Subject: Individual characteristics Personality.

1. The concept of personality in psychology

Definition of personality In a broad plan, the personality of a person is the integral integrity of biogenic, sociogenic and psychogenic elements.

The biological basis of the personality covers the nervous system, the system of glands, metabolism (hunger, thirst, sexual impulse) sexual differences, anatomical features, the processes of ripening and the development of the body.

The social "measurement" of the individual is due to the influence of the culture and structure of communities in which the person was raised and in which he participates. The most important socigenous personality terms are social rolesperformed by her in various communities (family, school, group of peers), as well as a subjective "I", that is, created under the influence of the impact of other idea of \u200b\u200bits own person, and reflected "I", that is, a set of ideas about yourself created from the ideas other people about us.

IN modern psychology There is no single understanding of the person. However, most researchers believe that the personality is a fit formed and individually a peculiar set of features defining the image (style) of the thinking of this person, the system of its feelings and behavior.

At the heart of the person lies her structure - Communication and interaction on the sustainable components of the personality: abilities, temperament, character, volitional qualities, emotions and motivation.

Human abilities determine its successes in various activities. From temperament depend on the response of a person to the world around the world - other people, the circumstances of life, etc. The character of a person determines its actions against other people.

Village qualities characterize the desire of a person to achieve their goals. Emotions and motivation is, respectively, the experiences of people and motivating activities and communication.

Food and personality stability Almost none of the researchers mind objectively, the inhibiting component of the personality structure, its system-forming property (sign, quality) is Food - System of sustainable motives (dominant needs, interests, inconsistencies, beliefs, ideals, worldview, etc.), determining the behavior of the person in changing external conditions.

The direction has an organizing influence not only on the components of the personality structure (for example, on unwanted temperament features), and on mental states (for example, overcoming negative mental states with positively dominant motivation) and cognitive, emotional, volitional mental processes (in particular, high motivation In the development of thinking processes has no less valuethan abilities).

The direction along with the dominant motifs has other forms of course: value orientations, attachment, sympathy (antipathy), tastes, inclinations, etc. It is manifested not only in various formsbut in different areas vital activity of man. For example, we can talk about the directivity of the moral and political (liberal or conservative), professional ("humanitarian" or "technical") and household (person for home, for a family or "for friends and friends").

The direction of the individual is characterized by the level of maturity, breadth, intensity, stability and effectiveness.

Most psychologists believe that a person is not born, but becomes. However, in modern psychology there is no unified theory of formation and development of the individual. For example, a biogenetic approach (S. Hall, 3. Freud, etc.) considers the basis for the development of the personality of the biological processes of ripening of the body, Socyciage-necto (E. Torndayk, B. Skinner, etc.) - the structure of society, socialization methods, relationships with others etc., psychogenetic (J. Piaget, J. Kelly, etc.). - not denying neither biological, nor social factors, puts forward the development of actually mental phenomena. It is more correct, apparently, assume that the personality is not only the results of biological ripening or the matrix of specific living conditions, but the subject of active interaction with the medium in the course of which the individual gradually acquires (or does not acquire) personality features.

A developed person has a developed self-awareness. Subjectively, for an individual, personality acts as I ("image I", "I-Krps"), a system of ideas about himself, detecting itself in self-esteem, sense of self-esteem, levels of claims. The correlation of the image I am with the real circumstances of the life of the individual allows the personality to change their behavior and exercise the goals of self-education.

Personality is a largely sustainable education. The stability of the individual lies in the sequence and predictability of its behavior, in the patterns of its actions. But it should be borne in mind that the behavior of the person in certain situations is quite variable.

In those properties that were purchased, and not laid from birth (temperament, deposit), the personality is less stable, which allows it to adapt to various life circumstances, to the changing social conditions. Modification of views, settings, value orientation, etc. In such conditions, is the positive property of the personality, the indicator of its development. Typical example This is the change in the value orientation of the individual in the modern period, during the transition of Russia to the market economy.

2. Ability

Concept of abilities Let us turn to the consideration of other parties of the individual. In very general The abilities are the individual psychological features of the individual, ensuring success in activities, in communicating and ease of mastering them. Abilities cannot be reduced to knowledge, skills and skills in humans, but the ability to ensure their rapid acquisition, fixation and efficient practical use. Success in activities and communication is not determined by one, but by the system of various abilities, while they can be mutually permitted.

Exists whole line Classifications abilities. Reproduce one of them, the most significant:

1) Natural (or natural) abilities The basis of its biologically determined related to congenital deposits that are formed on them the database, in the presence of elementary life experience through the mechanisms for the learning type of conditional and reflex links);

2) Specific human abilities, having social and historical origins and providing life and development in social environment (General and special higher intellectual abilities based on the use of speech, logic, theoretical and practical, educational and creative). Specific human abilities in turn are divided into:

but) general, which are determined by the successes of a person in the most different types activities and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of the movements of hands, etc.), and special, Definition of man's successes in certain types of activities and communication, where a special kind of deposit is necessary and them Development (abilities of mathematical, technical, literary and linguistic, artistic and creative, sports, etc.). These abilities, as a rule, can complement and enrich each other, but each of them has its own structure;

b) theoretical determining the tendency of a person to abstract logical thinking, and practical underlying a tendency to specific practical actions. The combination of these abilities is characterized only by versatile gifted people;

in) educational which affect the success of the pedagogical impact, the assimilation of the human knowledge, skills, skills, the formation of personal qualities, and creative, associated with the success in creating works of material and spiritual culture, new ideas, discoveries, inventions. The highest degree of creative manifestations of the personality is called genius And the highest degree of personality abilities in certain activities (communication) - talent;

d) ability to communicate, interaction with people, and names - 1, but, human speech as a means of communication, the ability of perception and evaluation of people, socio-psychological adaptability to various settings, entry into contact with various people, arrange them to yourself, etc., and objectiveness, associated with the interaction of people with nature, technician, sign information, artistic images, etc.

