Brazil 49.3 197.7 Australia 23.4 172 ,9 If the volume of production does not change, then the country with the most iron ore reserves should be considered: Sweden Canada Brazil Australia
16. The largest reserves of water resources (total river flow) are: Russia Brazil Sweden Bangladesh
17. Population the globe is: About 4 billion people A little less than 5 billion people About 450 million people More than 6 billion people
18. Of these countries, the population exceeds 100 million people. only in: Japan Saudi Arabia Poland South Africa
19. In terms of freight turnover, the leading mode of transport in the world is: Road Rail Sea Pipeline
20. In terms of passenger turnover, the leading mode of transport in the world is: Road Rail Sea Pipeline
21. In Japan, in terms of passenger traffic, the leading mode of transport is: Road Rail Sea Pipeline
22. What is not a global problem: Environmental Demographic Urbanization Food
23. The most environmentally hazardous sector of the economy is: Production of building materials Service sector Railway transport Pulp and paper industry
24. Acid rainfall is primarily associated with air pollution by enterprises: Metallurgy and energy Transport Chemical industry Textile industry
WATER RESOURCES, 2014, volume 41, no. 3, p. 235-246
WATER RESOURCES AND REGIME OF WATER BODIES
UDC 556.18:338.439:628.1
WATER RESOURCES AND THE FOOD PROBLEM
A. P. Demin © 2014
Institute of Water Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences 119333 Moscow, st. Gubkina, 3 [email protected] Received 13.06. 2012 r.
The data on the volume of renewable water resources and the specific water supply of the countries with the most and least water resources are presented. Modern data on the volume of withdrawal of water resources, the area of irrigated land, and the population are given. largest countries the world. Measures taken are shown foreign countries to increase the availability of water resources for agriculture. It was revealed that a further increase in the area of arable and irrigated land while maintaining existing technologies in agriculture is unacceptable. The role of land reclamation in ensuring the food security of Russia is shown.
Key words: renewable water resources, water supply, food security, water pollution, irrigated land, wastewater, saline water, land reclamation.
DOI: 10.7868/S0321059614030055
According to various estimates, global renewable water resources range from 42,000 to 43,800 km3/year and are extremely unevenly distributed over the land area depending on the climatic and physical-geographical conditions of their formation. Most of the water resources (47%) are concentrated in the Americas, followed by Asia (32), Africa (10), Europe (6) and Australia with Oceania (5%). The countries most and least provided with renewable water resources are listed in Table. one.
To assess the state of water resources in countries and regions of the world, in addition to volume, two criteria are usually used: the specific water supply of the region, calculated as the provision of water resources per capita, and the degree of use of water resources, characterized by the ratio of total water consumption to renewable water resources. Provision of water resources per capita - from 90-100 thousand m3 / (person per year) and more in countries such as Canada, Iceland, Gabon, Suriname, to less than 10 m3 / (person year) in Kuwait . Of the large countries of the world, Russia is one of the few where the indicator of specific water supply is at a fairly high level.
According to the UN, the minimum required water consumption for the needs of agriculture, industry, energy and so-
storage of environmental equilibrium is assumed to be 1700 m3/(person per year). With a specific water supply of 1000-1700 m3, it is customary to speak of a state of water stress, with 500-1000 m3 - a shortage of water resources, and less than 500 m3 - an absolute water shortage. Today, ~700 million people in 43 countries live under water stress. With an annual water supply averaging 1200 m3/person, the Middle East is the region experiencing the most water stress in the world. Sub-Saharan Africa is generally well endowed with water, but has more water stressed countries than any other region in the world, nearly a quarter of its population now lives under water stress, and part of this population is steadily growing .
The temporal variability of water availability is also extremely high. Combined with not enough developed infrastructure water storage and poor protection In river basins, this variability puts millions of people at risk from droughts and floods. In countries where water availability depends on monsoons or short periods of rainfall, national averages give a distorted picture of real water availability. Huge territories in Asia receive a significant part
Table 1. Data on the most and least provided countries with renewable water resources
Country Volume of renewable water resources, km3/year Specific water supply, m3/person
Countries most endowed with water resources
Brazil 8233 31 795
Russia 4507 29642
Canada 2902 92662
Indonesia 2838 13381
China 2830 2245
Columbia 2132 50160
USA 2071 7153
Peru 1913 62973
India 1897 1249
Countries least endowed with water resources
Israel 1.67 245
Jordan 0.88 154
Libya 0.60 99
Mauritania 0.40 131
Cape Verde 0.30 578
Djibouti 0.30 366
Qatar 0.05 61
Malta 0.05 123
Gaza Strip 0.06 320
Bahrain 0.12 163
Kuwait 0.02 7
annual precipitation over a period of several weeks. This gives rise to the danger of short-term but intense flooding during these periods and prolonged drought during the rest of the year. The actual availability of water during the year depends not only on the amount of precipitation, but also on the water reserves in reservoirs, the volume of river runoff and replenishment of groundwater reserves.
