The ancient streets of Rome hide in their depths another city filled with mysterious labyrinths and dark dungeons. These are the catacombs. They stretch under the city for a hundred kilometers. Archaeologists have discovered dozens of branched systems of corridors and niches. Only a small part of them are open for excursions, and those that are open are very popular with travelers.
The underground history of Christianity
It is generally believed that the catacombs are a network of underground tunnels, formed by work in quarries or built as bomb shelters. But this is a misconception. Initially, catacombs were called underground galleries used for the burial of the dead and for holding religious ceremonies in small chapels. The practice of burying the dead in the catacombs existed in Rome until the fourth century. During this time, about 750 thousand people were buried in them.
Catacombs are underground labyrinths made in easily workable porous rock (tuff). On both sides of the corridors there are small rooms containing several graves. They are called cubicles. Initially, this word meant a sleeping place in the house of the Romans. Cubicles were family crypts, in which the tombs of wealthy citizens were located. Those who could not afford individual cubes were buried in narrow niches along the sides of the main corridors.
Catacombs of the Holy Martyr Sebastian (Catacombe di San Sebastiano)
The Roman catacombs were used during pagan times, and from the second century they began to bury followers of Christ. Curious in this respect is the burial place of the early Christian martyr Sebastian. An interesting transition can be traced in it: pagan inscriptions and images are replaced by Christian symbols. Here, in frightening silence, is the crypt of a Roman legionary, persecuted for his faith and condemned to death. Currently, the relics of Sebastian rest in the church named after him. In the fourth century, it was erected over the catacombs.
According to legend, the relics of Paul and Peter, disciples and followers of Jesus, were buried here. They were executed by Roman soldiers in the first century. The silent walls retained the inscription that "the saints rested here."
Situated: via Appia Antica 136, website http://www.catacombe.org/
Catacombs of Priscilla (Catacombe di Priscilla)
These are the oldest Roman catacombs. The territory where they were dug was once owned by Akilius Glabrius. Priscilla also belonged to his family, after whom the burial was named. She was executed by order of the emperor Domitian, the persecutor of Christians.
On the territory of the catacombs, a chapel was erected, in which there are inscriptions in Greek. In the chapel you can see a picture of the sacrament of communion, a drawing of the Virgin Mary with a baby in her arms, as well as images of other biblical heroes. These images appeared here in the second century.
Situated: via Salaria, 430 website http://www.catacombepriscilla.com/
Catacombs of Saint Domitilla (Catacombe di Domitilla)
They are located on the territory of the family estate of the Flavian family. Historians suggest (although this is not fully established) that Domitilla is the granddaughter of the Roman emperor Vespasian, who was martyred for her faith. The dead were buried in this place until the fourth century. Due to the lack of space, the niches in the walls were spread over four floors. In the catacombs of Domitilla, a unique image of Jesus Christ has been preserved in the image of the Good Shepherd.
Situated: via delle Sette Chiese, 282 website http://www.domitilla.info/
Catacombs of St. Agnes (Catacombe di Sant "Agnese)
The place is named after the Martyr Agnes of Rome, numbered among the saints. There are no traditional drawings with Christian symbols on the walls of the dungeon, but inscriptions (epitaphs) can be seen in two galleries. The relics of Saint Agnes are in the Basilica of Sant'Agnese fuori le Mura, erected over the catacombs in the fourth century. It was built by the decision of the daughter of Emperor Constantine. In this basilica, the remains of St. Agnes rest, transferred from an underground burial.
Location:via Nomentana 349, website http://www.santagnese.org/catacombe.htm
Catacombs of Saint Callisto (Catacombe di San Callisto)
The Callista Catacombs are the largest Christian catacomb complex in Rome. Its length is about 20 km. The burial galleries and cemeteries number 170 thousand Christian graves, buried on four levels. The catacombs were named after the Roman priest Callistus, during his lifetime he was organizing the funeral of Christians.
The burials are still being investigated by scientists, so only a part of them is available for excursions. On the territory of the funerary galleries, visitors can see three crypts (large rooms with burials):
Cave of the Popes. It received its name in honor of six popes who found peace within its walls. In addition to them, many bishops and saints are buried here. The burials date back to the third century.
The crypt of the holy sacraments. Represents five cubes intended for burial of one family. The crypt is decorated with frescoes, each of which tells about great divine accomplishments: the sacrament of baptism, the rite of the sacrament and the future resurrection.
The crypt of Saint Cecilia. The site of the sarcophagus of Cecilia of Rome - a martyr of the third century, ranked among the saints by the Catholic Church. She is known as an active supporter of the Christian faith, who led about 400 Romans to God. The walls of the crypt are engraved with Greek epitaphs and unique frescoes.
Situated: via Appia Antica 110/126 website http://www.catacombe.roma.it/it/index.php
Welcome to interesting excursions in Rome!
The many-sided Rome, dating back several millennia, is the most mysterious city in Italy, in which the pages of a historical novel come to life. The capital, which has been created for centuries, where the past, present and future are harmoniously combined, surprises with a huge number of unique objects that have made it a real open-air museum. The historical and cultural heritage of the Eternal City is available for tourists who make a fascinating journey into ancient times and get acquainted with the pearl of Italy, which has preserved Christian shrines.
Catacombe di Roma
Not only Orthodox pilgrims, but also all vacationers eager to discover something new and unexplored, the roads will lead to the underground catacombs of Rome, which are an extensive network of tuff labyrinths, in the walls of which niches for burials are knocked out. The multilevel galleries that encircle the space under the capital of the country date back to the pre-Christian era. Pagan, Saracen and Jewish catacombs are known, and in total, scientists have discovered more than 60 underground labyrinths and about 750 thousand crypts.