A person who is capable of many and various activities and communication has a common gifted That is, the unity of common abilities caused by the range of its intellectual opportunities, the level and peculiarity of activity and communication.

Abilities, deposits and individual differences The vast majority of psychologists believe that Maxi - These are some genetically deterministic (congenital) anatomy-physiological features of the nervous system, which constitute an individually natural basis (prerequisite) of the formation and development of abilities. However, some of the scientists (for example, R. S. Nemov) believe that human has two types of deposits: congenital (natural) and acquired (social).

Individual (individual-psychological) differences - These are features of mental phenomena (processes, conditions and properties) that distinguish people from each other. Individual differences, the natural prerequisite of which the peculiarities of the nervous system, brain are created, are created and developed during life, in activities and communication, under the influence of education and training, in the process of human interaction with the world around the largest meaning of this word. Individual differences are subject to studying differential psychology.

Sometimes life depends on the reaction rate, but without extreme conditions, the ability to quickly respond to external events will be useful. Activate reactions and your movements will become coordinated and accurate.

The reaction is the brain ability to quickly respond to external stimuli. The reaction rate is the time that passes from the moment of action of the external stimulus to the reaction of the body on it.

At first, our senses perceive any irritant and react to it: the nerve impulses are transmitted from receptors (nerve endings) in the cerebral bark. Signal recognition is recognized here, their processing, classification and evaluation. Then the zone controlling the movement of the body is connected, and muscles turn into operation. Each such stage takes time.

All people have different reaction speed. There are also extremes when the behavior of some resembles slow motion, and the reaction of other lightning times. For example, the Japanese secretary MIIT for one minute puts 100 seals. The fastest shooter in the world of J. Mikulek for half awend makes 5 shots from the revolver. Japanese Makisum collects Rubik's cube for 12.5 seconds.

It is curious that the fastest muscular reaction is in cold-blooded animals. For example, Palm Salamander, who noticed the victim, throws his tongue at a speed of 15 m per second. Mongoshos have a rapid reaction - thanks to her, they deserved the fame of the best snake hunters. Lightning reaction and our favorite cats.

For a person, a quick reaction seemed to have lost their life in vital: he no longer needs to quickly dodge the paws of wild animals, so as not to be eaten, or, on the contrary, to hunt them to not stay without lunch.

However, it would be wrong to think that a quick reaction would be wrong. It is necessary athletes - football players, hockey players, tennis players, boxers, judoists, etc. And not only in order to put records, but also to avoid injuries. A fast response is required by representatives of many professions - pilots, drivers, captains, machinists, surgeons, etc. People with a rapid response are preferred by many employers, such as in areas where you need to respond quickly to market changes.

In fact, the fast response is needed to all in order to maximize themselves on the street and at home: to behave correctly in a critical situation carrying a threat to health or life.

The reaction rate is measured in MS - milliseconds. 1 second is 1,000 ms. The smaller this value is, the higher the reaction rate will be. Most people have 230-270 ms. Indicators from 270 ms and above indicate a slow reaction. Fighter pilots, sports stars show results 150 - 170 ms.

The fastest reaction in people aged from about 18 to 40 years. Its speed rises in the middle of the day - during the highest performance. In a tired person, it decreases. This may be unnoticed if the work does not require a quick response, but when making complex actions, the ability to make a mistake increases.

The reaction is slowed down and under the influence of alcohol and narcotic drugs. In addition, the mental state of humans is important: negative emotions depress nervous activity, which adversely affects its reactions, they are positive significantly accelerated.

The reaction rate also affects the type of stimulus: the fastest, people react to tactile and sound stimuli, somewhat slower - to visual.

How to become faster

There are several ways to learn to react faster:

1. Load the brain by work

In older people, the process of processing information coming into the brain from the senses, slows down. This happens in different reasons, Including because most of them cease to learn, do not seek to know the new and do not want to leave the comfort zone familiar to them. Idleness, viewing meaningless gears that do not make the brain strain, launch the process of identity degradation, affecting the reaction rate.

In order for the brain with time, it is not atrophy, it needs to constantly load work, to set new tasks before it, and then do not have to complain on a slower reaction.

2. Exclude bad habits

A person who is called "transmitted" is a false impression that under the influence of drunk he becomes more relaxed, free and able to concentrate and manage his behavior. But practice shows the opposite: due to the lack of a quick reaction, drunk are very often becoming victims of crime and participants in accidents.

3. Fuck out

It is impossible to constantly be in a state of maximum concentration and concentration. The failure will certainly come when we cannot respond to danger in time. Therefore, concentration periods should be alternate with relaxation periods. And a full sleep is a great opportunity to give the nervous system to "reboot", replenish its energy reserves. In addition, with a lack of sleep, visual acuity is reduced, which also negatively affects the reaction rates.

4. Control emotions

First of all, you need to learn not to succumb to fear. On the one hand, fear signals the danger. On the other hand, it does not mobilize a person, and inhibits the process of processing information in the brain. Many familiar feeling when a person feels like a person who is paralyzed and cannot move away from the place. Its reactions are slowed down, and it is not able to give an adequate answer. It is possible to respond correctly and quickly to the irritant in the absence of fear.

Thanks to special training that bear the semantic load, that is, imitating the danger in real life, you can get rid of some fears and acquire skills rapid responsethat will be suitable in a difficult situation.

For example, the sound of a click made by a partner can simulate a shot and serve as a signal to the fact that you need to quickly bounce aside, go back or fall to the ground. The effect should be sudden - we should not control the stimulus, that is, the actions of a partner.

Get rid of fear, in particular drops with ice, will help the pre-developed "plan". For example, falling on the back, we must quickly press the chin to the chest, so as not to injure your head. We can lose your actions in this case mentally. This will speed up our reaction, thanks to what if you still fall, then avoid injury.

5. Played

Games in football, volleyball, table and tennis are perfectly developing a quick reaction, so it costs to choose the one that souls and start playing. You can enjoy juggling.

