All nature that surrounds us is a complex, multi-level system of interconnected biological resources. A person can also be considered as an integral part of this system.
Biological resources are wealth given
planet to man
Bioresources are the "life of the Earth". All living things, from unicellular marine organisms to multi-ton mammals, are the biological resources of the world. These include:
Living organisms that cannot be classified as either flora or fauna, such as marine organisms, are also part of the planet's bioresources and collectively can be called biomass.
They perform many functions at the same time and are of great importance for humanity. Let's look at all the constituent parts, united in the concept of "biological resources".
Animal world
Animals are an integral component of the Earth's ecosystem. They play an important role both for humans and for the functioning of other elements of the biosphere.
Ensuring soil fertility, pollination of plants, water purification in vivo, the transformation of organic matter in an ecosystem are just a few of their functions.
plant resources of the world
This group primarily includes forest biological resources. They are renewable but exhaustible. The size of these bioresources is calculated by the area or volume of wood that can be used by humans. Forests occupy about 30% of the planet's area, which is equal to 40 million square meters. km. If we consider wood reserves as a raw material, then its volumes are approximately 350 billion cubic meters. m.
But the forest is not only a material for production and fuel, but also a habitat for many species of animals. This example shows a close relationship between all components of the planet's biological resources.
Biological resources of the ocean and fresh waters
The oceans cover 70% of the area of our planet. Mineral reserves in the bowels of the ocean shelves are not classified as bioresources. Biological resources are all living organisms located in the depths of water expanses that a person can use for his own benefit. The total mass of such living organisms is estimated at 35 billion tons. The Pacific Ocean, as well as the Bering, Norwegian and Japanese Seas, has the highest productivity in terms of fish catch.
The biological resources of the ocean are also renewable.
How does a person use the bioresources of the planet
The volume of biological resources is difficult to determine, and even more difficult to find out their value in monetary terms. For example, forest land can perform many functions at the same time: it can be a building material, a fuel and a place of rest. Also, the flora is an invaluable source of oxygen.
In the case of agriculture, it is difficult to distinguish between bio-resources and agro-resources. All cultivated farmland used by man appeared due to the reduction of untouched natural areas, previously classified as bioresources.
Aquatic biological resources are constantly used by man. are a source of food, as well as raw materials for other industries (medicine, agriculture).
Terrestrial animals are also biological resources. Animal world, if we consider exclusively wild animals, loses its former importance for humans. This is due to the development of animal husbandry. Although in some regions hunting is still a strategically important industry.
The state of the biological resources of the planet
As you can see, a person has always boldly used what the planet gave him. And bioresources are no exception. But human intervention did not go unnoticed.
The biological resources of the world year after year lose their original appearance under the influence of human deeds. We do not always think about the fact that one action can cause irreversible disruption of the functioning of the planet's ecosystem. For example, it causes the extinction of many animal species.
Over the past 30 years, the area of green plantings has significantly decreased. The scale of the clearing is so great that it can even be seen in pictures taken from space. And in total, during the existence of civilization, 35% of forests have been destroyed by our hands. Works on the restoration of green spaces, unfortunately, do not bring the desired result. Now the rate of contraction is 18 times the rate of their regeneration.
The indelible consequences of human activities are also felt by aquatic biological resources. First of all, the damage caused to aquatic biological resources is manifested in large-scale catches of fish and other seafood, pollution of water bodies, and destruction of spawning grounds.
Animals are a source of raw materials for many production processes. However, the scale of the use of wild terrestrial fauna is insignificant when compared with the volume of agricultural animal husbandry.
Protection of bioresources is the task of each of us
The fact that the biological resources of the world are of incommensurable importance for the life of mankind does not need any arguments. It is even impossible to imagine how people can exist without access to these riches of the planet.
The world's biological resources have no boundaries, so the issue of their protection should be addressed at the international level. In total, there are now more than thirty organizations that regulate active actions aimed at protecting bioresources in each individual state. UNESCO's initiative was to create " International Union and natural resources”. More than 90 countries are participating in the "Man and the Biosphere" research under the leadership of the same organization.
Another socially active association "Friends of the Earth" conducts regular campaigns to protect flora and fauna. Action for the Protection of the Earth is the youth division of this organization.
The protection of biological resources is the main task of the activities of the international association Greenpeace. This organization operates locally, nationally and international levels and has the support of the masses.
Basic methods of conservation of bioresources
As you can see, there are enough organizations positioning themselves as environmentalists, but what specific measures is humanity taking to ensure that the biological resources of the world are subjected to the least possible influence on its part?
- Rational attitude to biological goods. Implementation of technologies for non-waste production and reuse of raw materials.
- Protection from pollution - purposeful measures, the task of which is to eliminate the negative impact of human activity (installation treatment facilities enterprises, waste disposal).
- Arrangement of territories where biological resources are protected. The fauna and vegetation here can be observed in an untouched form. Nature reserves, sanctuaries, natural monuments, national parks are places where it becomes possible to restore populations and plants.
And finally...
Each of us consciously or unconsciously uses the available bioresources on a daily basis. In this regard, our task is to use them as rationally as possible, protect, restore them in order to enable our children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren to see and appreciate all the riches of the Earth.
Biological diversity (BD) is the totality of all forms of life inhabiting our planet. This is what makes the Earth different from other planets in the solar system. BR is the richness and diversity of life and its processes, including the diversity of living organisms and their genetic differences, as well as the diversity of their places of existence. The BR is divided into three hierarchical categories: diversity among members of the same species (genetic diversity), between different species, and between ecosystems. Research into the global problems of BD at the level of genes is the business of the future.
The most authoritative assessment of species diversity was made by UNEP in 1995. According to this estimate, the most probable number of species is 13-14 million, of which only 1.75 million, or less than 13%, have been described. The highest hierarchical level of biological diversity is ecosystem, or landscape. At this level, patterns of biological diversity are determined primarily by zonal landscape conditions, then by local features of natural conditions (relief, soil, climate), as well as the history of development of these territories. The greatest species diversity is (in descending order): humid equatorial forests, coral reefs, dry tropical forests, temperate rainforests, oceanic islands, landscapes of the Mediterranean climate, treeless (savannah, steppe) landscapes.
In the last two decades, biological diversity has begun to attract the attention of not only biologists, but also economists, politicians, and the public in connection with the obvious threat of anthropogenic degradation of biodiversity, which is much higher than normal, natural degradation.