Most of them appeared in the early Christian era, and the very first galleries were created in 107 AD. and his disciples found loyal followers among people of various social strata. The first Christians of Rome were often persecuted, since the emperor demanded that only he be recognized as a god, and the adherents of the new religion worshiped the only Christ.
Burial Catacombs
Previously, there was an opinion that people were hiding in the catacombs of Rome, who were pursued by the soldiers of the emperor, but this is not so: in the underground labyrinths, where it is always dark, no one lived, since this is simply impossible. Having experienced the wrath of the rulers, Christians used abandoned quarries or private estates of the Romans who had adopted the new faith for the burial of their loved ones separately from the pagans. Feeling safe, they dug tunnels in the tuff and expanded existing corridors, creating a huge network of labyrinths ranging in height from 2.5 to 5 meters. The porous rock is rather soft, crumbles easily, and it is not difficult to dig a whole system of passages in it with an ordinary shovel or pickaxe.
Few facts about burial in galleries
On both sides of the corridors, Christians knocked out multi-tiered niches (loculi) in the walls, in which the bodies of the deceased were placed. Then the original tomb was walled up with stone slabs. The deceased co-religionists were washed, anointed with incense, since Christians did not embalm their bodies, wrapped them in a shroud and placed them in a niche of the dungeon, covering it with bricks or a slab on which the name of the deceased and laconic epitaphs were carved. Often they were embedded in the wall
Depressions in narrow corridors were cut in several tiers up to five meters high. In the underground corridors, cubicles were cut down - side rooms that were family crypts or burial places of popes and martyrs.
It is curious that the people who dug underground galleries, and subsequently kept the labyrinths in a satisfactory condition, were called fossors, and they were led by administrators appointed by the bishops. Many dungeons are named after them, for example, the Callistus catacombs in Rome were named after the protodeacon Callistus, who became pontiff. At the beginning of the 4th century, when Christianity was declared an official religion, all persecutions against believers ceased, and the dungeons dug by them were recognized as official burials.
Opening forgotten dungeons
The catacombs of Rome were considered a very important phenomenon in the life of the capital of the country, but after a century the labyrinths fell into disrepair, since they were no longer used to bury the dead. Hundreds of thousands of pilgrims flocked to the dungeons, which turned into sanctuaries of martyrs. But soon, at the behest of the Roman bishops, the relics were extracted and transferred to city temples.
Deprived of the remains of revered saints, the galleries were forgotten until 1578, when the construction of the via Salaria road begins and the first cemetery is discovered. So the catacombs of Priscilla were found - an aristocrat who came from a noble and respected family and owned a large plot of land on which underground burials appeared.
A large-scale study of the catacombs of saints in Rome takes place in the 19th century, and a great contribution to their study is made by the Russian artist Reiman, who painted about a hundred copies of the frescoes that have survived on the walls of the galleries. In 1929, the collection and inventory of items preserved in the tunnels began.
Catacombe di Priscilla
The system of Christian dungeons is the most extensive of all, and the oldest of them are the beautifully preserved Priscilla Catacombs, which became a real sensation. Unique examples of ancient art were found in them: wall paintings with scenes from the New and Old Testament, colorful frescoes, the main character of which is the Good Shepherd - the symbol of Jesus Christ. An important attraction of the Roman catacombs is a small room with inscriptions in Greek, where benches for memorial meals (Cappella Greca) were installed.
Of particular interest to scientists is a bright fresco made in the 2nd century, which depicts a woman in a bright crimson dress and a light veil. This is the oldest image of a praying saint.
You can get into the underground labyrinths located at Via Salaria, 430 by city buses numbered 86 or 92. Get off at the Piazza Crati stop, and then follow the signs labeled via Priscilla. All dungeons can only be entered as part of an excursion group.
Catacombe di san callisto
However, the largest Christian burial place is considered to be the catacombs of St. Callistus in Rome, which appeared in the 2nd century. Stretching for 12 kilometers under the Appian Way, they are a four-level labyrinth, which can be called the "city of the dead", as it has its own streets, intersections and even squares. In the underground galleries, which combine cemeteries from different periods of time, archaeologists still work, and not all burials are open to visitors. Over a long history, about 50 martyrs and 16 popes found their last refuge here, and for this the catacombs are called the main monument of Christian cemeteries.
The most popular crypt is the tomb (Santa Cecilia), where wall frescoes and mosaics are perfectly preserved. The Roman pontiffs and holy martyrs who led the church are buried in the square called "Little Vatican".
The underground cemetery, which was arranged by Deacon Callistus, is recognized as the most famous catacombs in Rome. How to get to the Catacombe di San Callisto located at Via Appia Antica, 110/126? City buses numbered 118 (you need to get off at the stop of the same name) or 218 (the final destination of the Fosse Ardeatine route) will take you to the historical site.
Catacombe di San Sebastiano
The most accessible of all the underground galleries are the four-level catacombs of St. Sebastian. Located at 136 Via Appia Antica, they are much worse preserved than the rest. Once upon a time, pagans buried their loved ones in the labyrinths, and by the end of the II century, the consecrated necropolis became Christian. who defied the emperor Diocletian, died in 298, and after the burial of his remains, the previously unnamed catacombs of Rome got their current name.
How to get into the unique tunnels, in which religious meetings were once held during the persecution of Christians? You can get to them by city buses numbered 118 and 218, and you need to get off at the Cecilia Metella stop.
Underground cemeteries attractive for tourists
Tourists who have visited the underground galleries admit that it is difficult for them to describe the full range of feelings at the sight of gravestones that appeared many centuries ago.
Gloomy deserted corridors, which are always quiet, evoke thoughts of imminent death, but mysterious labyrinths that keep many secrets still attract visitors who love thrill. In the intact catacombs of Ancient Rome, everyone will touch the distant early Christian times.