In the middle of the twentieth century. the ratio of water consumption to renewable water resources was low (<10%) или умеренным (10-20%) в подавляющем большинстве регионов, где проживает более 75% населения Земли. Лишь в одном регионе - Северной Африке степень использования водных ресурсов превышала 40%. К концу ХХ в. ситуация кардинальным образом изменилась: в 1995 г. более 40% населения проживало в регионах с очень высокой (40-60%) и критически высокой (>60%) pressure on water resources.
The amount of water a person needs for drinking and domestic purposes is insignificant in relation to the volumes needed for food production. For drinking purposes, a person needs 2-4 liters of water per day, for domestic needs - 30-300 liters. A person needs 3,000 liters of water per day to grow the daily necessary food. In 2000, 65% of world consumption fresh water accounted for Agriculture, 20% - for industry, 10% - for public utilities, 5% - additional water losses due to evaporation from the surface of reservoirs. In the structure of non-returnable water consumption, the share of agriculture exceeded 84%.
IMPACT OF WATER SCARCITY ON AGRICULTURE
Over 50 years (1950-2000), water consumption by agriculture in the world increased by 1525 (64% of the total increase in water consumption), by industry - by 572, and by households - by 297 km3. Irrigated agriculture has the greatest impact on the depletion of the planet's water resources in agriculture. The question arises: how big is the trend of a further increase in the withdrawal of water resources in connection with the growing population of the planet and the need to provide it with food?
At present, most of the population lives in developing countries Oh. According to demographers, by 2030 the world population will approach 8 billion, and by 2050 it will exceed 9 billion people. In the coming decades, the population of the least developed and developing countries will grow. The depletion of water resources, the deterioration of water quality and the growth of its scarcity have little effect on population growth, but have an extremely negative impact on economic growth and the well-being of countries. As a result, the possibilities of solving the problem of water scarcity are decreasing, while population growth continues.
Currently, the main users of water on the planet are developing countries, especially Asian countries (~ 70% of the annual volume of water withdrawn from water bodies) (Table 2). Modern indicators on water consumption, irrigated land, population are given according to FAO, Eurostat, OECD, CIS Statistical Committee (for 80 largest countries in the world in terms of water withdrawal by agriculture) . In some cases, materials from national publications were used
Table 2. Fresh water withdrawal for agriculture and area of irrigated land in the countries of the world in 2003-2007
No. Withdrawn Including agriculture, km3 Share of water intake by rural areas Population, mln. Volume of water withdrawn Area of irrigated land, mln ha Area of irrigated land per person, ha
Freshwater farming in the ob- rural
water, km3
brine water, % per 1 person, m3
1 India 761.0 688.0 90.4 1134.0 607 55.8 0.049
2 China 581.9 360.0 61.9 1329.1 271 54.5 0.041
3 USA 482.2 186.8 38.7 301.3 620 24.7 0.082
4 Pakistan 183.5 172.4 94.0 159.6 1080 18.2 0.114
5 Iran 95.0 86.0 90.5 71.5 1203 7.65 0.107
6 Indonesia 86.0 78.5 91.3 225.6 348 4.50 0.020
7 Philippines 79.0 65.6 83.0 88.7 740 1.88 0.021
8 Mexico 78.9 60.6 76.8 105.8 573 6.32 0.060
9 Egypt 69.3 59.3 85.6 74.0 806 3.42 0.046
10 Japan 83.4 56.2 67.4 127.8 440 2.59 0.020
11 Uzbekistan 60.0 54.0 90.0 27.1 1993 4.28 0.158
12 Iraq 66.0 52.0 78.8 28.5 1825 3.52 0.124
13 Thailand 57.3 51.8 90.4 66.0 785 5.00 0.076
14 Vietnam 75.0 51.1 68.1 85.2 599 3.00 0.035
15 Sudan 37.3 36.1 96.8 37.2 970 1.86 0.050
16 Turkey 45.0 34.0 75.6 70.6 482 4.85 0.069
17 Brazil 58.5 31.9 54.5 19.0 166 2.92 0.015
18 Bangladesh 35.9 31.5 87.7 142.6 221 4.73 0.033
19 Mnyama 33.2 32.6 98.2 49.6 659 1.84 0.037
20 Italy 58.0 28.8 49.7 59.6 483 2.75 0.046
21 Spain 33.8 24.5 72.5 45.3 540 3.78 0.083
22 Turkmenistan 25.0 24.0 96.0 6.7 3582 1.74 0.260
23 Afghanistan 23.2 22.8 98.3 28.4 804 3.20 0.113
24 Argentina 29.2 21.5 73.6 39.5 544 1.55 0.039
25 Russia 74.6 21.5 28.8 142.2 151 4.60 0.032
26 Saudi Arabia 23.7 20.8 87.8 25.2 827 1.62 0.064
statistics, water management and environmental organizations in some countries and cross-checked with various sources.
The main consumers of water among developing countries are India, China, Pakistan. Most countries in Asia, Africa, Latin America 75-90 (in some - up to 98)% of the volume of annually used water falls on the agricultural sector and only 10-25% - on industry and utilities. However, in many of these countries, agriculture takes up the vast majority of the water resources used. So, In India, Pakistan, Iran, Indonesia, Uzbekistan, Thailand, Sudan, Myanmar and other countries
NOVITSKAYA NATALIA NIKOLAEVNA - 2007
Which can be used in business activities.