It is curious that the reaction rate is developing and computer games - It was proved by scientists of one of the American universities. During the experiment, players showed high results on rapid decision-making not only in the game itself, but also in tests for determining the reaction rate.

6. Training

Exercises will be appropriate only if they are carried out daily, and not from time to time.

Our subconscious, intuitive reactions (responsible for them right hemisphere brain) faster conscious, analytical, which left hemisphere. The huge role of the latter is undoubted, but in critical moments the first reacts subconscious. And since it is precisely it that it is possible to train the reaction speed, it is possible to train the reaction rate, repeating the same movements to 200 at a time.

Getting Started to training, it is worth it for which it is we will increase the reaction rate: for rumor, touch or visual stimulus. Initially, they are better divided, and only then train all together.

We train the rate of hearing reaction. For example, two sit at the table where there is some object. The third goes around them and suddenly slams his hands. On this signal, everyone should strive to first grab this item.

We train the reaction rate to touch. The one who is training should not see his coach (you can tie your eyes). One person sits at the table, the second, whom he does not see, should suddenly touch his shoulder. In response, he should clap his hands, jump to the side, etc.

We train the speed of the visual reaction. It is very important because most of the information enters the brain through vision.

Playing in "clappers". Two becomes against each other, both hands bent in the elbows and raised, palms are deployed toward a partner. One hits with his palm on the palm of the other. His task is to guess and remove the hand on which the partner wants to hit.

As an option: the hands of both lie on the table in front of them. Everyone is trying to cover the hand with one hand with one hand, and he should have time to take her back.

By the way, these games are familiar with many childhood.

But, of course, the most efficient way to increase the reaction rate is to engage in team sports, tennis or martial arts.

Abilities understood as individually stable properties of mandefining its successes in various activities. Temperament Includes qualities that depend on the reaction of a person on other people and social circumstances. Character Contains qualities that determine the acts of a person against other people. Village qualities Encompass several special personal properties affecting a person's desire to achieve their goals. Emotions and motivation - this is respectively experiencing and prompting to activities, and Social Installations - convictions and relationships of people.

Observing B. general features Essence of the individual, we can proceed to the consideration of some myths about it.

There is a famous psychological test called "Who am I?" . From a person required in five minutes to write on a piece of paper as much characteristics as possible, giving an answer to the question "Who am I?". These characteristics are the most interesting material for analyzing what a person sees in itself (from the inside) and what he sees himself (from the outside). Stripping from these self-describing, it will be extremely convenient to consider "from which" personality.

Quite often meets extremely general characteristics: who am I? - "Man", "Personality". There is no doubt that humanity is fundamentally one and people are united, that is, all of them binds the total human essence, Human nature, belonging to humanity, and it is more substantially than what distinguishes them, disconnects. Anyone can tell another person a famous killepsive phrase: "We are with you one blood - you and me."

There are and, on the contrary, the characteristics are purely individual. In the analysis of this kind of characteristics, we will not go into the analysis: to write a detailed description on any person, including a plurality of its individual damasks is very easy, but to systematize these dashes is much more difficult.

Based on the purposes that were formulated at the very beginning of this section, first of all, it should be focused on what unites people among themselves and that they simultaneously distinguishes, that is, on some common characteristics that are not inherent to everyone, but more than one person .

From this kind of characteristics, first of all, typological "shortcuts" should be called. To glue on themselves and on other shortcuts is one of our most favorite ways to know the person. In self-describing, this is one of the favorite ways to answer the question "Who am I?", And in everyday life - the question "Who are you?". When we describe ourselves and others with such labels, we refer yourself to others to some kind of types.

Introduction

The problem of which will be discussed, occupies humanity for more than two and a half millennia. With the concept of "temperament", each person meets early. After all, in childhood, we notice that there are individual differences between us - someone more movable and persistent, and someone is slow and shy. It is in these features that the temperament is manifested.

The temperament is manifested in any form (game, educational, labor), in gait, in gestures and behavior in general. It includes qualities that depend on the reaction of a person on other people and social circumstances - the ability to quickly turn on to work, perseverance, sociability, the speed of change of moods, patient. The temperament is the dynamic characteristic of the person and the mental rhythm and the tempo, the speed of feelings and their stability depend on it.

The temperament relates to the number of psychological concepts that "everyone knows". Giving the characteristics with your friends, we also use the names of various temperaments - about one assert: "Typical choleric", by another "sanguine", the third - "phlegmatic", the fourth - "melancholic". Yes, and we usually relate to one of the four categories.

Relevance. Currently, a holistic approach to the study of man is carried out in psychology. A person is considered by both the universal properties inherent in him, and from his unique personality. And the individuality is manifested in the features of temperament, character, habits that prevail the interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), etc. Therefore, in order to know a person, you need to consider all the features, the most important of which is temperament, because it is a biological foundation, on which the personality is formed as a social being, and the properties of the personality caused by temperament are the most stable and long-term.

The object of research is a person.

The subject of the study is temperament and its types.

The main purpose of this is term paper It is to consider the history of study and the main types of temperament.

To solve the goal, the following tasks are set in operation:

1. Consider the main approaches and theory of study of temperament;

2. Give overall characteristics The concept of "temperament";

3. Consider the main properties and temperament types.

History of study of temperament

Teaching about temperaments arose in antiquity. The word "temperament" (from the lat. Temperans) in Latin denotes the "proper ratio of parts", equal to it by the value of the Greek word "complicated" (Dr.-Greek. Kption, "Merge, mixing") introduced an ancient Greek Hippocrates doctor. He believed that the world was formed from the four elements and the human body also represents a mixture of four principles, but connected in a certain proportion. Variations in the proportion of elements in individual people are directly associated with hippocrates with four-type fluid available in the body (blood, mucus, yellow and black bile). The degree of predominance of any liquid in this mixture causes the main four types of people:

1. Sanguines, people with blood predominance in a common mixture. They are characterized by an excellent physique, high mobility, readiness, insufficient love of work, a tendency to enjoy;

2. choleric, people with yellow bile dominance, have a well-developed body and muscle, energetic, active, hard character, proud, more capable for arts and military affairs;

3. FLEGMATS, people with a predominance of mucus, loose physique, sluggish littlective, drowsy, do not have the subtlety of the feelings necessary for classes by art and science, no hard work and will;

4. Melancholics, people with a predominance of black bile, gloomy with a dyed character.

Roman Anatas and Doctor of Claudius Galen, for the first time gave a detailed classification of different temperament types, based on the same humoral representations of the hippocrat. It included 13 types, including those mentioned above. True, the psychological characteristic of these types of temperament in Galen was poor, but over time more and more expanded.