According to the UNEP Global Biodiversity Assessment (1995), more than 30,000 animal and plant species are threatened with extinction. Over the past 400 years, 484 animal species and 654 plant species have disappeared.
Causes of today's accelerated decline in biodiversity-
1) rapid population growth and economic development, making huge changes in the living conditions of all organisms and ecological systems of the Earth;
2) increase in human migration, growth in international trade and tourism;
3) increasing pollution of natural waters, soil and air;
4) insufficient attention to the long-term consequences of actions that destroy the conditions for the existence of living organisms, exploit natural resources and introduce non-native species;
5) impossibility in conditions market economy assess the true cost of biodiversity and its loss.
Over the past 400 years, the main direct causes of extinction of animal species have been:
1) the introduction of new species, accompanied by the displacement or extermination of local species (39% of all lost animal species);
2) destruction of living conditions, direct seizure of territories inhabited by animals, and their degradation, fragmentation, increased edge effect (36% of all lost species);
3) uncontrolled hunting (23%);
4) Other reasons (2%).
The main reasons for the need to preserve genetic diversity.
All species (no matter how harmful or unpleasant they may be) have a right to exist. This provision is written in the "World Charter for Nature", adopted by the UN General Assembly. Enjoying nature, its beauty and diversity highest value, not expressed in quantitative indicators. Diversity is the basis for the evolution of life forms. The decline in species and genetic diversity undermines the further improvement of life forms on Earth.
The economic feasibility of biodiversity conservation is due to the use of wild biota to meet the various needs of society in the field of industry, Agriculture, recreation, science and education: for the breeding of domestic plants and animals, the genetic reservoir necessary for updating and maintaining the stability of varieties, the manufacture of medicines, as well as for providing the population with food, fuel, energy, wood, etc.
There are many ways to protect biological diversity. At the species level, there are two main strategic directions: in-place and out-of-habitat. Protecting biodiversity at the species level is an expensive and time-consuming way, possible only for selected species, but unattainable for the protection of all the richness of life on Earth. The main direction of the strategy should be at the level of ecosystems, so that the systematic management of ecosystems ensures the protection of biological diversity at all three hierarchical levels.
The most effective and relatively economical way to protect biological diversity at the ecosystem level is protected areas.
In accordance with the classification of the World Conservation Union, 8 types of protected areas are distinguished:
1. Reserve. The goal is to preserve nature and natural processes in an undisturbed state.
2.National park. The goal is to preserve natural areas of national and international importance for scientific research, education and recreation. Usually these are large areas in which the use of natural resources and other material human impacts are not allowed.
3. Monument of nature. These are usually small areas.
4. Managed nature reserves. The collection of certain natural resources is permitted under the control of the administration.
5.Protected landscapes and seaside views. These are picturesque mixed natural and cultivated areas with the preservation of traditional land use.
The statistics on protected areas usually include lands of categories 1-5.
6. Resource reserve created to prevent premature use of the territory.
7.Anthropological reserve created to preserve the traditional way of life of the indigenous population.
8. Territory of multi-purpose use of natural resources, focused on the sustainable use of water, forests, animals and flora, pastures and for tourism.
There are two additional categories that overlap with the eight above.
9. Biosphere reserves. Created to preserve biological diversity. They include several concentric zones of varying degrees of use: from a zone of complete inaccessibility (usually in the central part of the reserve) to a zone of reasonable, but fairly intensive exploitation.
10.Places world heritage. Created to protect the unique natural features of world importance. Management is carried out in accordance with the World Heritage Convention.
In total, there are about 10,000 protected areas in the world (categories 1-5) with a total area of 9.6 million km, or 7.1% of the total land area (excluding glaciers). The goal that the World Conservation Union sets before the world community is to achieve the expansion of protected areas to the size of 10% of the area of each large plant formation (biome) and, consequently, the world as a whole. This would contribute not only to the protection of biodiversity, but also to increase the sustainability of the geographical environment as a whole.
The strategy of expanding the number and area of protected areas is in conflict with the use of land for other purposes, especially in view of the growing world population. Therefore, in order to protect biological diversity, it is necessary, along with protected areas, to increasingly improve the use of “ordinary”, inhabited, lands and the management of populations of wild species, and not only endangered ones, and their habitats on such lands. It is necessary to apply such techniques as zoning territories according to the degree of use, creating corridors connecting land masses with less anthropogenic pressure, reducing the degree of fragmentation of biodiversity hotspots, managing ecotones, preserving natural waterlogged lands, managing populations of wild species and their habitats.
Effective ways to protect biological diversity include bioregional management of large territories and water areas, as well as international agreements on this issue. The UN Conference on Environment and Development (1992) adopted the International Convention for the Protection of Biological Diversity.
An important agreement is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. There are also a number of other conventions that protect various aspects of biological resources and biodiversity: the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, the Convention on the Protection of Wetlands, the Convention on the Protection of Whales, etc. Along with global conventions, there are numerous regional and bilateral agreements that regulate specific biodiversity issues.
Unfortunately, for the time being it can be stated that, despite numerous measures, the accelerated erosion of the biological diversity of the world continues. However, without these protective measures, the extent of biodiversity loss would be even greater.
Problems of development of biological resources of the Arctic seas
In recent years, more than 80% of the fishery of the European North-West of Russia has been concentrated in the North Atlantic (in the Northern basin - by 81-93%, in the Western - by 70-75%). These areas, including the waters of the Barents, Greenland and Norwegian Seas, are among the traditional and most intensively used fisheries. The development of a large-scale fishery in the Central and South Atlantic is a strategic task and is not considered in this article.
Potential factors for the development of the complex, both in the medium and long term, are primarily related to the external environment: the raw material base of the field, legal support and technical policy.
2. Assessment of the potential of marine biological resources
The resource base in the North Atlantic, which provides from 80% to 90% of the total catch, is well studied, strictly quota-based, and, according to PINRO, is in the following state (Status., 2004; 2005; 2007; 2008). Of the 13 main fish species in the Barents Sea and adjacent waters, for three (cod, haddock, saithe), commercial stocks and quotas may slightly increase in subsequent years; It is advisable to resume the polar cod fishery only with highly efficient vessels, since the reduction in fees for the right to catch does not fully solve the issue of the economic efficiency of its production; to establish a large-scale fishery for shrimp, specialized vessels are needed, equipped for the release of products in boiled-frozen form, of which there are currently 1 unit; capelin production resumed in 2009 with a quota for Russia of 152 thousand tons (for the Murmansk region - 80-90 thousand tons) and further increases in the TAC and quota for Russia are forecast. In the Norwegian Sea, there is a decrease in the TAC for blue whiting. In the Northwest Atlantic, the state of fish stocks is unsatisfactory, and a significant increase in production should not be expected.