The total volume of static water resources in Russia is estimated at approximately 88.9 thousand km 3 of fresh water, of which a significant part is concentrated in groundwater, lakes and glaciers, the estimated share of which is 31%, 30% and 17%, respectively. The share of Russian static fresh water reserves in the global resources is on average about 20% (excluding glaciers and groundwater). Depending on the type of water sources, this indicator varies from 0.1% (for glaciers) to 30% (for lakes).
The dynamic reserves of water resources in Russia amount to 4,258.6 km 3 per year (more than 10% of the world indicator), which makes Russia the second country in the world in terms of gross volume of water resources after Brazil. At the same time, according to such an indicator as the availability of water resources, Russia ranks 28th in the world ().
Russia has significant water resources and annually uses no more than 2% of their dynamic reserves; wherein whole line regions is experiencing a shortage of water, which is mainly due to the uneven distribution of water resources across the country - the most developed areas of the European part of Russia, where more than 80% of the population is concentrated, account for no more than 10–15% of water resources.
The rivers
The river network of Russia is one of the most developed in the world: there are about 2.7 million rivers and streams on the territory of the state.
Over 90% of the rivers belong to the basins of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans; 10% - to the pool Atlantic Ocean(Baltic and Azov-Black Sea basins) and inland basins, the largest of which is the basin of the Caspian Sea. At the same time, about 87% of the population of Russia lives in the regions belonging to the basins of the Caspian Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and the main part of the economic infrastructure is concentrated, production facilities industry and productive agricultural land.
The length of the vast majority of Russian rivers does not exceed 100 km; a significant part of them are rivers less than 10 km long. They represent about 95% of the more than 8 million km of the Russian river network. Small rivers and streams are the main element of the channel network of watershed areas. Up to 44% of the population of Russia lives in their basins, including almost 90% of the rural population.
The average long-term river flow of Russian rivers is 4258.6 km 3 per year, most of this volume is formed on the territory of the Russian Federation and only a small part comes from the territory of neighboring states. The river runoff is unevenly distributed across the regions of Russia - the average annual indicator varies from 0.83 km 3 per year in the Republic of Crimea to 930.2 km 3 per year in the Krasnoyarsk Territory.
The average in Russia is 0.49 km/km 2, while the spread of this indicator is uneven for different regions - from 0.02 km/km 2 in the Republic of Crimea to 6.75 km/km 2 in the Altai Republic.
A feature of the structure of the river network of Russia is the predominantly meridional direction of flow of most rivers.
The largest rivers in Russia
The question of which river is the largest in Russia can be answered in different ways - it all depends on what indicator to compare. The main indicators of rivers are the area of the basin, length, average long-term flow. It is also possible to compare by such indicators as the density of the river network of the basin and others.
The largest water systems in Russia in terms of basin area are the systems of the Ob, Yenisei, Lena, Amur and Volga; the total area of the basins of these rivers is over 11 million km 2 (including the foreign parts of the basins of the Ob, Yenisei, Amur and, slightly, the Volga).
About 96% of all lake water reserves are concentrated in the eight largest lakes in Russia (excluding the Caspian Sea), of which 95.2% is located in Lake Baikal.
The largest lakes in Russia
When determining which lake is the largest, it is important to determine the indicator by which the comparison will be made.The main indicators of lakes are the area of the mirror and the area of the basin, the average and maximum depths, the volume of water, salinity, height above sea level, etc.The undisputed leader in most indicators (area, volume, basin area) is the Caspian Sea.
The largest mirror area is near the Caspian Sea (390,000 km 2), Baikal (31,500 km 2), Lake Ladoga (18,300 km 2), Lake Onega (9,720 km 2) and Lake Taimyr (4,560 km 2).
The largest lakes in terms of catchment area are the Caspian (3,100,000 km 2), Baikal (571,000 km 2), Ladoga (282,700 km 2), Ubsu-Nur on the border of Mongolia and Russia (71,100 km 2) and Vuoksa (68,500 km 2).
The deepest lake not only in Russia, but also in the world is Baikal (1642 m). The next are the Caspian Sea (1025 m), Khantayskoye (420 m), Koltsevoe (369 m) and Tserik-Kol (368 m) lakes.
The most full-flowing lakes are the Caspian (78,200 km 3), Baikal (23,615 km 3), Ladoga (838 km 3), Onega (295 km 3) and Khantai (82 km 3).
The most salty lake in Russia is Elton (the mineralization of water in the lake in autumn reaches 525‰, which is 1.5 times more than the mineralization of the Dead Sea) in the Volgograd region.
Lake Baikal, Lake Teletskoye and Ubsu-Nur are included in the UNESCO World Natural Heritage List. In 2008, Lake Baikal was recognized as one of the seven wonders of Russia.
Reservoirs
About 2,700 reservoirs with a capacity of more than 1 million m 3 with a total useful volume of 342 km 3 are in operation on the territory of Russia, and more than 90% of their number are reservoirs with a capacity of more than 10 million m 3.
The main purposes of using reservoirs:
- water supply;
- Agriculture;
- energy;
- water transport;
- fisheries;
- rafting;
- irrigation;
- recreation (rest);
- flood protection;
- flooding;
- shipping.