The development in the era of the revival of anatomy and physiology led to innovations in explaining the types of temperament. They were more and more tied with the features of the body structure. For example, a number of scientists, in addition to the physical properties of the blood, laid the separation of the difference in tissues and the width width of the vessels. Light blood, loose fabrics and moderately extended vessels facilitate the thoughts of these scientists, the flow of vital processes and generate a sanguine temperament. With a significant density in the tissues, blood is delayed in vessels, the pulse becomes stronger and faster, the total heat of the body increases - it creates choleric temperament. With dense blood and narrow vessels in the fabric, only liquid, water-bearing part of blood occurs, due to which the phlegmatic temperament is born. Finally, dense, dark blood with narrow pores of the tissues and the wide lumen of vessels leads to the formation of melancholic temperament.

Close to this theory was the point of view I.Kanta, which believed that the natural base of temperament is the individual characteristics of the blood. Immanuel Kant gave a formal description of the four types of temperament, which he divided into two groups. Sanguine and melancholic types were considered as a feeling temperature, and choleric and phlegmatic - as the action temperatures. This theory has been preserved to end XIX. - early XX. For example, P.F.Lesgaf, the Russian teacher Anatom and the doctor, believed that in the origin of temperaments, the latitude of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of the vessels plays a very important role; Holeriks have a small lumen and thick walls, which leads to a rapid and strong blood flow, the Sanguines - small lumen and thin walls, which contributes to rapid and weak blood flow, etc.

Another anatomical direction in explanation of the temperament types concerned the structure of the central nervous system, since it is the brain that the brain is closely associated with those psychological featureswhich characterize different temperaments.

So, Albrecht Galler, the founder of experimental physiology, which introduced important for physiology and psychology, the concept of excitability and sensitivity, argued that the main factor of differences in temperament is the excitability of the blood vessels themselves through which blood passes. His student of the city of Allberg tied the temperament directly with the peculiarities of the nervous system. In his opinion, choleric-sanguine is due to a large brain, "strong and thick nerves" and the high excitability of the senses. For people with phlegmatic melancholic temperament, a small brain is characterized, "thin nerves" and low excitability of the senses.

I.gen suggested the theory of temperaments based on the "tone" of nervous and muscle systems. From the point of view of this scientist, the tone of the nervous system different people Spilled. What it is more, the easier the person is excited. The low degree of tone is characteristic of phlegmatic - this causes the overall lethargy of movements, emotional I am not excitability, the weakness of the Mimic. Sanguines and cholerics are characterized by easy excitability, but the first initiation takes place quickly, and the second it remains longer. The melancholic temperament is characterized, from the point of view of the gene, inconsistency between strong, deep feelings and a poorly developed tendency to activities.

Close to this theory attempt to French philosopher A.Fulie, build the theory of temperaments based on the exercise of the metabolism in the body. The fact that Genla calls the tone of the nervous system, according to Fulia, is reduced to a greater or less tension of the decay processes and the restoration of substances in body tissues, especially in the central nervous system. According to Ful, in some cases the processes of the decay of energy sources prevail, in others - the processes of recovery. Sanguine temperament is characterized by the predominance of recovery, fast, but weak and short reaction. Melancholic - the predominance of the restoration of the nerve, slow, but strong and prolonged reaction. For choleric temperament, a quick and strong decay is characterized, and for a phlegmatic slow and weak breakdown of the nervous substance.

A number of scientists in our country also adhered to a humoral and endocrine theory of origin of temperament types. P.P.Blovsky believed that the peculiarities of human behavior depends on how strongly the sympathetic and parasympathetic departments of the vegetative nervous system are working. Vagatonics are slow and calm. Sympathicotonics, on the contrary, impulsive, decisive.

Gradually, among scientists, the conviction was increasingly fortunate that the properties of temperament most clearly manifest themselves in those forms of behavior that are directly related to the energy waste of the body - with the methods of accumulation and spending of energy and the quantitative characteristics of these processes. Therefore, most temperament researchers paid attention primarily to the emotional and motor reactions of the individual, especially emphasizing their intensity and time flow. The classic example of this approach can serve as the Typology of temperaments proposed by V.Vundt. He understood the temperament as a predisposition to the affect - this representation found an expression in the following thesis: temperament for emotion is the same as excitability - for sensation.

Adhering to such a look, V.Vundt allocated two bipolar properties of temperament: the force and speed of change of emotion, thereby emphasizing the importance of the energy characteristics of the individual. Strong emotional reactions in combination with emotional instability form choleric temperament, a small force of emotional reactions in combination with their instability - a sanguine temperature, etc.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. A concept formed, according to which there is a link between the physique and temperament properties. Such typologies were called constitutional typologies. Among them, the Tyology proposed by E. Srecmer was the most common. He argued that the type of physique determines the mental features of people and their predisposition to the relevant mental illness. After measuring the parts of the body of people, E. Curchmer allocated four constitutional type.

1. Leptosomomatics. It has a cylindrical shape of the body, brittle physique, high growth, the chest is flat. Shoulders are narrow, lower limbs are long, bones and muscles are thin.

2. Picnic. He is characterized by excessive obesity, small or medium height, big belly, round head on a short neck.

3. Athletic. It has a good muscles, large physique, high or medium height, wide shoulders and narrow thighs.

4. Dysplastics. His structure is shapeless, incorrect. Individuals of this type are characterized by various deformations of the physique.