Full development of quotas (average annual shortfall for 2002-2007 amounted to 79.7 thousand tons) plus the resumption of capelin production in 2008 (+80 thousand tons), an increase in quotas for cod (+7.5 thousand tons), haddock (+3.0 thousand tons) and saithe (+3.0 thousand tons) makes it possible to additionally involve in the fishery about 138 thousand tons of bioresources, or 24% of the average catch for 2000-2007. (expert assessments). For 2010 and beyond, commercial stocks of cod, haddock and capelin, according to PINRO forecasts, will be in good condition, allowing for an increase in TAC and Russia's quota. For the six most significant fisheries (cod, haddock, capelin, blue whiting, herring, mackerel), the total amount of established quotas may be about 1 million tons.
In addition, PINRO specialists determined the underutilized raw material base of fishing in the seas of the European North and the North Atlantic at 167-217 thousand tons (Prischepa, 2008). It should be emphasized that due to the continuing warming of the waters of the North Atlantic, the range of some hydrobionts may shift to the east and the productivity of the Barents Sea may increase, and catches in the economic zone of the Russian Federation may increase (Rybolovstvo..., 2007).
For the stable operation of large vessels, a raw material base is needed outside the North Atlantic and the creation economic conditions to achieve an acceptable level of efficiency
fishing. We believe that some of the large vessels could work on the terms of public-private cooperation in the planned establishment of the Corporation for fishing in the Southern Ocean.
3. Analysis of state regulation of the development of marine biological resources
The problem of optimizing the extraction of free access resources, as well as poorly controlled ones, is solved mainly by state regulation with the help of appropriate tax policy, technical measures, quotas for biological resources, optimization of the size and age composition of catches, and other biological measures.
quota system. In the context of growing resource constraints, the fisheries regulation system based on the total allowable catch (TAC) and the establishment of quotas for organizations, vessels, fishing gear and types of fishing is recognized as the most effective environmental measure. However, it solves the problem of free access resources only if the goal set by the society in terms of the volume of fishing just corresponds to the optimal value of the extraction of the resource. The determination of this value is carried out not by the "invisible hand" of the market, but by the state, which, trying to correctly determine the TAC, experiences a large lack of information. There are imperfect methods, as well as the pressure of political and market forces. As a result, the given catch volumes can differ significantly from the optimal ones.
Tax policy. An economic measure that contributes to achieving the maximum amount of catch while maintaining the original stock in good condition, i.e. the maximum possible catch in a state of biological equilibrium is the introduction of a tax on the volume of production.
Market equilibrium is established only when for each seller (economic entity) the price of bioresources coincides with the marginal cost. This means that the total cost of extraction corresponds to the total turnover of the relevant industry. The introduction of a tax in the form of a fee for quotas of marine biological resources can create conditions for the formation of an equilibrium price even before causing significant damage to fish stocks and, therefore, to ensure fisheries at a sustainable level. The higher the level of payment for bioresources, the sooner (with a better state of stocks) the equilibrium price level will be reached.
However, this idea is difficult to implement due to the fact that the state usually lacks information to determine the willingness to pay, the costs of using and extracting the resource. The situation is complicated by the fact that the tax must be constantly adjusted in connection with changes in these indicators in order to maintain the optimality of the tax for a long time, which causes adaptation costs, as well as political confrontations. The pioneer in the use of economic measures to regulate fishing is Russia, which has introduced fees for the right to use marine biological resources.
technical measures. The effect of this instrument is to make the capture/extraction of the resource inefficient, expensive and thus as unprofitable as possible by prohibiting the use of certain modern effective methods fishing or the use of selective devices and fishing gear that reduce its productivity. Control over the applied equipment is much easier to carry out (and cheaper in terms of costs). Therefore, it cannot be ruled out that a more or less functioning system of such "tricks" will ultimately lead to better regulatory results than a tax system associated with many problems of monitoring and controlling the object of taxation.
In the North-East Atlantic there are restrictions on the size of the mesh in trawls, the use of selective grids in trawls is prescribed, the fishing of cod with a mid-water trawl is prohibited, measures are being taken to limit trawling and replace it with passive fishing gear, restrictions on the power and size of vessels on board are observed to a certain extent. harvesting bottom fish species. However, it should be noted that the effectiveness of these measures is still debatable.
Optimization of the size-age composition of the catch. Both from a biological point of view and from an economic point of view, fishing should be based on catching mature, large fish. Removal of immature individuals from the herd leads to a decrease in the number of populations in the future. In addition, in order to develop the TAC of large individuals, it is necessary to catch several times less than small ones, which will also affect the state and abundance of commercial and spawning stocks in the near future.
According to PINRO scientists, the productivity of fishing on large fish is much higher than on small fish, which leads to a reduction in production costs and, consequently, to an increase in the economic efficiency of the development of marine biological resources (Recommendations ..., 2000). Finally, the price of large fish (cod) in foreign markets is 15-30% higher than that of small fish (up to 45 cm).
Other measures. Along with the above "Regulations for fishing for
fishery basins" provides for other measures. Thus, for the Northern fishery basin, the following are determined: sea areas and the minimum size meshes, sizes and equipment of fishing gear, fishing size and allowable by-catch of juvenile aquatic biological resources, by-catch in specialized fishing (Rules of Fishery..., 2007).
The practical impact of the listed measures of regulation of stocks of commercial bioresources rests on the problem of control. The impossibility of its total implementation at sea for economic reasons leads to overfishing, poaching, discarding of small fish and by-catch. By different estimates experts, until recently, the actual catch exceeded the TAC by 50-100%, and possibly more. Emissions were also significant. As a result of measures taken jointly with Norway in 2008-2009. the situation with illegal, undeclared and unregulated (IUU) fishing has improved somewhat. The level of efficiency in the management and regulation of fisheries is reflected in the state of stocks and in financial results functioning of the industry.
In order to improve state regulation of the use of marine biological resources, we studied the experience foreign countries with developed fisheries.
Norway. Quotas are distributed depending on the length of the vessel (or tonnage). Distribution is based on two principles: fishing effort regulation and removal regulation. Quotas go to shipowners united in unions that are responsible for their members and controlled by the authorities. The number of permits is determined by the state of stocks.