The flow of rivers in the European part of Russia is most strongly regulated by reservoirs, where there is a shortage of water resources in certain periods. For example, the flow of the Ural River is regulated by 68%, the Don - by 50%, the Volga - by 40% (reservoirs of the Volga-Kama cascade).
A significant proportion of the regulated flow falls on the rivers of the Asian part of Russia, primarily in Eastern Siberia - the Krasnoyarsk Territory and the Irkutsk Region (the reservoirs of the Angara-Yenisei cascade), as well as the Amur Region in the Far East.
The largest reservoirs in Russia
Due to the fact that the filling of reservoirs seriously depends on seasonal and annual factors, the comparison is usually carried out according to the indicators achieved by the reservoir at (FSL).
The main tasks of reservoirs are the accumulation of water resources and the regulation of river flow, therefore, the important indicators by which the size of reservoirs are determined are total and. It is also possible to compare reservoirs in terms of such parameters as the size of the FSL, the height of the dam, the area of the mirror, the length of the coastline and others.
The largest reservoirs in terms of total volume are located in the eastern regions of Russia: Bratskoye (169,300 million m 3), Zeya (68,420 million m 3), Irkutsk and Krasnoyarsk (63,000 million m 3).
The largest reservoirs in Russia in terms of useful volume are Bratskoye (48,200 million m 3), Kuibyshevskoye (34,600 million m 3), Zeya (32,120 million m 3), Irkutsk and Krasnoyarsk (31,500 million m located in the east; The European part of Russia is represented by only one reservoir, Kuibyshev, located in five regions of the Volga region.
The largest reservoirs in terms of mirror area: Irkutsk on the river. Angara (32,966 km 2), Kuibyshevskoye on the river. Volga (6,488 km 2), Bratskoye on the river. Angara (5,470 km 2), Rybinsk (4,550 km 2) and Volgograd (3,309 km 2) on the river. Volga.
swamps
Wetlands play an important role in shaping the hydrological regime of rivers. Being a stable source of river nutrition, they regulate floods and floods, stretching them in time and height, and within their arrays contribute to the natural purification of river waters from many pollutants. One of the important functions of swamps is carbon storage: swamps bind carbon and thus reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, weakening the greenhouse effect; annually, Russian swamps sequester about 16 million tons of carbon.
The total area of swamps in Russia is more than 1.5 million km2, or 9% of the total area. Swamps are distributed unevenly across the country: the largest number swamps are concentrated in the northwestern regions of the European part of Russia and in the central regions West Siberian Plain; to the south, the process of swamp formation is weakened and almost stops.
The most swampy region is Murmansk region– swamps make up 39.3% of the total area of the region. The least waterlogged are the Penza and Tula regions, the Republics of Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkessia, North Ossetia and Ingushetia, the city of Moscow (including new territories) - about 0.1%.
The swamp areas range from a few hectares to thousands of square kilometers. About 3,000 km 3 of static water reserves are concentrated in swamps, and their total average annual runoff is estimated at 1,000 km 3 /year.
An important element of swamps is peat - a unique combustible mineral of plant origin, which has and. The total reserves of peat in Russia are about 235 billion tons, or 47% of the world's reserves.
The largest swamps in Russia
The largest swamp in Russia and one of the largest in the world is the Vasyugan swamp (52,000 km 2), located on the territory of four regions of the Russian Federation. - Salymo-Yugansk swamp system (15,000 km 2), Upper Volga wetland complex (2,500 km 2), Selgono-Kharpinsky swamps (1,580 km 2) and Usinsk swamp (1,391 km 2).
Vasyugan swamp is a candidate for inclusion in the list of UNESCO World Natural Heritage Sites.
Glaciers
The total number of glaciers in the Russian Federation is over 8 thousand, the area of island and mountain glaciers is about 60 thousand km 2, water reserves are estimated at 13.6 thousand km 3, which makes glaciers one of the largest accumulators of water resources in the country.
In addition, large reserves of fresh water are conserved in the ice of the Arctic, but their volumes are constantly declining and, according to the latest estimates, by 2030 this strategic fresh water reserve may disappear.
Most of Russia's glaciers are represented by ice sheets of the islands and archipelagos of the Arctic Ocean - they contain about 99% of Russia's glacial water resources. Mountain glaciers account for just over 1% of the glacial water supply.
Share of glacial nutrition in general stock rivers originating from glaciers reaches 50% of the annual volume; the average long-term glacial runoff feeding the rivers is estimated at 110 km 3 /year.
Glacial systems of Russia
In terms of glaciation area, the largest are the mountain glacial systems of Kamchatka (905 km 2), the Caucasus (853.6 km 2), Altai (820 km 2), the Koryak Highlands (303.5 km 2) and the Suntar-Khayat ridge (201.6 km 2).
The largest reserves of fresh water are contained in the mountain glacial systems of the Caucasus and Kamchatka (50 km 3 each), Altai (35 km 3), Eastern Sayan (31.8 km 3) and the Suntar-Khayat ridge (12 km 3).