With the names of the body structure, the Krechmer correlates three temperament type allocated by him:

1. Schizotic. It has a leptosomatic or asthenic physique. Closed, prone to oscillations of emotions, stubborn. With difficulty adapts to the surrounding, prone to abstraction.

2. Cyclotimik. It has a picnic physique. Emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness. Easily contact with the environment, realistic in the views.

3. Xotimik. Has athletic physique. Calm, unprepared person, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty.

A few later in the United States gained popularity The concept of temperament, nominated by U.Selondon, which was formulated in the 1940s. At the heart of Sheldon's representations lies the assumption that the body structure determines the temperament serving its function. They were allocated three types:

1. endomorphic. The endoderma is formed mainly internal organs. The physique is relatively weak, with an excess of adipose tissue.

2. Mesomorphic. From representatives this type A well developed muscular system that is formed from the Mesoderm. Persistent strong body, has a big mental stability and power.

3. EXTORPHY. From ectoderma, skin and nervous fabric develops. The organism of fragile and thin, the chest is flattened. Relatively weak development internal organs and physique. Limbs are long, thin with weak muscles.

According to Sheldon, these types of buildings correspond to certain types of temperaments, named by it, depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: VisceroTonics (Lat.Viscera - "insides"), somatotonic (Greek. Soma - "body"), cerebrum (lat. Cerebrum - " brain").

However, the typology of E. Srecmer and U.Seldon were criticized even from adherents of constitutional temperament concepts. Critics indicated their excessive static and ignoring changes in the relationship between the psyche and the structure of the body; They paid attention to the fact that these theories did not give a satisfactory explanation of the dependence between the physique and temperament.

An attempt to translate the teachings about the types of temperament to the new scientific basis was taken by I.P. Pavlov, who in the publication for 1927 began to understand the type of higher than temperament nervous activity. It allocated three basic properties of the nervous system:

1. The strength of the process of excitation and braking, depending on the performance of nerve cells;

2. The equilibrant of the nervous system, i.e. The degree of compliance of the force of excitation of the power of braking (or their balance);

3. Mobility of nerve processes, i.e. The speed of shifting the excitation of braking and vice versa.

The excitation force reflects the working capacity of the nervous cell. It is manifested in functional endurance, i.e. In the ability to withstand a long or short-term, but strong excitement, without moving in the opposite state of braking.

The braking force is understood as the functional performance of the nerve cell when the braking is implemented and manifests itself in the ability to form various brakes conditional reactions, such as fading and differentiation.

Speaking about the equilibiousness of nervous processes, Pavlov had in view of the equilibrium of excitation and braking processes. The ratio of the strength of both processes decides whether this individual is balanced or unbalanced, when the strength of one process exceeds the strength of another.

The mobility of nerve processes is manifested in the speed of the transition of one nervous process to another. The mobility of nerve processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with the changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from the passive state to active, and vice versa. The opposite of mobility is the inertness of nerve processes. The nervous system is all the more inert, the more time or effort is required to move from one process to another.

I.P. Pavlov found out that the combination of the properties of the nervous system, which determines the individual features of conditionally reflex activity and temperament, it called the type of nervous system, or the type of nervous activity.

I.P. Pavlov distinguished 4 main types of nervous system:

1. Strong, balanced, movable ("live" on Pavlov - Sanguine temperament);

2. Strong, balanced, inert ("calm" on Pavlov - phlegmatic temperament);

3. Strong, unbalanced type with the predominance of the excitation process ("unrestrained" type, on Pavlov - choleric temperament);

4. Weak type ("weak", on Pavlov - melancholic temperament).

I.P. Pavlov understood the type of nervous system as congenital, relatively poorly subject to change under the influence of the environment and education.

Significant contribution to the development of temperament theory in patriotic psychology She made BMPlov. His work devoted to the study of the properties of temperament was determined not only modern look The problem of temperament, but also appeared the basis for the development of further experimental studies of temperament. Heat referred to the properties of temperament stable mental properties characterizing the dynamics of mental activity. Individual features of temperament he explained different levels development of certain properties of temperament (emotional excitability, attitability of attention, power of emotions, anxiety, etc.)

Famous psychophysiologist V.M. RUSALOV based on the concept of the properties of the nervous system proposed in the late 1980s. Your interpretation of temperament properties. RUSALAS, based on the theory of the functional system P.K.Anokhin, which includes four blocks - storage, circulation and processing of information (a block of afferent synthesis), programming (decision-making), execution and feedback - allocated four associated temperament properties corresponding to the breadth or narrowness of afferent synthesis (the degree of tension of the body's interaction with the medium), ease of switching from one behavior program to another, the speed of execution of the current behavior program and sensitivity to the incompatibility of the actual result with its acceptor.

In accordance with two parameters of temperament - activity and sensitivity - already four components were allocated: ergiticulture (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotion (sensitivity). All of these components of temperament, according to Rusalov, biologically and genetically determined. So, temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, should be understood as the main characteristics functional systemsproviding integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, the entire nervous system as a whole.

From the point of view of this concept, temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense of the word that its properties are not completely congenital nor dependent on the environment.

So, according to Rusalov, the psychological characteristic of temperament is not themselves the properties of the nervous system or their combination, but the typical features of the flow of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate.

It can be concluded that there is no single point of view of the natural bases of temperament and its types. But modern scientists are still converged in the following. First of all, they believe that the type of temperament is determined not by the combination of those three simple properties of the nervous system, which Pavlov spoke, and many diverse properties. They also recognize that a person can possess and exercise in work, in communication - different types of temperament. And the organic base of temperament is some features of the human genotype, on whom the properties of the nervous system depend.

Abilitiesit is understood as individually sustainable human properties that define its successes in various activities.

Temperamentincludes qualities that depend on the reaction of a person on other people and social circumstances. A complex of individual-typological properties of its nervous system in the first place in the first place determines the temperament, on which the individual activity style depends on.