A ship that delivers a catch for processing to Norway is allocated a larger quota than a ship that processes its catch at sea. Priorities, as a rule, are given to the coastal fishing fleet, whose vessels make up about 75% of the total fishing fleet (Zelentsov, 2001). They account for about 70% of Norway's TAC for cod and haddock.
Iceland.
1. Quotas are obtained by vessels that have licenses for commercial fishing.
2. The criterion for the right to receive quotas is the average annual catch of the vessel for 3 years prior to the introduction of individual transferable quotas (ITC). The quota is allocated for the fishing year (in Iceland from 1 September to 31 August of the next calendar year).
3. During the fishing year, vessel owners have the right to make a full or partial transfer (essentially, sale) of IPK through special exchanges (offices) controlled by the Directorate of Fisheries of the Ministry.
4. The owners of the IPK must annually master at least 50% of the allocated quota. If the condition is violated for two years in a row, the shipowner risks losing the quota.
The PKI system discourages newcomers and results in quotas often being concentrated in the hands of large companies, i.e. are monopolized (Zilanov, Shevchenko, 1999). According to experts, about 70% of the original owners of quotas have sold them to large companies1.
Canada. Sea fishing is divided into coastal (vessels up to 25 m long) and oceanic (trawlers over 25 m long).
In coastal fishing, the shipowner has only one licensed vessel with a strictly defined number of quotas. He has no right to increase the number of courts. If the TAC rises sharply, then others are invited to absorb the "surplus" in order to increase the number of jobs in the industry. The catch must be sold to coastal enterprises. The price floor is controlled by the state. In the event that fish processors and fishermen cannot agree, the state appoints arbitration, the decision of which is binding on everyone. Thus, fishermen have guaranteed fixed prices, and fish processors receive high-quality raw fish within the agreed time frame.
In ocean fishing, different rules apply. Quotas are distributed in proportion to capacities. Companies have the right to increase their fishing opportunities and quotas in the event of an increase in TAC. Products of deep processing, as a rule, are exported1 2.
Great Britain. Fishing licenses are issued by decision of the Ministry. The issuance of licenses for fishing in internal and external waters for quota types of aquatic biological resources to vessels over 10 meters long depends on the level of economic connection that the shipowner maintained in the penultimate year of the license. It is important to emphasize that fishing vessels,
1 Sheinis L.Z. Analysis of the management of national fish resources of the leading fishing countries.
URL: http://www.fishkamchatka.ru/?key=,problem&con=abc_persons&id_thema=1 &one=1&cpos=30&PHPSESSID=
2 Canadian fishing industry: past, present, future. URL: http://fishkamchatka.ru/
registered in the UK and not providing established economic ties with the UK, and at the same time entitled to a license, licenses can be issued for the right to catch non-quota aquatic biological resources and only in inland waters. At the same time, the quota (or part of it) cannot be transferred to other courts.
Shetland Islands. Among the reasons for the decline in stocks, fishermen cite the failure of the approach to regulating fishing through a system of individually transferred quotas. Possible Solution The Shetland Islands Association considers the write-off of a significant part of the fleet with compensation from government funds to this problem. Vessels remaining in the fishery must be managed through a system of limiting the number of days at sea.
The trade in fishing licenses and individual quotas, supported by the government, has led to a sharp increase in the prices of quotas and licenses, which often exceed the cost of fishing gear and even vessels. A single pelagic fishing license costs several million pounds3 4 5.
USA. Fisheries in the United States are regulated by the Magnuson-Stevens Act of October 11, 1996.
The TAC is only shared between the coastal and offshore fisheries. Its volume and the start time of the season are announced. The number of users and vessels is not limited. Fishing begins and ends simultaneously for everyone with a choice of established quota volumes. This so-called "Olympic" system relieved the state of the obligation to provide entrepreneurs with quotas, and its main goal was to create conditions for the rapid development of fisheries in the country. The depletion of the stocks of the main food fish is forcing the authorities to look for alternative methods of regulating the fishery. Since 1995, IPC has been introduced for the production of sablefish and halibut.
The experience of allocating marine biological resources with quotas deserves attention. local population Pacific Coast of Alaska under the Community Development Quota Program. They are given to the population of settlements located at a distance of 50 miles from the coast of the Bering Sea. Quota applications must include a detailed community development business plan. Simple resale of quotas is not permitted. Representatives of local communities should be directly involved in the production process. The income received from the implementation of the program should be invested in the development of the fishing industry and stimulate the development of a stable economy in the western state of Alaska (Vylegzhanin, 1998)4 5.
Japan. On January 1, 1997, the ODU system began to operate. The peculiarity of its introduction is a limited list of fishing objects (at first - six). Introduced new system regulation of fisheries involves additional regulatory measures: along with traditional ones (regulation at the entrance), introduce quotas for certain types of aquatic organisms (regulation at the exit from the fishery). This system can be attributed to the "Olympic" ( similar examples exists in Denmark, France, Spain, USA), it additionally provides for measures to restrict fishing at an intermediate stage.
The experience of regulating fisheries under the "Olympic system" in other countries shows that there is a danger of unreasonably high competition in the fishery and excessive concentration of fishing efforts6.
Russia. Quotas in shares of TACs are received by fishing companies. The criterion for the right to receive shares is the organization's average annual catch for the 3 years preceding the distribution. The first allotment of shares at the end of 2003 was carried out for 5 years and subsequently extended for ten years.
Coastal fishing organizations must deliver at least 50% of the catch to the Russian coast.
Shipowners have the right to make a full or partial transfer (sale) of shares through regional auctions.
The main differences of the Russian quota distribution system:
1. Durability of endowment.
2. Weak control and lack of measures to punish organizations that do not develop quotas.
3. Permission to develop quotas not only by their own courts (a product of rentiers).
3 Sheinis L.Z. Analysis of the management of national fish resources of the leading fishing countries.
URL: http://www.fishkamchatka.ru/?key=,problem&con=abc_persons&id_thema=1&one=1&cpos=30&PHPSESSID=
4 Fishing in Alaska. URL: http://www.westvisa.com/alaska_jobs.htm
5 The US Fisheries Management System: Fundamentals.
URL: http://www.usda.ru/usda_programs/2005/03/16/46/
6 Kurmazov A. A. Japan's new step towards establishing maritime law and order in accordance with the principles of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. URL: http://npacific.kamchatka.ru/np/magazin/2-97_r/articl88-91.htm
4. Giving quotas to organizations whose ships have lost contact with the shore.
5. Lack of licensing of courts.
6. Availability of fees for bioresources.
7. Mandatory declaration in Russian ports of fish products from catches caught in the Barents Sea.
4. Substantiation of the model for coordinating the economic interests of the subjects of fishing activities
Being the owner of marine bioresources, the state can solve various problems through their use, depending on the priority: geopolitical, food security, employment, budgetary occupancy, settlement of the coast. Solving various tasks, it interacts with various economic entities, and those, in turn, interact with each other. Harmonization of economic interests in the use of bioresources, in our opinion, plays a major role in achieving the goals. Thus, first of all, the leadership of the country and the fishing industry must determine priorities.