The Catacombs of Rome (Italian Catacombe di Roma) are a network of ancient catacombs that were used as burial places, mostly during the early Christian period.
In total, Rome has more than 60 different catacombs (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. These catacombs are a system of tuff underground passages, often forming labyrinths. In their walls for burials, rectangular niches (lat. Loculi) of different sizes were made (mainly for one deceased, sometimes for two, and rarely for several bodies). Today, almost all niches are open and empty, but they have survived and are still closed (for example, in the Panfil catacombs).Term
The very name “catacomb” (lat. Catacomba) was not known to the Romans, they used the word “cemeterium” (lat. Coemeterium) - “chambers”. Only one of the coemeteria, Saint Sebastian, was called ad catacumbas (from the Greek katakymbos - deepening). In the Middle Ages, only they were known and accessible to the population, so since then all underground burials have been called catacombs.
Burials
The first catacombs at the gates of Rome appeared in the pre-Christian era: for example, the Jewish catacombs (Italian Catacombe Ebraiche) on the Appian Way have survived. There is no definite point of view regarding the origin of the catacombs. There is a hypothesis that they are the remains of ancient quarries or more ancient underground communication routes. There is also the opinion of Giovanni Batista de Rossi and his followers that the catacombs are exclusively Christian structures, since their narrow passages are unsuitable for extracting stone from them, and the catacombs themselves are unsuitable for use as building material.
Early Christian worship in the catacombs of St. Callistus
(19th century engraving).
Burials in the catacombs were formed from private land holdings. Roman owners arranged a single grave, or a whole family crypt, on the plot they owned, where they allowed their heirs and loved ones, specifying in detail the circle of these persons and their rights to the grave. In the future, their descendants, who converted to Christianity, allowed fellow believers to be buried in their plots. This is evidenced by numerous inscriptions preserved in the catacombs: “[Family] tomb of Valery Mercury, Julian Julian and Quintilius, for his venerable released and descendants of the same religion as myself”, “Mark Anthony Restut built a crypt for himself and his loved ones, who believes in God. " The underground passages corresponded to the boundaries of the possessions and were connected to each other by numerous galleries, thus forming a kind of lattice (the catacombs of St. Callistus). Some catacombs were branches from the main passage, sometimes also several stories high.
Christians adopted in the 2nd century the custom of burying the dead (including martyrs and victims of persecution under pagan emperors) in the catacombs, but they were not a place of shelter for Christians. By the 5th century, the old catacombs were expanded and new ones were built. It is from the celebration of divine services in the catacombs on the tombs of martyrs that the Christian tradition of celebrating the liturgy on the relics of saints originates.
The catacombs also included hypogeums - from the Latin (Latin hypogeum) - premises for religious purposes, but with an unclear function, as well as often a small dining hall, a meeting room and several shafts for lighting (Latin luminare). The "Apostolic Decrees" (c. 5th century) contains a direct indication of the meetings of early Christians in the catacombs: rested in the Lord. And in place of the pleasant Eucharist of the royal body of Christ, bring in your churches and in your tombs ... ”. One of the inscriptions found in the 16th century by Caesar Baronius in the catacombs of St. Callistus testifies to the stable tradition of performing divine services in the catacombs: "What bitter times, we cannot perform the sacraments in the safety and even pray in our caves!"
Historical evidence
Reconstruction of the cubicle in the catacombs of St. Callistus
(Giovanni Batista de Rossi, 1867.)
The earliest (IV century) historical sources about the Roman catacombs are the works of Blessed Jerome and Prudentius. Jerome, who was raised in Rome, left notes about his visits to the catacombs:
Together with my fellow peers, I had the custom on Sundays to visit the tombs of the apostles and martyrs, often descend into caves dug in the depths of the earth, in the walls of which on both sides the bodies of the dead lie, and in which there is such darkness that this prophetic saying: “let them enter into hell and live” (Ps.54: 16). Occasionally, the light admitted from above temper the horror of the darkness, so that the opening through which it enters is better called a slit than a window.
Jerome's description is supplemented by Prudentius' The Suffering of the Most Blessed Martyr Hippolytus, written at about the same period:
Not far from the place where the city rampart ends, in the cultivated area adjacent to it, a deep crypt opens its dark passages. A sloping path, meandering, leads to this refuge devoid of light. Daylight enters the crypt through the entrance, and in its winding galleries, just a few steps from the entrance, the dark night turns black. However, into these galleries clear rays are thrown from above the holes cut in the vault of the crypt; and although in the crypt there are dark places here and there, nevertheless, through the indicated holes, considerable light illuminates the interior of the carved space. Thus, it is possible to see the light of the absent sun under the earth and enjoy its radiance. In such a cache is hidden the body of Hippolytus, next to which an altar is erected for divine rites.
"Decline" of the catacombs
Since the 4th century, the catacombs have lost their significance and are no longer used for burial. The last Roman bishop who was buried in them is Pope Melchiad. His successor, Sylvester, was already buried in the Basilica of San Silvestro in Capite. In the 5th century, burials in the catacombs completely ceased, but from this period the catacombs became popular among pilgrims who wanted to pray at the graves of the apostles, martyrs and confessors. They visited the catacombs, leaving various images and inscriptions on their walls (especially near the tombs with the relics of saints). Some of them described their impressions of visiting the catacombs in travel notes, which are one of the sources of data for the study of the catacombs.
The decline in interest in the catacombs was caused by the gradual extraction of the relics of saints from them. In 537, during the siege of the city of Vitiges, the tombs of the saints were opened in them, and their relics were transferred to the city churches. This was the first extraction of relics from the catacombs, subsequent records of chroniclers report more large-scale actions:
* Pope Boniface IV, on the occasion of the consecration of the Pantheon, brought out thirty-two carts with the relics of saints from the catacombs;
* under Pope Paschalia I, according to an inscription in the Basilica of Santa Prassede, two thousand three hundred relics of saints were recovered from the catacombs.