The groundwater
Groundwater accounts for a significant part of fresh water reserves in Russia. In the context of the increasing deterioration in the quality of surface water, fresh groundwater is often the only source of high quality drinking water that is protected from pollution.
The natural reserves of groundwater in Russia are about 28 thousand km 3; forecast resources, according to state monitoring of the state of the subsoil, are about 869,055 thousand m 3 /day - from approximately 1,330 thousand m 3 /day in the Crimean to 250,902 thousand m 3 /day in the Siberian Federal District.
The average availability of forecast groundwater resources in Russia is 6 m 3 /day per person.
HYDROTECHNICAL SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES
Hydraulic structures (HTS) - structures for the use of water resources, as well as to combat the negative impact of water. Dams, canals, dams, shipping locks, tunnels, etc. GTS make up a significant part of the water management complex of the Russian Federation.
There are about 65,000 GTS in Russia for water management, fuel and energy complexes and transport infrastructure.
To redistribute river flow from areas with an excess of river flow to areas with its deficit, 37 large water management systems have been created (the volume of flow transferred is about 17 billion m 3 /year); about 30 thousand reservoirs and ponds with a total capacity of more than 800 billion m 3 have been built to regulate river flow; to protect settlements, economic facilities and agricultural land, more than 10 thousand km of protective water barriers and ramparts were built.
The ameliorative and water management complex of federal property includes more than 60 thousand various hydraulic structures, including more than 230 reservoirs, more than 2 thousand regulating hydroelectric facilities, about 50 thousand km of water supply and waste channels, over 3 thousand km protective shafts and dams.
The transport hydroelectric facilities include more than 300 navigable hydraulic structures located on inland waterways and owned by the federal government.
The hydrotechnical structures of Russia are under the jurisdiction of the Federal Agency for Water Resources, the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Part of the GTS is privately owned, over 6,000 are ownerless.
Channels
Artificial canals are an important part of the water system of the Russian Federation. The main tasks of the canals are the redistribution of runoff, navigation, irrigation, and others.
Almost all operating shipping channels of Russia are located in the European part and, with some exceptions, are included in the Unified deep water system of the European part of the country. Some of the canals are historically combined into waterways, for example, Volga-Baltic and North Dvina, consisting of natural (rivers and lakes) and artificial (canals and reservoirs) waterways. There are also sea channels created to reduce the length of sea roads, reduce the risks and dangers of navigation, and increase the passability of water bodies connected with the seas.
The main part of economic (reclamation) canals with a total length of over 50 thousand km is concentrated in the Southern and North Caucasian federal districts, to a lesser extent - in the Central, Volga and southern Siberian federal district. The total area of reclaimed lands in Russia is 89 thousand km2. Irrigation has great importance for agriculture in Russia, since arable land is located mainly in the steppe and forest-steppe zones, where crop yields fluctuate sharply from year to year depending on weather conditions and only 35% of arable land is in favorable moisture conditions.
The largest channels in Russia
The largest waterways in Russia are: the Volga-Baltic waterway (861 km), which includes, in addition to natural routes, the Belozersky, Onega bypass, Vytegorsky and Ladoga canals; the White Sea-Baltic Canal (227 km), the Volga-Caspian Canal (188 km), the Moscow Canal (128 km), the North Dvina Waterway (127 km), including the Toporninsky, Kuzminsky, Kishemsky and Vazerinsky channels; Volga-Don Canal (101 km).
The longest economic canals in Russia that take water directly from water bodies (rivers, lakes, reservoirs): North Crimean Canal -, - a legal act regulating relations in the field of water use.
In accordance with Article 2 of the Water Code, the water legislation of Russia consists of the Code itself, other federal laws and the laws of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation adopted in accordance with them, as well as by-laws adopted by executive authorities.
Water legislation (laws and regulations issued in accordance with them) is based on the following principles:
Russia’s legal system in the field of use and protection of water bodies includes international treaties of Russia and ratified international conventions, such as the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, 1971) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (Helsinki). , 1992).
Water management
The central link in the field of use and protection of water resources is the Ministry of Natural Resources and Ecology of the Russian Federation (Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia), which exercises the authority to develop state policy and legal regulation in the field of water relations in Russia.
The management of water resources in Russia at the federal level is carried out by the Federal Agency for Water Resources (Rosvodresursy), which is part of the structure of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia.
The powers of Rosvodresursy to provide public services and manage federal property in the regions are exercised by the territorial subdivisions of the agency - basin water authorities (BVU), as well as 51 subordinate institutions. Currently, there are 14 STBs operating in Russia, the structure of which includes departments in all regions of the Russian Federation. The exceptions are the regions of the Crimean Federal District - in accordance with the agreements signed in July-August 2014, part of the powers of Rosvodresurs were transferred by the relevant structures of the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Crimea and the Government of Sevastopol.
The management of water resources that are in regional ownership is carried out by the relevant structures of regional administrations.
The management of the federal facilities of the reclamation complex is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Russian Federation (Department of Land Reclamation), water transport infrastructure facilities - of the Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation (Federal Agency of Sea and River Transport).