The "Marine Doctrine of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020" provides for "...optimization of fishing in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation, strengthening state control for fishing and rational use fishing fleet, "creating (economic - A.V.) conditions for reorienting supplies to the domestic market." (Marine Doctrine., 2001). From the above, we can conclude that strengthening control over fishing, participation in ensuring food security is considered a paramount task and increasing the efficiency of the use of bioresources.The "Concept for the development of the fish industry of the Russian Federation for the period up to 2020" envisaged addressing these issues at the first stage in 2003-2005. .) (Concept of Development..., 2003).
The relations of economic entities at the current level of development and the diversity of forms of ownership are characterized by the diversity and inconsistency of interests. Therefore, there is an objective need to harmonize these relations at the macro and micro levels, develop and use the mechanisms of state regulation. At the same time, the regulatory system should have not only an administrative, organizational and administrative, but mainly economic and legal character and take into account industry and regional specifics.
The situation in the fishing industry is due to the prevalence of the interests of the primary (mining) complex. Its representatives are not interested in merging with coastal enterprises or creating their own fish processing industry, due to the need to share rental income. Ensuring food security for the state as a whole, including providing the population with affordable fish products, ceteris paribus, is, together with aquaculture, primarily a function and task of fishing organizations. Fish processing in its essence refers to service production activities, the development of which in market conditions is determined mainly by economic factors, and the preferences and aggregate solvency of the population, the conjuncture of the domestic and foreign markets become decisive among them.
As is known, the economic policy of the leading fishing countries (Norway, Japan, Great Britain, etc.) makes it possible, through the state system of regulation of the use of aquatic biological resources, to ensure the activities of not only mining, but also coastal enterprises (fish processing, ship repair, fishing ports, etc.) . In Russia, these problems have not yet been resolved, and the transformation of the system of distribution of biological resources that has taken place in recent years has not yielded positive results in achieving the goals set in the Marine Doctrine and Concept. Positive from this point of view was the decision to significantly increase the coastal quota with the obligatory unloading of chilled raw materials on the Russian coast, which made it possible to increase employment and the production of highly processed fish products.
The low availability of the purchase of raw materials has become a significant factor in the decrease in the production volumes of processing enterprises. Mining enterprises of the Murmansk region have stable and long-term relationships for the sale of their fish products outside the region. This is due to the higher solvency of intermediary structures and the existence of a shadow turnover. To overcome these negative trends, along with a further increase in coastal fisheries, it is proposed:
carry out the primary sale of fish products of fishing enterprises at auction
bidding;
introduce a state system to stimulate the supply of raw materials and semi-finished products of water
biological resources of ocean and marine fisheries;
to ban deliveries from the sea abroad of products of shallow cutting.
State support for onshore enterprises can be provided in the form of subsidies and reduction of the tax burden (property tax, land rent, resource fees, etc.), provided that most of their products (at least 80%) will be sold on the domestic market. With regard to the specifics of providing life support and supporting the city-forming fish processing enterprises, marginal and depressed territories dependent on this type of activity, here, in our opinion, it is necessary state regulation through the establishment of temporary preferences (tax, customs, etc.) or the legislatively established allocation of targeted resource quotas.
With increasing demands on public services and infrastructure and financial and budgetary constraints of the state in Western countries models of partnership between the state and business are developing. The concept of public-private partnership (PPP) involves the development of any contractual relationship governing their cooperation in order to provide public services, create or modernize public infrastructure. Within the framework of the PPP concept, five basic models cooperation between the state and the private sector, characterized by special forms of ownership, financing and management (operator model, cooperation model, concession model, contractual model, leasing model). In general, public-private partnership is seen as a concept that allows the use of private sector resources to develop infrastructure, improve the quality and volume of public services and save the state from the specific risks associated with the implementation of projects (Silvestrov, 2001). In the fishing industry, PPP, in our opinion, can be effectively used for the development of ocean fishing in remote areas.
Along with this, in world practice, depending on the specific situation and in various forms, direct governmental support commodity producers. Below is a classification of the prevailing in the 90s. subsidizing enterprises in the world fish industry (according to FAO and foreign press) (Bobylov, 2004):
1. budget subsidies (development grants, public investment, financing access to foreign zones, stimulating market development);
2. off-budget subsidies (soft loans, loan guarantees, loan restructuring, fuel tax exemptions, income tax cuts, accelerated depreciation);
3. intersectoral subsidies ( financial aid shipbuilding and fisheries infrastructure development);
4. subsidies aimed at reducing domestic rent payments (subsidies to resource users).
The destruction of the pre-reform systemic principles management (both at the federal and regional levels), dequalification in personnel in combination with lobbying of narrow group interests, it has a negative impact on the state and development of basin fishery complexes. Function transformation government controlled and control contributed to the emergence of inefficient quota users, shadow turnovers and rentier enterprises. On the other hand, there is a steady disregard for the position of regional associated associations in the formation of the legal framework and the adoption at the federal level of administrative decisions on the regulation of fishing activities. All this reduces the possibility of comprehensive coordination of the economic interests of business entities and the state.
5. The impact of the development of the oil and gas industry on fisheries in the Barents Sea
The development of marine resources and communications is one of the main directions and components of the development of the world economy both in the past and in the coming century. Since the middle of the last century, world oceanic and marine catches have increased more than 4 times and in recent years have fluctuated within 84-87 million tons (Borisov et al., 2001). During the same period, the volume of world shipping and, accordingly, the total turnover in ton-miles increased by 11.5 times. At the same time, the share of tankers in the total tonnage of the marine transport fleet increased from one quarter to one third (Andrianov, 2005). Since the late 1940s, the development of offshore oil and gas fields in the Gulf of Mexico has been developing. The energy crisis of the 1970s greatly accelerated
this process, intensifying production in the North Sea. Already by the mid-1980s, the share of oil produced on the shelf in Western Europe exceeded 90%, in Latin America- 50% 7. Currently, in the structure of total oil production, the offshore component reaches one third, in similar indicators for gas - 12-15%.