Discovery and study of the catacombs
Explorers in the Catacombs
(illustration for "History of Rome" M. Yonge, 1880)
Since the end of the 9th century, visits to the Roman catacombs, which have lost the relics that attracted pilgrims, have practically ceased; in the 11th-12th centuries, isolated cases of such visits are described. For almost 600 years, the necropolis, famous in the Christian world, is forgotten. In the 16th century, Onufriy Panvinio, a theological professor and librarian of the papal library, began to study the catacombs. He researched early Christian and medieval written sources and made a list of 43 Roman burials (the book was published in 1568), however, the entrance was only found in the catacombs of Saints Sebastian, Lawrence and Valentine.
Once again, the Roman catacombs became known after May 31, 1578, workers engaged in earthworks on the Salar road stumbled upon stone slabs covered with ancient inscriptions and images. At that time, it was believed that these are the catacombs of Priscilla (actually coemeterium Iordanorum ad S. Alexandrum). Soon after their discovery, they were buried under the rubble and re-excavated only in 1921.
Later, the catacombs were explored by Antonio Bosio (c. 1576-1629), who in 1593 first descended into the Domitilla catacombs. In total, he discovered about 30 cementaries (Bosio did not carry out excavations), he described the results of his work in a three-volume essay "Underground Rome" (lat. Roma sotterranea), which was published after his death. Bosio hired two draftsmen who made copies of the images from the catacombs. Their work was often inaccurate or erroneous: the Good Shepherd was mistaken for a peasant woman, Noah in the ark was a praying martyr, and the youths in a fiery cave were mistaken for the scene of the Annunciation.
Full-scale research in the catacombs began only in the 19th century, when works dedicated to their history and painting were published. Such works include the works of Giuseppe Marka, Giovanni Batista de Rossi (discovered the catacombs of St. Callistus), the monumental work of A. Friken "The Roman Catacombs and the Monuments of the Primary Christian Art" (1872-85). At the end of the 19th century, the Russian watercolorist F.P. Reiman (1842-1920), over 12 years of work, created over 100 sheets of copies of the best-preserved catacomb frescoes.
In 1903, a book by the researcher Joseph Wilpert (1857-1944), Die Malerei der Katakomben Roms, was published, in which he presented the first photographs of frescoes from the catacombs (Wilpert personally painted black and white photographs in the colors of the original images) ...
Since 1929 (after the Lateran Agreements), the catacombs and research carried out there have been managed by the Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra (Italian: Pontificia Commissione di Archeologia Sacra, created at the suggestion of de Rossi back in 1852. The Institute of Christian Archeology under the Commission deals with the protection and preservation of open catacombs , as well as the study of painting and further excavations.The tasks of the researchers of the Roman catacombs remain the interpretation of the iconography of the catacomb painting, as well as the discovery of new burials and new sites of the famous catacombs.So in 1955, Antonio Ferrua discovered the catacombs on Via Latina. The last find of a previously unknown burial took place in 1994 after the collapse of the basement floor: a long corridor with a cistern, a round cubicle and an antique entrance were discovered.
Funeral rites
Catacombs in the period of the II-IV centuries were used by Christians for religious rituals and burials, since the community considered it its duty to bury fellow believers only among its own. The funeral of the first Christians was simple: the body, previously washed and anointed with various incenses (the ancient Christians did not allow embalming with the cleansing of the insides), was wrapped in a shroud and placed in a niche. Then it was covered with a marble slab and, in most cases, bricked up with bricks. The name of the deceased was written on the slab (sometimes only individual letters or numbers), as well as a Christian symbol or a wish for peace in heaven. The epitaphs were very laconic: “Peace be with you,” “Sleep in the peace of the Lord,” etc. Part of the slab was covered with cement mortar, into which coins, small figures, rings, and pearl necklaces were also thrown. Oil lamps or small jars of incense were often left nearby. The number of such items was quite high: despite the plundering of a number of graves in the catacombs of St. Agnes alone, about 780 items were found, placed with the deceased in the tomb.
Christian burials in the catacombs almost exactly reproduced Jewish burials and did not differ in the eyes of their contemporaries from Jewish cemeteries in the vicinity of Rome. According to the researchers, the early Christian epitaphs ("Rest in peace", "Rest in God") in the catacombs repeat the Jewish funerary formulas: bi-shalom, bi-adonai.
Fossors (Latin Fossorius, Fossorii) were in charge of managing and maintaining order in the catacombs. Their responsibilities also included the preparation of burial sites and mediation between sellers and buyers of graves: “The site was purchased for a bisom device for Artemisia. The cost, 1500 folios, was paid to the fossor Hilar, with the evidence of the fossors of the North and Lawrence. " Their images are also often found in catacomb painting: they are depicted at work or standing with the tools of their labor, among which are an ax, a pickaxe, a crowbar and a clay lamp to illuminate dark corridors. Modern fossors participate in further excavations of the catacombs, keep order and lead scientists and those interested in unlit corridors.
Burial forms
Niches
(lat.Loculi, locula)
Lokula (literally "shtetl") are the most common form of burial in the catacombs. Designed for the burial of both one person and several (lat. Loculi bisomi, trisomi ...). Performed in the form of rectangular oblong depressions in the walls of the corridors of the catacombs or in cubes
Arcosolium (lat.Arcosolium)
Arkosoliy is a low deaf arch in the wall, under which the remains of the deceased were placed in the tomb. Thus, the opening of the tomb was located not on the side, but on top. This more expensive type of burial has been known since antiquity. Most often martyrs were buried in them and the tombstone was used as an altar during the celebration of the liturgy. More often found in cubes than in the corridors of the catacombs.