Charactercontains qualities that determine the acts of a person against other people. Village qualitiesencompass several special personal properties affecting a person's desire to achieve their goals.

Emotions and motivation -this, respectively, experiences and motivating to activities, and with oral installations- convictions and relationships of people.

Types of temperament

Temperament is called a set of properties characterizing the dynamic features of the flow of mental processes and human behavior, their strength, speed, occurrence, termination and change. The properties of temperament to the number of personality qualities of a person can only be attributed conditionally, they rather make up its individual characteristics, as they are mainly due and congenital. Nevertheless, temperament has a significant impact on the formation of the nature and behavior of a person, sometimes determines its actions, its individuality, so it is impossible to completely separate the temperament from personality. He acts as a link between the organism, personality and cognitive processes.

The idea and teaching about temperament in their origins go back to the works of an ancient Greek doctor of hippocrat. He described the main types of temperament, gave them characteristics, but connected temperament not with the properties of the nervous system, but with the ratio of various liquids in the body: blood, lymphs and bile. The first classification of temperaments suggested Galen, and it reached the present day in a relatively low-changed form. The last of its known descriptions, which is also used in modern psychology, belongs to the German philosopher I.Kanta. We will use it.

I.Kanti shared human temperatures (the manifestation of temperament can be seen from higher animals) into two types: the temperatures of feelings and temperaments of activity. In general, "you can install only four simple temperaments: Sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic" 1. Of these four types of temperament to the temperaments of feelings include the Sanguine and its opposite - melancholic. The first is characterized by the fact that when it sensations arise in the nervous system and in the consciousness of a person quite quickly and externally appear strongly, but internally there are not enough deep and long. With melancholic temperament, the external manifestations of sensations 2 are less bright, but internally deeply and durable.

Sanguicious temperament of activity characterizes a person very cheerful in the lava. It seems an optimist, complete hopes, humorist, joker, hubler. He quickly flammifies, but it is as quickly cooled, loses interest in the fact that he quite recently worried him very much and attracted to himself. Sanguine promises a lot, but does not always hold back his promises. It is easily and with pleasure enters into contacts with strangers, is a good interlocutor, all people are friends. It is distinguished by the kindness, willingness to come to the rescue. Stressful mental or physical work is quickly tired.

Melancholic temperament of activity, according to Cant, is peculiar to the person of the opposite, mostly dark mood. Such a person usually lives a challenging and intense inner life, attaches great importance to everything that concerns it, he has increased anxiety and vulnerable soul. Such a person is often restrained and especially controls itself when issuing promises. He never promises that it is not able to do, quite suffers from the fact that it cannot fulfill this promise, even if its execution directly depends on it.

Choleric temperament of activity characterizes a hot-tempered person. About such a person they say that he is too hot, inconsistent. At the same time, such an individual cool down and calms down, if he is inferior, go to meet. His movements of gusts, but short.

Phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. He expresses itself more likely to inactivity than tense, active work. Such a person slowly comes to the state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces him the slowness of entering the work.

Note that in this classification of temperaments across the Kant, properties relating not only to the dynamic features of the psyche and human behavior, but also to the nature of the typical actions performed by them are repeatedly mentioned. This is not by chance, since in the psychology of an adult, it is difficult to divide the temperament and character. In addition, the properties of the temperament exist and manifest themselves in themselves, but in the actions of a person in various socially significant situations. The human temperament definitely affects the formation of its nature, but the character itself expresses man not as much as physical as a spiritual being.

Each of the presented temperament types in itself is neither good nor bad (if not to bind temperament and character). Manifesting in the dynamic features of the psyche and human behavior, each type of temperament can have their advantages and disadvantages. Sanguine temperament people have a quick response, easily and soon adapt to changing living conditions, have increased health, especially in the initial period of work, but by the end reduce performance due to rapid fatigue and falling interest. On the contrary, those who are peculiar to the temperament of melancholic type are characterized by slow entry into operation, but also greater exposure. Their performance is usually higher in the middle or by the end of the work, and not at the beginning. In general, the performance and quality of work in Sanguits and Melancholics are about the same, and the differences relate mainly to the dynamics of work in different periods.

The choleric temperament has that dignity, which allows you to focus significant efforts in a short period of time. But when long work A person with such temperament does not always have enough exposure. Phlegmatics, on the contrary, are not able to quickly collect and concentrate efforts, but instead they have a valuable ability to work for a long time and hard to achieve, achieving the goal. The type of human temperament must be taken into account where the work makes special requirements for the specified dynamic features of activity.

Telerament properties

TOthe properties of temperament include those distinctive individual signs of a person who determine the dynamic aspects of all its activities, characterize the features of the flow of mental processes, have more or less sustainable nature, are preserved for a long time, manifesting themselves shortly after birth (after the central nervous The system acquires specifically human forms). It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system that we have considered in the previous chapter of the textbook, discussing the problems of abilities.

The Soviet psychophysiologist V.M.Rrualov, relying on the new concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed on its basis a more modern interpretation of temperament properties 1. Based on the theory of the functional system of P. Kanokhin, which includes four blocks of storage, circulation and processing information (a block of afferent synthesis, programming (decision-making), execution and feedback), RUSALs allocated four associated properties of temperaments that are responsible for latitude or narrowness of afferent synthesis (degree of intensity of the body's interaction with the environment), ease of switching from one behavior program to another, the speed of execution of the current behavior program and sensitivity to the invertisement of the actual result with its acceptor.

In accordance with this, the traditional psycho-physiological estimate of the temperament changes and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - includes already four components: ergiticulture (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotion (sensitivity). All of these components of temperament, according to V.M.Rrualov, biologically and genetically due to. The temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, are understood as the main characteristics of functional systems that provide integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain, the entire nervous system as a whole.

Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense of the word that its properties are not completely innocent or dependent on the environment. They, according to the author, are "systemic generalization" of the initially genetically defined individual-biological properties of the person, which, "Champion in the most different types Activities are gradually transformed and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new individually stable system of invariant properties "1.

In accordance with the two main types of human activity - object activities and communication - each of the dedicated temperament properties should be considered separately, since it is assumed that they are manifested in different ways.

Another circumstance that characterizes the connection of temperament with the properties of the nervous system should be paid attention. The psychological characteristic of temperament is not themselves the properties of the nervous system or their combination, but the typical features of the flow of mental processes and behavior that these properties generate.

Consider these properties in relation to cognitive processes, subject activity and human communication. The corresponding properties can include activity, productivity, excitability, brakesiness and switching.

The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, accordingly, as far as a person is able to focus, concentrate their attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a specific object or its aspect. The pace is manifested how quickly the corresponding mental processes work. For example, one person remembers, recalls, considers, represents, thinks over solving the problem faster than the other.

The productivity of all listed cognitive processes can be estimated by their products, according to the results obtained over a certain period of time. Productivity is higher there, where in the same time it is possible to see more, hear, remember, remember, submit, decide. Do not mix productivity with efficiency. A person who has highly productive (in the specified sense of the word) cognitive processes, does not necessarily have increased health, i.e. Skill for a long time maintain a given pace of work.

Empathy, brakesiness and switching characterize the speed of the occurrence, termination or switching of a cognitive process from one object to another, transition from one action to another. For example, one people need more than others, time to engage in mental work or switch with reflections over one topic on another. Some people faster remember information or recall it than others. It should also be borne in mind that the specified differences do not determine the abilities of people.

In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the associated movements. They have an active person instinctively wider than that of less active. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports generates athlete wider and strong movements included in various exercises than that of whom this property of temperament is weakly expressed. A more active person has a more swollen handwriting, his letters are higher, and the distance between them is more significantly than in a less active individual. A person with increased activity is harder than the fulfillment of weak, thin, small movement amplitudes, while a person with reduced activity is harder to perform strong and squeezed movements.

The pace of work in subject activity is determined by the number of operations, actions, movements performed per unit of time. One person prefers to work in fast, the other - at a slow pace.

The productivity of actions related to movements depends on the activity and tempo of work, if no additional requirements, except for frequency and intensity, are not presented to the appropriate action.

In communication of people, the discussed properties of temperament are manifested in a similar way, only in this case they relate to the verbal and non-verbal interaction of a person with a person. In an individual with increased activity, Mimic, gestures, pantomimics are more pronounced than a person with reduced activity. More active people have, as a rule, and a stronger voice. The pace of their speech, as well as the pace of emotionally expressive movements, is quite high.

Significantly varies the style of communication in highly and weakly excited people. The first react faster, easier come into contact, better adapt in communication than the second. The braking individuals are easier to stop communicating, less word-powered than those whose brake reactions are slow. These latter are often distinguished by the fact that they say a lot, they do not let go of the interlocutor and create an impression of annoyance. They hardly switch to communicate from one topic to another, from one person to another. "Productivity" of their communication, i.e. The ability to inform and perceive information per unit of time, also more than that of people of the opposite type - a low-effective and possessing a low pace.

Temperament and individual activity style

A certain combination of properties of temperament, manifested in cognitive processes, actions and communication of a person, determines its individual activity style. It represents a system-dependent dynamic feature activity that contains work techniques typical for of this person.

Individual style of activity is not reduced to temperament, it is determined by other reasons, includes skills and skills formed under the influence of life experience. The individual style of activity can be viewed as a result of the adaptation of the congenital properties of the nervous system and the characteristics of the human body to the conditions of operation. This device should ensure the achievement of the best results in the lowest costs.

The fact that we, watching a person perceive as signs of its temperament (a variety of movements, reactions, forms of behavior), is often a reflection of not so much temperament as an individual activity, whose features can coincide and disperse with temperament.

The nucleus of an individual activity is determined by the complex of the properties of the nervous system. Among those features that belong to the individual style of activity, two groups can be distinguished:

1. Acquired in the experiment and bear compensatory in relation to the disadvantages of the individual properties of the human nervous system.

2. Promoting the maximum use of human and abilities available in humans, including the useful properties of the nervous system.

Temperament and personality

Personality and temperament are related in such a way that temperament acts as the overall basis of many other personal properties, primarily character. It, however, determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personal properties.

From temperament, such properties of the individual, as impressionable, emotionality, impulsiveness and anxiety are dependent. An impressionability is the force of exposure to a person of various incentives, the time of their conservation in memory and the reaction force on them. The same incentives for an impressionable person have a greater impact than not enough impressionable. An impressionable person, moreover, remember the appropriate effect longer and retains the reaction to them longer. Yes, and the power of the appropriate reaction is significantly larger than that of a less impressionable individual.

Emotionality is the speed and depth of the emotional reaction of a person to certain events. The emotional man attaches great significance to what happens to him and around him. He has much more than a non-modest person, all sorts of bodily reactions associated with emotions are expressed. Emotional individual is the one who is almost never calm, is constantly in the authority of any emotions, in a state of increased arousal or, on the contrary, depressed.

The impulsivity is manifested in the incontinence of reactions, in their spontaneity and appearance before a person has time to consider the current situation and take a reasonable decision on how to act in it. The impulsive man reacts first, and then he thinks whether he came correctly, often regrets the premature and irregular reactions.

Anxious person is different from the small fact that he has too often associated with concern emotional experiences: fear, fears, fears. It seems to him that much of what surrounds him, carries a threat to his own "I". Anxious person is afraid of everything: unfamiliar people, phone calls, exams, tests, official institutions, public speeches, etc. The combination of the properties described and creates an individual type of temperament, so, describing it, we did not accidentally have forced from time to time to retreat dynamic descriptions and include in them characterical personal qualities. Those manifestations of temperament, which ultimately become personality properties depend on learning and education, from culture, customs, traditions, much more.