State accounting and monitoring of water resources is carried out by the Federal Water Resources; for maintaining the State Water Register - with the participation of the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet) and the Federal Agency for Subsoil Use (Rosnedra); for maintaining the Russian register of hydraulic structures - with the participation of the Federal Service for Environmental, Technological and Nuclear Supervision (Rostekhnadzor) and the Federal Service for Supervision in the Sphere of Transport (Rostransnadzor).
Supervision over compliance with legislation regarding the use and protection of water bodies is carried out Federal Service in the field of nature management (Rosprirodnadzor), and hydraulic structures - by Rostekhnadzor and Rostransnadzor.
According to the Water Code of the Russian Federation, basin districts are the main unit of the management structure in the field of use and protection of water bodies, however, today the existing structure of Rosvodresurs is organized according to the administrative-territorial principle and in many respects does not coincide with the boundaries of basin districts.
Public policy
The basic principles of state policy in the field of use and protection of water bodies are enshrined in the Water Strategy of the Russian Federation until 2020 and include three key areas:
- guaranteed supply of water resources to the population and sectors of the economy;
- protection and restoration of water bodies;
- providing protection from negative impact water
As part of the implementation of the state water policy in 2012, the federal target program “Development of the water management complex of the Russian Federation in 2012–2020” (FTP “Water of Russia”) was adopted. Also, the federal target program "Clean Water" for 2011-2017, the federal target program "Development of melioration of agricultural land in Russia for 2014-2020", target programs in the Russian regions were also adopted.
Introduction
The organization of rational use of water is one of the most important contemporary problems protection and transformation of nature. The intensification of industry and agriculture, the growth of cities, the development of the economy as a whole are possible only if fresh water reserves are preserved and increased. The cost of maintaining and reproducing water quality ranks first among all human costs for nature protection. The total cost of fresh water is much more expensive than any other type of raw material used.
Successful transformation of nature is possible only with sufficient quantity and quality of water. Usually any project of transformation of nature is connected to a large extent with one or another impact on water resources.
In connection with the development of the world economy, water consumption is growing at a rapid pace. It doubles every 8-10 years. At the same time, the degree of water pollution increases, i.e., their qualitative depletion occurs. The volume of water in the hydrosphere is very large, but mankind directly uses only a small part of fresh water. All this, taken together, determines the acuteness of the tasks of water protection, their paramount importance in the whole complex of problems of the use, protection and transformation of nature.
Land water resources and their distribution on the planet. Water supply of the countries of the world
Water occupies a special position among the natural resources of the Earth. The famous Russian and Soviet geologist Academician A.P. Karpinsky said that there is no more precious fossil than water, without which life is impossible. Water is the main condition for the existence of wildlife on our planet. Man cannot live without water. Water is one of critical factors, which determine the distribution of productive forces, and very often the means of production. Water resources are the main life-giving resource of the Earth; waters suitable for their use in the national world economy. The waters are divided into two large groups: land waters, ocean waters. Water resources are distributed unevenly across the territory of our planet, renewal occurs due to the global water cycle in nature, and water is also used in all sectors of the world economy. It should be noted main feature water is the use of it directly on the “site”, which leads to a shortage of water in other areas. Difficulties in transporting water to the arid regions of the planet are associated with the problem of financing projects. The total volume of water on Earth is approximately 13.5 million cubic meters, that is, one person has an average of 250-270 million cubic meters. However, 96.5% are the waters of the World Ocean and another 1% are salty underground and mountain lakes and waters. Fresh water reserves are only 2.5%. The main reserves of fresh water are contained in glaciers (Antarctic, Arctic, Greenland). These strategic objects are used insignificantly, tk. Ice transportation is expensive. About 1/3 of the land area is occupied by arid (dry) belts:
North (deserts of Asia, the Sahara Desert in Africa, the Arabian Peninsula);
Southern (deserts of Australia - Great Sandy Desert, Atacama, Kalahari).
The largest volume of river runoff occurs in Asia and South America, and the smallest in Australia.
When assessing water availability per capita, the situation is different:
· the most endowed river runoff resources are Australia and Oceania (about 80 thousand m 3 per year) and South America (34 thousand m 3);
· Asia is the least provided (4.5 thousand m 3 per year).
The world average is about 8 thousand m 3 . Countries of the world provided with river runoff resources (per capita):
· surplus: 25 thousand m 3 per year - New Zealand, Congo, Canada, Norway, Brazil, Russia.
· medium: 5-25 thousand m 3 - USA, Mexico, Argentina, Mauritania, Tanzania, Finland, Sweden.
Little: less than 5 thousand m 3 - Egypt, Saudi Arabia, China, etc.
Ways to solve the problem of water supply:
Implementation of a water supply policy (reducing water losses, reducing the water intensity of production)
attracting additional fresh water resources (desalination of sea waters, construction of reservoirs, transportation of icebergs, etc.)
· construction of treatment facilities (mechanical, chemical, biological).
Three groups of countries most endowed with water resources:
· more than 25 thousand m 3 per year - New Zealand, Congo. Canada, Norway, Brazil, Russia.
· 5-25 thousand m 3 per year - USA, Mexico, Argentina, Mauritania, Tanzania, Finland, Sweden.
· less than 5 thousand m 3 per year - Egypt, Poland, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, China, India, Germany.