Sarcophagi (Latin Solium)
Refers to the Roman burial tradition, later adopted by Christians. Not typical for Jewish burials. Burials in sarcophagi in the catacombs are rare. Sarcophagi could also be placed in arcosoliums.
Cubicles were small chambers located on the sides of the main passages. Literally cubiculum means "rest", rest for the sleep of the dead. The burials of several people were located in the cubes, most often they were family crypts. Cubicles were found, in which there are up to 70 or more locules of different sizes, located in 10 or more rows.
Burial in the floor
(Latin Forma - "channel, pipe")
They are found in the floors of crypts, cubicles, rarely in the main passages of the catacombs. Such burials are often found near the graves of martyrs.
Types of catacombs
The most famous Roman catacombs are as follows:
Christian catacombs
Catacombs of Saint Sebastian
The Catacombs of St. Sebastian (Italian Catacombe di San Sebastiano) - got their name from the burial of the early Christian martyr St. Sebastian in them. Of particular interest are the pagan burials decorated with frescoes. The transition from paganism to Christianity is clearly visible here: pagan images are combined with Christian inscriptions. In the deeper (and later) Christian catacombs, there is the crypt of St. Sebastian, where the relics of the saint were kept until the transfer to the church of San Sebastiano Fuori le Mura, built in the 4th century above the catacombs.
According to legend, in the catacombs of St. Sebastian for some time at the beginning of the 3rd century, the relics of the apostles Peter and Paul, who were executed in Rome in the 1st century, were kept. An inscription about this has been preserved: "Whoever you are looking for the names of Peter and Paul, you should know that the saints rested here."
Domitilla Catacombs (Italian Catacombe di Domitilla) - these catacombs served as a burial place for pagans and Christians. They are located on the territory that belonged to the Flavian family, but it is not clear which Domitilla is in question. It is only known for certain that the Domitilla catacombs arose from several family burials, and were expanded to 4 floors around the 4th century. Each floor is 5 m high. Early Christian symbols are found here: fish, lamb, anchor, dove.
The oldest known image of the Virgin with the baby Jesus (Catacombs of Priscilla).
The Priscilla Catacombs (Italian Catacombe di Priscilla) are the oldest catacombs in Rome. They were the private property of the family of Akilius Glabria, the Roman consul. The premises are decorated with early Christian frescoes, of which the feast scene (allegory of the Eucharist) in the Greek chapel and the oldest image of the Virgin with the Child and the Prophet (the figure on the left depicts the prophet Isaiah or Balaam), dating from the 2nd century, stand out.
The Catacombs of St. Agnese (Italian: Catacombe di Sant "Agnese) - named after the early Christian martyr Agnes of Rome, date back to the 3rd-4th centuries AD There are no wall paintings in these catacombs, but many inscriptions can be found in two well-preserved galleries.
Above the catacombs is the Basilica of Sant'Agnese Fuori-le-Mura, built in 342 by the daughter of Emperor Constantine the Great, Constance. This basilica currently houses the relics of St. Agnes, transferred from the catacombs.
The Catacombs of St. Callistus (Italian Catacombe di San Callisto) are the largest Christian burial sites in ancient Rome. The catacombs are about 20 km long, they have 4 levels and form a labyrinth. The catacombs of St. Callistus contain about 170 thousand burials. The catacombs got their name from the name of the Roman bishop Callistus, who participated in their arrangement.
The catacombs of St. Callistus have only been partially explored. The crypt of the popes is open for access, in which 9 Roman bishops of the 3rd century were buried, as well as the crypt of St. Cecilia (Cyclia), where in 820 the relics of this saint were discovered. The walls of the crypt are decorated with frescoes depicting the martyrs Sebastian, Kirin and Kikiliya.
In the cave of the Holy Mysteries (Italian: Cubicolo dei Sacramenti), frescoes depicting the sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist have been preserved. Also, many symbolic images have survived: a fisherman pulling out a fish (a symbol of man's salvation from the waves of the sinful sea); seven people sitting at the table (the sacrament of the Eucharist); Lazarus (symbol of the resurrection).
Epitaph with a menorah from the Jewish catacombs
Judean catacombs
Known to archaeologists, the Jewish catacombs in Rome are located under Villa Torlonia and Vigna Randanini (discovered in 1859). The entrance to the catacombs under Villa Torlonia was walled up at the beginning of the 20th century, only at the end of the century it was decided to restore them and open them to visitors. According to researchers, these catacombs are the predecessors of the Christian catacombs: the burials discovered date back to 50 BC. e. (the age of the burials was established using radiocarbon analysis).
According to their architectural plan, the Jewish catacombs practically do not differ from the Christian ones. The main difference is as follows: at first, not corridors arose, but separate crypts, which were later connected by passages. The moves are generally wider than in the Christian catacombs. Their walls are also decorated with frescoes depicting symbols and figures, for example, menorah, flowers, animals (ducks, fish, peacocks), however, there are no images of scenes from the Old Testament among the drawings.
Syncretic catacombs
The syncretic catacombs of Rome include: underground temples (hypogeum) degli Aureli, Trebius Justus, Vibia. Here you can find a mixture of Christianity, Greek and Roman philosophy. Perhaps these were the burials of one sect of the Gnostics. Examples of such catacomb temples include the underground basilica, discovered in 1917 in the area of \u200b\u200bRome Termini station. The temple, decorated with plaster bas-reliefs, was used in the 1st century BC. e. as a meeting place for the Neopythagoreans.