The expansion of multidirectional sea use contributed to the development of the coastal economy, the main and infrastructural activities. Over the past 40 years, the proportion of the population of the coastal regions of the Earth has increased from 30-35 to 40-45%.
The noted trends are increasingly accompanied by an increase in the anthropogenic load on the marine ecosystem, contradictions and conflict situations between different sea users, differentiated by coastal regions and the level of impact on activities. To the greatest extent, the negative consequences were reflected in bioproductivity and fishing activities, which are less protected from the impact of expanding offshore hydrocarbon production and transportation (tanker, pipeline) of oil and gas.
In accordance with the official position of the FAO, the maximum possible levels of catch of aquatic biological resources have been reached in oceanic and marine fisheries. According to the experts of this organization, in order to restore and preserve fish stocks, it is necessary to regulate the fishing process more effectively, relying primarily on the prevention of IUU fishing. In essence, some Russian authors adhere to the same position when retrospectively assessing the reasons for the depletion of raw fishery resources and the decrease in catch volumes, methods and organization of fishing activities in the Barents and Norwegian Seas (Matishov et al., 2008).
The impact of oil and gas production on the sea shelves, in the absence of large-scale accidental spills, as practice shows, including in the North and Norwegian Seas, is insignificant. Available data on Norwegian fisheries show that in the first years of operation of oil and gas wells, compensation to fisheries for damage to fishing gear reached 6 million kroons, which was not significant given the gross production of the fishing industry in these years of 3-5 billion kroons (table). There was no spill damage.
Table. Compensation to Norwegian fishermen under an interim agreement for damage to fishing gear as a result of offshore oil activities
Indicators 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989
Number of claims for compensation 348 287 264 283 193 99 75
Number of compensations accepted 316 272 225 234 150 68 52
Payments, thousand NOK 5803 5946 5257 5350 3988 1838 1561
In subsequent years, according to Norwegian scientists, payments became insignificant and ceased to be published in statistics (Fishery statistics).
The absence of significant harm to fisheries is indirectly confirmed by the discussion that has unfolded in Norway about the possibilities of oil production near Lofoten, in an area that is a "maternity hospital" for cod. And judging by the course of the discussion, supporters of hydrocarbon production will prevail.
It is known that in the future the main increase in reserves and production of hydrocarbons will occur at the expense of the resources of the sea shelf, including the Arctic. Their development, on the one hand, will require the use of new technologies and compliance with stringent environmental requirements, on the other hand, it will bring, in addition to those discussed above, increasing real and potential restrictions and losses in fishing activities, including in the fishing areas of the Northern Basin. This is confirmed, for example, by the practice of conflict situations and economic losses (losses) of extractive enterprises in the course of exploration, prospecting and production work in the development of offshore hydrocarbon fields in the Norwegian Sea (Norway) and the Sea of Okhotsk (Sakhalin, Russia).
In the late 1980s, maritime transport (export, import, cabotage) in the Barents Sea did not exceed 12-13 million tons. They were based on timber, general and bulk cargo. After a decline in the mid-1990s, the volume of maritime transport increased, and since the beginning of the 2000s - due to oil cargo. In recent years, the total volume of sea transportation has reached the level of 31-32 million tons, including up to 40% - liquid cargo. In the future, a general increase in maritime cargo flows, including liquid cargo, is predicted, mainly due to the development of Arctic shelf fields (Prirazlomnoye) and an increase in the capacity of marine transshipment terminals (Varandey and others). Significant increase in maritime transport (service vessels and
7 Data of the Energy Policy Committee of the State Duma of the Russian Federation.
gas carriers) in the Barents Sea will be associated with the development of the Shtokman gas condensate field.
The development of fields on the shelf is objectively associated with the rejection of areas, the implementation of preparatory (prospecting, drilling and well construction, etc.) and operational works, technological and transshipment operations that have varying degrees negative impact on the marine environment, bio- and fish productivity of fishing areas, restrictions on fishing activities. In particular, one of the most significant introduced limiting factors of the projected Shtokman gas condensate field in the southern part of the Barents Sea will be the laying of the pipeline route. The resulting alienation of fishing areas can lead to fishing losses and the loss of part of the catch, which, in the maximum average annual estimate, reach 50-70 thousand tons (Nikitin, 2008).
Thus, the reduction and prevention of pollution of the marine environment by oil during its production and transportation, ship waste and pollutants generated during the normal operation of ships, leveling complex negative consequences in the course of prospecting, exploration and exploitation work on offshore oil and gas fields, they become a determining component of decisions made in the process of integrated development of offshore resources and communications.
At present, all types of maritime activities in Russia are regulated by a large number of ratified international conventions, federal laws and government decrees, departmental regulatory and methodological documentation. They constitute the regulatory framework for ensuring, in a broad sense, environmental protection, including prevention, assessment and compensation for damage caused.
The concept of the draft Federal Law "On the Protection of the Seas of the Russian Federation from Oil Pollution" notes that general and special international conventions relating to oil pollution of the seas do not reflect the specifics of maritime law. Prevention of environmental harm, although stated as one of the goals, is not their main task, and mandatory compensation is limited to covering direct damage. Analyzing the Russian legal regulation in this area, we can conclude that it is fragmented and unsystematic, legal norms are scattered across numerous laws and regulations, do not take into account maritime specifics, are general character, and sometimes contradict each other, which leads to their diverse interpretation and corruption. In addition, it can be stated that more than 20 federal executive bodies are currently dealing with maritime activities, the system of which is unstable, for many years it has been in conditions of permanent administrative reform, functions, names and number of organs are constantly changing.
Describing the Russian regulatory framework for environmental protection during the exploitation of oil fields and transportation of oil, its shortcomings in general include the incompleteness of the system of methodological documents for assessing damage to natural resources and the fact that the procedure and procedure for compensating environmental damage has not been worked out (Danilov-Danilian et al. ., 2005). The calculation of damage to fish stocks is usually based on the volume of lost production per year. But losses are repeated in subsequent years. In the scientific literature, one can find proposals to calculate the damage for 10 or 100 years, and for example, when calculating the capitalized cost of aquatic biological reserves, their life is assumed to be infinite (Shirkov et al., 2006). The question remains open. Indeed, if we consider the damage to marine hydrobionts for a period equal to infinity, and the profit from hydrocarbons for a period equal to exploitation, then many oil and gas projects would be rejected.