Water functions:
drinking (for humanity as a vital source of existence);
· technological (in the world economy);
transport (river and sea transportation);
Energy (HPP, PES)
Structure of water consumption:
Reservoirs - about 5%
communal and household services - about 7%
industry - about 20%
· agriculture - 68% (almost the entire water resource is used irrevocably).
Several countries have the greatest hydropower potential: China, Russia, USA, Canada, Zaire, Brazil. The degree of use in the countries of the world is different: for example, in the countries of Northern Europe (Sweden, Norway, Finland) - 80 -85%; v North America(USA, Canada) - 60%); v Overseas Asia(China) - about 8-9%.
Modern large thermal power plants consume huge amounts of water. Only one station with a capacity of 300 thousand kW consumes up to 120 m 3 /s, or more than 300 million m 3 per year. Gross water consumption for these stations in the future will increase by about 9-10 times.
Agriculture is one of the most significant water users. It is the largest water consumer in the water management system. For the cultivation of 1 ton of wheat, 1500 m 3 of water is required during the growing season, 1 ton of rice - more than 7000 m 3. The high productivity of irrigated land has stimulated a sharp increase in the area worldwide - it is now equal to 200 million hectares. Making up about 1/6 of the total area under crops, irrigated lands provide about half of agricultural production.
A special place in the use of water resources is occupied by water consumption for the needs of the population. Domestic and drinking purposes in our country account for about 10% of water consumption. At the same time, uninterrupted water supply, as well as strict adherence to scientifically based sanitary and hygienic standards, are mandatory.
The use of water for economic purposes is one of the links in the water cycle in nature. But the anthropogenic link of the cycle differs from the natural one in that in the process of evaporation, part of the water used by man returns to the desalinated atmosphere. The other part (component, for example, in the water supply of cities and most industrial enterprises 90%) is discharged into water bodies in the form Wastewater contaminated with industrial waste.
The World Ocean is a storehouse of mineral, biological and energy resources. The oceans are the richest part of the planet in terms of natural resources. Significant resources are:
mineral resources (iron-manganese nodules)
energy resources (oil and natural gas)
· biological resources(fish)
· sea water(salt)
The mineral resources of the bottom of the World Ocean are divided into two groups: shelf resources (coastal part of the ocean) and bed resources (deep water areas of the ocean).
Oil and natural gas are the main types of resources (more than half of all world reserves). More than 300 deposits have been developed and their intensive use is underway. The main offshore oil and natural gas production areas are 9 main offshore areas:
Persian Gulf (Kuwait, Saudi Arabia)
South China Sea (China)
Gulf of Mexico (USA, Mexico)
Caribbean Sea
North Sea (Norway)
Caspian lake
Bering Sea (Russia)
Sea of Okhotsk (Russia)
The World Ocean is rich in reserves of such an amazing mineral as amber, which is mined on the coast of the Baltic Sea, there are deposits of precious and semiprecious stones: diamonds and zirconium (Africa - Namibia, South Africa; Australia). Known places for the extraction of chemical raw materials: sulfur (USA, Canada), phosphorites (USA, South Africa, North Korea, Morocco). In deep water areas (ocean bed), iron-manganese nodules are mined ( Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean).
The energy resources of the World Ocean are expressed in the use of sea tides. Tidal power plants are built on the coast of those countries, the “ebb and flow” mode is carried out daily. (France, Russia - White, Okhotsk, Barents Seas; USA, Great Britain).
The biological resources of the World Ocean are diverse in species composition. These are various animals (zooplankton, zoobenthos) and plants (phytoplankton and phytobenthos). The most common are: fish resources (more than 85% of the used biomass of the ocean), algae (brown, red). More than 90% of fish is caught in the shelf zone in high (Arctic) and temperate latitudes. The most productive seas are: the Norwegian Sea, the Bering Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk and Sea of Japan. The reserves of sea water are large. Their volume is 1338 million km3. Sea water is a unique resource of our planet. Sea water is rich in chemical elements. The main ones are: sodium, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, calcium, bromine, iodine, copper. There are more than 75 of them in total. The main resource is table salt. The leading countries are: Japan and China. In addition to chemical elements and microelements, silver, gold and uranium are mined in the depths of sea waters and on the shelf. The main thing is the fact that sea water is successfully desalinated and consumed in those countries that lack fresh inland water. It should be noted that not all countries of the world can afford such a luxury. Desalinated sea water is intensively used by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Cyprus, and Japan.
Until relatively recently, water, like air, was considered one of the free gifts of nature, only in areas of artificial irrigation it always had high price. V Lately the attitude towards land water resources has changed.
Over the past century, the consumption of fresh water in the world has doubled, and the planet's water resources do not meet such a rapid increase in human needs. According to the World Commission on Water, today every person needs 40 (20 to 50) liters of water daily for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene.
However, about a billion people in 28 countries around the world do not have access to so many vital resources. More than 40% of the world's population (about 2.5 billion people) lives in areas experiencing moderate or severe water scarcity.
It is assumed that by 2025 this number will increase to 5.5 billion and will amount to two-thirds of the world's population.