The temperament to some extent affects the development of human abilities, especially those that include movements with their essential characteristics, such as the pace, reaction rate, excitability and inhibormability. First of all, these are the abilities that include complex and accurate movements with a difficult trajectory and uneven tempo in their composition. These also include abilities associated with increased performance, interference resistance, endurance, the need for a long concentration of attention.

Character - This is a combination of sustainable features defining the attitude of a person to people to work performed. The character is manifested in the activities and communication (as well as temperament) and includes what gives the behavior of a person specific, characteristic of it (hence the name "character").

The character can be found in the peculiarities of the person who prefers to engage. Some people prefer the most difficult and difficult activities, for them gives pleasure to seek and overcome obstacles; Others choose the simplest, trouble-free paths. For some substantially, with what results did they fulfill one or another work, whether other people succeeded. For the rest, this may be indifferent, and they are satisfied with the fact that they coped with the work no worse than others, having achieved mediocre quality.

In communication with people, the character of a person is manifested in the behavior's manner, in the way of responding to actions and actions of people. The trigger manner can be more or less delicate, tactful or unceremonious, polite or rude. The character, unlike temperament, is due to not so many properties of the nervous system, how much culture of man, its upbringing.

The character of a person is what determines its significant deeds, and not random reactions to certain incentives or established circumstances. A person's act with character is almost always conscious and respectable, can be explained and justified, at least from the position of the acting person. Speaking about the character, we usually invest in the idea of \u200b\u200bit the ability of a person to behave independently, consistently, regardless of the circumstances, showing their will and perseverance, dedication and perseverance. The inactive man in this sense is the one who does not show similar qualities in any activity or in communication with people, floats through the flow, dependent on the circumstances, is managed by them.

In its formation, development and functioning, the nature of the person is closely associated with temperament. The latter is a dynamic side of character. The character, as well as temperament, is sufficiently stable and little changeable.

There is a division of the person's personality traits on motivation and instrumental. Motivationalprompted, send activities, support it, and instrumentalgive her a certain style. Character can be attributed to the number of instrumental personal properties. It does not depend anything from it, but the manner of performing activities. True, as it was said, the character may appear in the choice of the goal of action. However, when the goal is determined, the character performs more in its instrumental role, i.e. as a means of achieving the goal.

We list the main features of the person, which are part of the character of a person. First, these are the properties of the person, which determine the actions of a person in choosing the goals of activity (more or less difficult). Here, as certain characteristic features, rationality, calculation or opposite qualities may appear. Secondly, the structure of the character includes features that relate to actions aimed at achieving the goals set: perseverance, purposefulness, sequence and others, as well as alternative to them (as evidence of a lack of character). In this regard, the character comes closer not only with temperament, but also with the will of man. Thirdly, the composition of the character includes purely instrumental traits directly related to temperament: extroversion-introversion, calm-anxiety, restraint-impulsiveness, switch-rate-rigidity, etc. The peculiar combination of all these character traits in one person allows him to attribute it to defined type. In the next section of chapters, we will look at the typology of characters.

Typology of characters

Attempts to build typology of characters have been repeatedly undertaken throughout the history of psychology. One of the most famous and early of them was the one that was also offered at the beginning of our century a German psychiatrist and psychologist E. Srecmer. A few later, a similar attempt was made by his American colleague U. Sheddon, and in our days - E.Fromm, Cleurongard, A.ELichko and a number of other scientists.

All the typologies of human characters proceeded from a number of general ideas. The main ones are as follows:

1. The character of a person is formed pretty early in ontogenesis and throughout his rest shows itself as more or less stable.

2. Those combinations of personal traits that are included in the character of a person are not random. They form clearly distinguishable types, allowing to identify and build typology of characters.

3. Most of People in accordance with this typology can be divided into groups.

E. Curchmer allocated and described the three most commonly found type of body structure or the human constitution: asthenic, athletic and picnic. Each of them, he tied up with a special type of character (it was subsequently that the author had not had due scientific grounds for this).

1. Asthenictype, according to the creammera, characterizes a small thickness of the body into the profile with an average or above average growth. Asthenik is usually thin and thin man, because of your hush, seemingly somewhat higher than it really is. Asthenica has thin skin and body skin, narrow shoulders, thin hands, an elongated and flat thoracic cell with a weak muscles and weak fat savings. Such is the main characteristic of the age-male. Women of this type, in addition, often and Malorosla.

2. Athleticthe type is of characteristic highly developed skeleton and muscles. Such a person is usually medium or high height, with broad shoulders, a powerful chest. He has a dense, high head.

3. Picanicthe type is characterized by highly developed internal cavities of the body (head, chest, abdomen), a tendency to obesity with underdeveloped muscles and a musculoskeletal system. Such a middle-height person with a short neck sitting between the shoulders.

The type of body structure, as was also shown by the Krechmer and partly confirmed by the latest studies in the field of psychogenetics, correlates in a certain way with a tendency to mental diseases. For example, people with extremely pronounced picnic features often suffer from manic-depressively psychosis. Schizophrenic diseases are more prone to asthenics and athletics.

Diseases, according to Krechmar, are "caricatures of certain normal types of personality" 1. That type normal people, which in his psychological features resembles schizophrenics, Krechmer called "Shizo-Timny"; Those who resemble patients with manic-depressive psychosis, "cyclotimics". Schizoticomicians are characterized by such character traits such as the aristocraticity and subtlety of feelings, a tendency to distract to reflections and alienation, coldness, selfishness and abundance, dryness and lack of emotions. "Cyclotimics" are described by him as people with cheerfulness, cuteness, carelessness, implacing, energetic, tendency to humor and light perception of life.

Although the typology of Krechemer was built as a speculative, it contained a number of vital observations. Subsequently really found that people with specific type Body structure has a tendency to diseases that are accompanied by accentuations of the corresponding character traits. Later classifications of characters were built mainly on the descriptions of these accentuations. One of them belongs to the famous domestic psychiatrist A.elichko. This classification is built on the basis of observations of adolescents.