6. Conclusion
In connection with the foregoing and the increase in conflict in nature management, the issues of introducing an integrated management of maritime economic activity are becoming relevant. Canada, the US and Norway have already begun developing plans for integrated maritime management. In Russia, the system of views and methods in this area is only being formed. Currently, coordinating functions are performed by the Maritime Board and regional Councils for Maritime Activities under the regional administrations. However, the experience of developing and implementing integrated management programs in various countries shows that without power powers that exceed the level of individual ministries, their success is minimal due to the antagonism of the goals and methods of various users of natural resources.
A.M. Vasiliev, Yu.F. Kuranov
Institute of Economic Problems KSC RAS
7.4. Problems of use and reproduction of natural resources
The rational use of natural resources involves the determination of an adequate price or economic assessment of natural resources and natural services.
The environment performs three functions:
provision of natural resources;
assimilation of waste and pollution;
providing people with natural services (recreation, aesthetic pleasure, etc.)
For the formation of estimated tariffs for natural resources are used inventories, designed to establish and fix the cost of a natural resource, depending on its purpose, quality, possibility and convenience of extraction and delivery to the place of consumption and other characteristics. There is a land, water, forest cadastre and they differ according to the territorial-administrative principle. We have to admit that natural resources, which make up the country's natural potential in the amount of more than 40% of the national wealth, are still not included in the total national wealth of the country.
The annual losses of oil, degraded land, forests, etc. are estimated at many billions of dollars. At present, the efficiency of resource conservation should prevail over the growth rates of the economy's natural resource intensity. This is possible only if the environmental damage is correctly and adequately taken into account, when the costs associated with irrational management are taken into account.
However, it is not possible to estimate economically precisely all natural goods and services. How, for example, to appreciate a beautiful landscape? For many natural goods and services, there are no traditional markets, supply and demand standards. As a result, an economic attempt is proposed to take into account the consequences of decisions made, taking into account the priority of protecting the natural environment and saving natural resources.
The value of a certain environmental good is determined by adding the market value and the additional benefit to the consumer.
Existing approaches to determining the economic value of natural resources and natural services, allowing to obtain a specific assessment, are based on:
Market valuation;
cost approach;
Alternative cost;
total economic cost.
Not all of these approaches are well developed, there are contradictory points in them, however, on their basis, it is possible to estimate the economic value of nature in a first approximation.
7.5. Specially protected natural territories and objects as a natural reserve fund of the Russian Federation
In Russia, the most important legislative act regulating relations in the field of organization, protection and use of specially protected natural territories is the federal law "On Specially Protected Natural Territories", adopted by the State Duma on February 15, 1995.
All specially protected natural territories, taking into account the peculiarities of the regime and the status of nature protection institutions located on them, are divided into:
State natural reserves, including biospheric ones;
National parks;
natural parks;
State natural reserves;
Monuments of nature;
Dendrological parks and botanical gardens;
Therapeutic areas and resorts.
They are taken into account when developing territorial integrated development schemes, land management and district planning. On the basis of the adopted programs for the development and placement of specially protected natural areas or territorial nature protection schemes, the state authorities of the subjects of the Russian Federation make a decision on reserving land plots that are supposed to be declared as specially protected natural areas, and on limiting economic activity on them.
Specially protected natural areas may have federal, regional or local significance. The territories of state natural reserves and national parks are classified as specially protected natural territories of federal significance. Territories of state reserves, natural monuments, dendrological parks and botanical gardens, medical and recreational areas and resorts can be classified as specially protected natural areas of either federal or regional significance.
The highest form of protection of natural complexes in Russia are nature reserves and national parks (table).
Number of reserves and national parks in the Russian Federation
|
number of reserves | |||
|
Their area. million ha | |||
|
Number of national parks | |||
|
Their area, million ha |
State natural reserves- one of the types of specially protected natural territories and objects provided for by the Law on Environmental Protection and the Law on Specially Protected Natural Territories. These include environmental, research and environmental education institutions aimed at preserving and studying the natural course of natural processes and phenomena, the genetic fund of flora and fauna, certain types of plant and animal communities, typical and unique ecological systems.
The regulation on state natural reserves in the Russian Federation was approved by the Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of December 18, 1991 No.
The following tasks are assigned to state natural reserves:
Implementation of the protection of natural areas in order to preserve biological diversity and maintain protected natural complexes and objects in their natural state;
Organization and conduct of scientific research, including the maintenance of the "Chronicle of Nature";
Implementation of environmental monitoring within the framework of the national environmental monitoring system;
environmental education;
environmental education;
Participation in the state environmental review of projects and schemes for the placement of economic and other facilities"
Assistance in the training of scientific personnel and specialists in the field of environmental protection.
The main purpose of the reserves is to serve as standards of nature, to be a place of knowledge of the course of natural processes not disturbed by man, characteristic of the landscapes of a certain geographical region.
In Russia, the number of reserves by the beginning of the XXI century. reached one hundred with a total area of 33.7 million hectares, including 20 biospheric ones, which conduct long-term scientific research under the unified program "Chronicle of Nature". In the reserves, zoological and botanical research is carried out for the operational analysis of air, water, soil, mini-laboratories are being created, meteorological stations and meteorological posts are functioning.
A special place among the reserves of Russia is occupied by biospheric, included in the world network of biosphere reserves of UNESCO. Biosphere reserve provides the following functions:
Protection of landscapes, ecosystems and species;
Demonstrating opportunities and promoting sustainable socio-economic development;
Implementation of demonstration projects, environmental education programs, scientific research and monitoring at the local, regional and global levels in order to protect nature.
In six of them there are integrated background monitoring stations that provide data on chemical pollution of reference protected ecosystems. They are created in various natural and climatic zones. One of the well-known nature reserves located in the tundra is Kandalaksha, which was established in 1932 to protect, first of all, the large eider colonies that have survived. The reserve covers an area of about 29 thousand hectares and consists of three sections of the mainland coast and five groups of islands of different sizes.
In the taiga zone there are such reserves as Laplandsky, "Kivach", Pechero-Ilychsky, Darvinsky, "Stolby", Barguzinsky, Kronotsky, Altaisky.