The vast majority of fresh water is, as it were, conserved in the glaciers of Antarctica, Greenland, in the ice of the Arctic, in mountain glaciers and forms a kind of "emergency reserve" that is not yet available for use.
Different countries differ greatly in fresh water reserves. Below is a ranking of countries with the largest fresh water resources in the world. However, this ranking is based on absolute figures and does not match per capita figures.
10. Myanmar
Per capita- 23.3 thousand cubic meters m
The rivers of Myanmar - Burma are subject to the monsoon climate of the country. They originate in the mountains, but do not feed on glaciers, but on precipitation.
More than 80% of the annual river nutrition is rain. In winter, the rivers become shallow, some of them, especially in central Burma, dry up.
There are few lakes in Myanmar; the largest of them is the tectonic lake Indoji in the north of the country with an area of 210 sq. km.
Despite the relatively high absolute figures, the inhabitants of some areas of Myanmar suffer from a lack of fresh water.
9. Venezuela
Per capita- 60.3 thousand cubic meters. m
Nearly half of Venezuela's more than 1,000 rivers run off the Andes and the Guiana Plateau into the Orinoco, Latin America's third largest river. Its basin covers an area of about 1 million square meters. km. The Orinoco drainage basin occupies approximately four-fifths of the territory of Venezuela.
8. India
Per capita- 2.2 thousand cubic meters m
India has a large amount of water resources: rivers, glaciers, seas and oceans. The most significant rivers are: Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Narbada, Mahanadi, Kaveri. Many of them are important as sources of irrigation.
Eternal snows and glaciers in India occupy about 40 thousand square meters. km of territory.
However, given India's huge population, the per capita supply of fresh water is quite low.
7. Bangladesh
Per capita- 19.6 thousand cubic meters. m
Bangladesh is one of the countries in the world with the highest population density. This is largely due to the extraordinary fertility of the Ganges Delta and regular floods caused by monsoon rains. However, overcrowding and poverty have become a real disaster for Bangladesh.
There are many rivers flowing through Bangladesh, and the floods of large rivers can last for weeks. Bangladesh has 58 transboundary rivers, and issues arising from the use of water resources are very sensitive in discussions with India.
However, despite the relatively high level water resources, the country faces a problem: the water resources of Bangladesh are often subject to arsenic poisoning due to its high content in the soil. Up to 77 million people are exposed to arsenic poisoning through drinking contaminated water.
6. USA
Per capita- 2.4 thousand cubic meters. m
The United States occupies a vast territory, on which there are many rivers and lakes.
However, despite the fact that the United States has such fresh water resources, this does not save California from the worst drought in history.
In addition, given the high population of the country, the supply of fresh water per capita is not so high.
5. Indonesia
Per capita- 12.2 thousand cubic meters. m
The special relief of the territories of Indonesia, combined with a favorable climate, at one time contributed to the formation of a dense river network in these lands.
In Indonesian territories all year round a sufficiently large amount of precipitation falls, because of this, the rivers are always full-flowing and play a significant role in the irrigation system.
Almost all of them flow from the Maoke Mountains north into the Pacific Ocean.
4. China
Per capita- 2.3 thousand cubic meters. m
China has 5-6% of the world's water reserves. But China is the most populous country in the world, and its water distribution is highly uneven.
The south of the country has been fighting for thousands of years and today is fighting floods, building and building dams to save crops and people's lives.
The north of the country and the central regions are suffering from lack of water.
3. Canada
Per capita- 98.5 thousand cubic meters. m
Canada has 7% of the world's renewable freshwater resources and less than 1% of the world's total population. Accordingly, per capita income in Canada is one of the highest in the world.
Most of Canada's rivers belong to the Atlantic and North Atlantic basins. arctic oceans, significantly fewer rivers flow into the Pacific Ocean.
Canada is one of the richest countries in the world with lakes. On the border with the United States are the Great Lakes (Upper, Huron, Erie, Ontario), connected by small rivers into a huge basin of more than 240 thousand square meters. km.
Less significant lakes lie on the territory of the Canadian Shield (Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis), etc.
2. Russia
Per capita- 30.5 thousand cubic meters. m
In terms of reserves, Russia accounts for more than 20% of the world's fresh water resources (excluding glaciers and groundwater). In calculating the volume of fresh water per inhabitant of Russia, there are about 30 thousand cubic meters. m of river flow per year.
Russia is washed by the waters of 12 seas belonging to three oceans, as well as the inland Caspian Sea. On the territory of Russia there are over 2.5 million large and small rivers, more than 2 million lakes, hundreds of thousands of swamps and other objects of the water fund.
1. Brazil
Per capita- 43.0 thousand cubic meters m
Brazil's water resources are presented huge amount rivers, the main of which is the Amazon (the greatest river in the world).
Almost a third of this big country occupies the Amazon River basin, which includes the Amazon itself and more than two hundred of its tributaries.
This gigantic system contains a fifth of all the river waters of the world.
The rivers and their tributaries flow slowly, during the rainy seasons they often overflow their banks and flood vast areas of tropical forests.
The rivers of the Brazilian Plateau have significant hydropower potential. The most large lakes countries - Mirim and Patos. Main rivers: Amazon, Madeira, Rio Negro, Parana, Sao Francisco.