Adam and Eve with their sons. Catacombs on Via Latina
Catacombs on Via Latina
The ornate catacombs on Via Latina (officially Catacomba di Dino Compagni, circa 350), discovered in 1955, were the private burials of one or more families. They do not belong to syncretic catacombs, it is possible that both pagans and Christians were buried here (about 400 burials in total). These catacombs are notable for the fact that they can be seen depicting scenes from the Old and New Testament in the new iconography. So Adam and Eve are depicted in clothes of skins sitting on a stone, both resting their chins with their hand; Eve looks at Adam sadly. Also a "new" image of the soothsayer Balaam with a donkey (mid-4th century).
Symbols and decor
general characteristics
From the series "Catacombs"
As a child, the shadows heard the singing of Orpheus.
Jonah remembers everything under the willow whale bowels.
But the Shepherd lays a sheep on his shoulders, pitying,
And blessed is the round sunset behind the top of the cedar
M. Kuzmin
The walls of about 40 catacombs (especially the walls of the crypts) are decorated with frescoes (less often mosaics) depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments, pagan myths, as well as various Christian allegorical symbols (ichtis, "The Good Shepherd"). The most ancient depictions include the scenes of "Adoration of the Magi" (about 12 frescoes with this subject have survived), which date back to the 2nd century. Also, the appearance in the catacombs of images of the acronym ΙΧΘΥΣ or the fish symbolizing it dates back to the II century. In the Jewish catacombs on the Appian Way, there are images of the menorah. The presence of images of both biblical history and saints in the places of burials and meetings of the first Christians testifies to the early tradition of venerating sacred images.
Other common symbolic images, partially borrowed from the ancient tradition, in the catacombs include:
Paul the Apostle (4th century fresco)
* anchor - an image of hope (the anchor is the support of the ship in the sea, hope is the support of the soul in Christianity);
* dove - a symbol of the Holy Spirit;
* phoenix - a symbol of resurrection;
* the eagle is a symbol of youth (“your youth will be renewed like an eagle” (Psalm 102: 5));
* peacock - a symbol of immortality (according to the ancients, his body was not subject to decomposition);
* rooster - a symbol of resurrection (the cry of the rooster awakens from sleep, and awakening, according to Christians, should remind believers of the Last Judgment and the general resurrection of the dead);
* the lamb is a symbol of Jesus Christ;
* lion - a symbol of strength and power;
* olive branch - a symbol of eternal peace;
* lily - a symbol of purity (common due to the influence of apocryphal stories about the presentation of a lily flower by the Archangel Gabriel to the Virgin Mary at the Annunciation);
* a vine and a basket of bread are symbols of the Eucharist.
Researchers note that Christian fresco painting in the catacombs represents (with the exception of New Testament scenes) the same symbols and events of biblical history that are present in Jewish burials and synagogues of that period.
Most of the images in the Roman catacombs are made in the Hellenistic style that prevailed in Italy in the II-III centuries, only the ichthys symbol has an oriental origin. According to Joseph Wilpert, when dating images, the manner and style of their execution is important.
Good style is expressed here especially in the light, delicate overlay of colors and in the correctness of the drawing; the figures are of excellent proportions, and the movements correspond to the action. Deficiencies appear and accumulate especially, starting from the second half of the third century, in the form of gross errors in drawing, green highlights in the incarnate, in rough outlines not covered by painting, and wide borders framing scenes. Further, clothes and their decorations are a reliable criterion: a sleeveless tunic indicates frescoes earlier than the 3rd century; the early form of the Dalmatic belongs to the 3rd century; Dalmatic with fashionable, incredibly wide sleeves, indicates the frescoes of the 4th century. Round purple stripes appear from the second half of the 3rd and especially in the 4th century; in the most ancient era, jewelry was limited to a narrow "clave".
Eucharistic bread and fish (catacombs of St. Callistus)
The early period (1st-2nd centuries) is characterized by delicate, thin borders around the fields of the frescoes, the use of light colors and the general pale-pale background of crypts, on which some of the frescoes seem to be monochrome. Gradually, the Hellenistic artistic manner is replaced by icon-painting skill: bodies begin to be portrayed more materially, which is especially noticeable thanks to the ocher in carnation, which makes the figures heavy. Art critic Max Dvorak believes that catacomb painting reflects the formation of a new artistic style: three-dimensional space is replaced by an abstract plane, the real connection between bodies and objects is replaced by their symbolic relationships, everything material is suppressed in order to achieve maximum spirituality.
Images of scenes from myths in catacomb painting are much less common (Demeter and Persephone, Cupid and Psyche). Often, the ancient tradition of depicting certain characters (including decorative motifs: jellyfish, newts, eros) was adopted by Christians.
Images of Jesus Christ
In the catacomb painting, there are no images on the theme of the Passion of Christ (there is not a single image of the crucifixion) and the Resurrection of Jesus. Among the frescoes of the late III - early IV centuries, there are often scenes depicting Christ performing miracles: the multiplication of the loaves, the resurrection of Lazarus (there are more than 50 images). Jesus holds in his hands a kind of "magic wand", which is an ancient tradition of depicting miracles, also adopted by Christians.
Orpheus
These are Christianized images of a pagan character, Orpheus. In his hand he holds a cithara, sometimes surrounded by animals in a Phrygian hat and oriental dress. The meanings of other pagan characters (Helios, Hercules) were also rethought.
Good shepherd
Most of the images of the Good Shepherd in the catacombs date back to the 3rd-4th centuries. The emergence and spread of this symbolic image of Jesus belongs to the period of persecution of the first Christians and arose on the basis of the plot of the gospel parable of the lost sheep. The Good Shepherd is depicted as a young man without a beard, mostly with short hair, dressed in a tunic. Sometimes he stands leaning on a staff, and also surrounded by sheep and palms.
Epiphany
A common image in catacomb painting. There are two versions: the gospel story about the Baptism of the Lord from John the Baptist and just an image of the sacrament of baptism. The main difference between the plots is the symbolic depiction of the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove on the frescoes of the Baptism of the Lord.