In the zone of mixed forests there are reserves: in the Far East - Zeisky, Komsomolsky, Khingansky, Sikhote-Alinsky, Sudzukhinsky and "Kedrovaya Pad"; in the Southern Urals - Ilmensky and Bashkirsky; in the Central District - Prioksko-Terrasny, Oksky.
In the forest-steppe and steppe zone there are such reserves as Voronezhsky, Khopersky, Zhigulevsky, Central Chernozemny.
In the Caucasus, one should name such reserves as the Caucasian and Teberdinsky.
National parks- these are nature protection ecological and educational institutions, the territories of which include natural complexes and objects of special ecological value. They are intended for use in environmental, educational, scientific and cultural purposes and for regulated tourism.
In Russia, national natural parks began to be created in the 80s. 20th century First national park"Sochi" was created in 1983. Currently, there are 35 national parks in Russia, and their area is 6.9 million hectares. It is especially expedient to organize national parks in mountainous areas, the ecosystems of which cannot withstand intensive economic use. One of the famous national parks is Losiny Ostrov (Moscow). natural parks- these are environmental recreational institutions under the jurisdiction of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, whose territories include natural complexes and objects of significant environmental and aesthetic value, and are intended for use in environmental, educational and recreational purposes.
Currently, the number of specially protected natural areas that fall under the status of natural parks in Russia is about 10. Of these, the most famous are: the natural and ethnic park "Beringia" - in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, "Lena Pillars" - in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia ), "Moneron Island" - in the Sakhalin region.
The following tasks are assigned to natural parks:
Preservation of the natural environment, natural landscapes;
Creation of conditions for recreation;
Conservation of recreational resources;
Development and implementation of effective methods of nature protection;
Maintenance of ecological balance in the conditions of recreational use of territories of natural parks.
State nature reserves- territories of particular importance for the conservation or restoration of natural complexes or their components and maintaining the ecological balance.
The number of reserves on the territory of the Russian Federation exceeds 1500, and their total area is about 3% of the entire territory of the country. Preserves are diverse in their purposes and are created for:
Restoration or increase in the number of game animals (hunting reserves);
- creating a favorable environment for birds during nesting, molting, migration and wintering (ornithological);
Protection of fish spawning grounds, feeding grounds for juveniles or places of their winter accumulations;
Preservation of especially valuable forest groves, individual landscape areas of great aesthetic, cultural or historical significance (landscape reserves).
Reserves are the most mobile form of nature protection. After the protected populations are restored, the reserve is liquidated and hunting or collection of medicinal raw materials is allowed on the territory, taking into account environmental standards.
Monuments of nature- these are unique, irreplaceable, valuable natural complexes in ecological, scientific, cultural and aesthetic terms, as well as objects of natural and artificial origin. They are small natural complexes or individual objects of natural or artificial origin: groves, lakes, waterfalls, ponds, caves, picturesque rocks, ancient parks, individual trees and former "witnesses" of any historical events, for example, oaks in the Kolomenskoye estate (Moscow), preserved from the time of Ivan the Terrible.
Currently, about 8,000 natural monuments are protected in the Russian Federation, including 29 natural monuments of federal significance, covering an area of 15.5 thousand hectares and located mostly on European territory. Dendrological parks and botanical gardens- these are environmental institutions whose tasks include the creation of special collections of plants in order to preserve the diversity and enrichment of the plant world, as well as the implementation of scientific, educational and educational activities. There are 55 botanical gardens and 22 dendrological parks and arboretum in the Russian Federation.
Therapeutic areas and resorts- This is a specially protected area that has natural healing resources and is suitable for organizing the treatment and prevention of diseases, as well as recreation for the population. Health-improving areas developed and used for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes are recognized as resorts. For example, Kislovodsk, Zheleznovodsk, Essentuki in the Caucasus, Belokurikha in Altai, Solots in the Ryazan region.
The first security measures individual elements biospheres (species of organisms) were carried out even before the beginning of our era in the countries of ancient culture - Egypt, India, China, etc. The bulk of living matter surrounds the Earth thin layer- from a few millimeters to tens of meters.
Due to the fact that living organisms are located in a thin surface layer, they are easily accessible to direct and indirect human impact. Living matter biosphere has a huge chemical activity due to biological metabolism. In the process of photosynthesis, over the course of a year, terrestrial and aquatic vegetation accumulates enormous solar energy, binds 35 billion tons of carbon, fixes 44 billion tons of nitrogen, releases several tens of billions of tons of oxygen, etc.
Biological (biotic) resources include the resources of flora and fauna. Plant resources are represented in the territories and water areas by higher plants, fungi, mosses, lichens, algae, which are used or can be used for the needs of society. Forest, steppe, meadow, swamp and aquatic plant resources are of economic importance.
Now more than 1.5 million plant and animal species have been explored, named and identified, but scientists believe that there are still 5-10 million unexplored species, especially in tropical forests, seas and oceans. All types of living things are collectively called biota. Its most important property is the ability to self-heal based on metabolism. Under favorable conditions, the organisms of the biosphere are capable of filling the entire planet in a short time.
The natural conditions of Ukraine contribute to the development of a rich and diverse flora. About 5 thousand species of plants of natural flora and about 1 thousand species of cultivated and alien flora grow here, which is distributed very unevenly. The richest flora of the Crimea and the Carpathians (almost 2 thousand species), in Polissya and the forest-steppe zone there are only 1600-1700 species, and in the steppe there are even fewer of them - about 1 thousand. There are 45 thousand species on the territory of Ukraine, of which 17 species are amphibians, 20 reptiles, about 400 birds, 200 fish.
Human use of the biosphere began from the moment of its inception and continuously increased with the increase in the number and needs of mankind. The two most common uses of living organisms and their products are:
Direct use - as food, raw materials, building materials;
Indirect - as a source of oxygen for respiration and technological processes, carbon dioxide binding, runoff regulation, wind protection of fields, aesthetic needs, etc.
The value of natural biota for humans is considered in the following main areas:
Basis of agriculture and forestry;
Resources for medicine;
The direct benefit, which manifests itself in the fact that the vegetation cover is a factor in the prevention of erosion, the preservation of the arable layer of the soil, the provision of infiltration and replenishment of groundwater, the reduction of surface runoff, the support of nutrient cycling in ecosystems. Biota continuously reproduces wood, wild animals and birds, fish, etc.;
Opportunities for recreation, satisfaction of aesthetic and scientific needs;
Commercial stimulator of sports business, tourist service, etc.