Teacher
When depicting Christ the Teacher, he was given the image of an ancient philosopher, dressed in a toga. The students around him are portrayed as young men, like students of ancient schools.
Christ
Such images differ from the ancient tradition: the face of Jesus takes on a more strict and expressive character. The hair is depicted as long, often with a parting in the middle of the head, a beard is added, sometimes divided into two parts. An image of a halo appears.
Images of Oranta
Oranta is one of the most common images in the catacombs: initially as a personification of prayer, and then as an image of the Virgin Mary. At the end of the 3rd-4th centuries, in the form of Orants (that is, worshipers), both women and men were depicted buried in the catacombs.
Image Name Description
Oranta with a child
Oranta with a child (first half of the 4th century) is in the cubicle della Madonna orante in the coemeterium Maius, it is not known for sure whether the Virgin is depicted here.
Oranta
Orant in the "cubicle of five saints" in the catacomb of St. Callista. Next to the female figure of Dionysas is the male one under the name Nemesius, in pace is added to both names. Here the deceased are depicted as an Orant in the Garden of Eden among flowers and birds.
Scenes from the Old Testament
In the Roman catacombs, scenes from the Old Testament are often found, for example, Moses at the source in the rock, Noah in the ark, Daniel in the pit with lions, three youths in the cave of fire, three youths and Nebuchadnezzar.
Adam and Eve
The image of the biblical forefathers of mankind is found in various ways: in the scene of the Fall, together with their children. The appearance of this image in early Christian painting is due to the emergence in the Christian doctrine of the perception of Jesus Christ as the new Adam, who atoned for the original sin by his death.
Jonah is thrown into the sea
Images of Jonah can often be found in the catacombs. The authors of the paintings presented not only the basis of the biblical story about Jonah, but also details: a ship, a huge fish (sometimes in the form of a sea dragon), a gazebo. Jonah is depicted as resting or asleep, personifying the "sleeping" in cubicles and sarcophagi of the catacombs.
The appearance of the images of Jonah is associated with the prophecy of Christ about his three-day stay in the tomb, in which he compared himself to Jonah (Matthew 12: 38-40).
Three youths in a fiery cave
Three youths in a fiery cave
The appearance of such images is attributed to the 4th century, which was associated with the emergence of the veneration of three Babylonian youths as confessors who remained faithful to their faith among the Gentiles (which was symbolic for the first Christians).
Agapy
Agapa (fresco from the catacombs of St. Priscissla)
The image of agap - "The Meal of Love", which Christians arranged in the catacombs in memory of the Gospel Last Supper and at which they performed the sacrament of the Eucharist, is a very common plot of catacomb painting. From the images of agap, historians of liturgy restore the traditions of worship of early Christian communities.
The most interesting for the study of early Christian rituals is the fresco of the 2nd century depicting the agapa, discovered in 1893.
At the semicircular table are the six supporters of the supper, and on the right side of the table is a bearded man breaking bread. At his feet is a bowl and two dishes: one with two fish, the other with five loaves.
The number of loaves and fish depicted resembles the Gospel miracle of the multiplication of loaves. From the analysis of agap images, the researchers came to the conclusion that in early Christian communities, believers received bread from the hands of the primate directly into their own hands, and then took turns drinking wine from a bowl.
Inscriptions in the catacombs
Examples of catacomb inscriptions
The collection of inscriptions from the Roman catacombs, currently 10 volumes, began in 1861 by de Rossi, continued from 1922 by Angelo Silvagni, then by Antonio Ferrua. Giovanni Batista de Rossi discovered the catacombs of Saint Callistus thanks to a fragment of a marble tablet with the inscription NELIUS MARTYR. The scientist suggested that we are talking about the martyr Cornelia (CORNELIUS), who, according to de Rossi's sources, should have been buried in the catacombs. Later, in the crypt of the popes de Rossi, he discovered the second part of the tablet with the inscription EP (Episcopus).
A lot of inscriptions are found on loculs in Latin and Greek (Greek ZOE - "life") languages. Sometimes Latin words are written in Greek, or letters from these languages \u200b\u200bare found in one word. The catacomb inscriptions contain the names of the types of burials: arcosolium (arcisolium, arcusolium), cubiculum (cubuculum), forma, the names of fossors, a description of their activities.
Visiting the catacombs
Of all the catacombs of Rome, only 6 are open to visitors as part of an excursion, with an obligatory guide (the above Christian catacombs, as well as the catacombs of St. Pancratius). The rest of the catacombs do not have electric lighting; they can be visited with the permission of the papal commission on sacred archeology. The most interesting are the most richly painted catacombs of Saints Peter and Marcellinus (III-IV centuries) on Via Casilina.
In culture
Painting:
* S. Lenepwe "Burial of the Martyrs in the Catacombs" (1855)
* At the State Museum of Fine Arts. Pushkin has a collection of watercolor copies (about 100 watercolors) of early Christian paintings in the catacombs of Rome by the Russian watercolor artist F.P. Reiman (1842-1920). Reiman worked on copies from the catacombs (Domitilla, Callistus, Peter and Marcellinus, Pretestat, Priscilla, Trazon and Saturninus) for 12 years from 1889 by order of IV Tsvetaev
Literature:
* In "Journey to Italy" (German Italienische Reise) Goethe describes his unpleasant experience of visiting the stuffy corridors of the catacombs of St. Sebastian.
Procession in the catacombs of St. Callistus
* Some episodes of the novel by Alexander Dumas-father "The Count of Monte Cristo" (Monte Cristo and Franz d'Epinay rescue Albert de Morser, captured by robbers, Danglars is forced to give the money he stole to robbers) take place in the catacombs of Saint Sebastian.
* Henryk Sienkiewicz. The novel "Kamo Gryadeshi" (described a meeting of Christians in the 1st century in the Roman catacombs, but such meetings began no earlier than the second half of the 2nd century)
* R. Monaldi, F. Sorty. "Imprimatur: For Printing". Historical detective. M: AST, 2006. ISBN 5-17-0333234-3
* Charles Dickens, in Pictures from Italy, described his impressions of visiting the catacombs of St. Sebastian (the only ones known in the 1840s):
An emaciated Franciscan monk with a wild burning gaze was our only guide in these deep and eerie dungeons. Narrow passages and holes in the walls, going one way or the other, in combination with the stale, heavy air, soon crowded out any memory of the path we walked ... We passed between the graves of the martyrs for the faith: we walked along long arched underground roads, diverging in all directions and blocked off here and there by stone rubble ... Graves, graves, graves! The graves of men, women and their children ran out to meet their persecutors, shouting: “We are Christians! We are Christians! ”So that they would be killed along with their parents; graves with the palm of martyrdom roughly carved on stone edges; small niches carved into the rock for storing a vessel with the blood of the holy martyr; the graves of some of them who lived here for many years, guiding others and preaching truth, hope and comfort at roughly built altars so strong that they stand there now; large and even more terrible graves, where hundreds of people, taken by surprise by their pursuers, were surrounded and walled up tightly, buried alive and slowly starved to death.
The triumph of faith is not there, on earth, not in our luxurious churches, - said the Franciscan, looking at us, when we stopped to rest in one of the low passages, where bones and dust surrounded us from all sides, - her triumph is here, in the midst of the martyrs for faith!
* The Pio Cristiano Museum in the Vatican is dedicated to the collection of early Christian works of art found in the Roman catacombs: marble pagan and Christian sarcophagi, statues, tablets with inscriptions in Latin and Greek.
* The Museum of Sacred Art in the Vatican Library (Italian: Museo Sacro) contains artifacts from the Roman catacombs and churches: lamps with Jewish and Christian symbols, glassware, medallions.
* The Chiaramonti Museum in the Vatican contains many sarcophagi from the 1st-4th centuries.
* Part of the collection of the antique period of the National Roman Museum is made up of Jewish sarcophagi, tablets with inscriptions, a large number of artifacts from pagan tombs.
Address: Catacombs of St. Callixtus, Via Appia Antica, 110/126, 00179 Roma, Italy.
Opening hours: daily from 09:00 to 12:00 and from 14:00 to 17:00.
Day off - Wednesday.
Entrance fee: 8 EUR.
You can talk endlessly about Rome, who survived in his lifetime many bright events, beautiful and tragic, but every time, like the Phoenix bird that managed to rise from the ashes, remain as proud and inviolable. There is another Rome, invisible and unknown to many, lying right under their feet, where an entire era is reflected in each layer. To touch its centuries-old history, hidden under thousands of acres of land, you should make your way to the underworld ...
What the dungeons "told" about
Roman catacombs - the most amazing monument that conveys the history of Christians three centuries from the birth of Christ. For long centuries, they were in oblivion. And only in the middle of the XIX century. they were accidentally discovered by an Italian archaeologist Giovanni Battista de Rossi.
Trying to find objects of ancient Christians, he came across a marble piece of a slab bearing the inscription "Cornelius the Martyr". The find was carefully researched. It turned out to be part of a tombstone from the grave of the pontiff Cornelius, who lived in the III century. after the birth of Christ. Tortured to death in 253, he was buried in a country cave. This was the beginning of the search for ancient burials.
About 60 such burials have now been discovered. The origin of the word "catacombs" is attributed to the name of the area where the cemetery was located. There is no confirmation of this, but all tombs received this name. The ancient city is literally surrounded by them. If stretched out in a single row, their length would exceed 500 km. The first appeared in the pre-Christian period.
The Romans more often burned the dead outside the city limits. Christians, having adopted the Jewish custom, committed them to the earth. So Lazarus, resurrected by the Lord, was buried; after Calvary, they placed Christ wrapped in a shroud in the cave. The dead were laid in a niche, a slab was laid on top. Some of the graves were distinguished by the erected stone sarcophagi. The catacombs were named after the great martyrs.
Time passed, the grottoes occupied a large territory, becoming intricate deep labyrinths connected by narrow passages. During the period of persecution of Christians, the dwellings of the dead became a safe haven for the living. The first temples were formed in the deep bowels of the earth, where the ancient believers ate spiritual food. The Resurrection of the Lord gave confidence in the absence of death and great hope for an eternal cloudless life. The burial places of people who took a step into eternity became for the living the door to the kingdom of heaven.
Semantic wall paintings
The walls in the dungeons were painted with various frescoes. They were the first masterpieces of ancient Christian art. Not looking at the persecution, the images do not have scenes of martyrdom, and the epitaphs are devoid of traces of offense, although most died at the hands of the persecutors. There are only words that appeal to the Almighty.
The intertwined plots of the Old Testament with numerous Gospel images convey to posterity the concept of good and evil, show the difference between truth and falsehood, life and death. The depicted Adam and Eve, who committed the original sin, are located next to a white lily flower - a symbol of purity. The soul that truly cognized God was symbolically depicted as a bird. With a glance full of love, Christ looks from the walls in the guise of a shepherd carrying a lamb on his shoulders, symbolizing a lost human soul. The Son of God was painted with a vine, where the branches are those who believed in him. His words: "I am the true vine, and my father is the winegrower," call to follow him. Symbolic images were firmly entrenched in the art of all subsequent centuries.
Emperor Constantine the Great freed believers from oppression by his decree of 313 on the recognition of the Christian religion. Prayer chanting of the Lord was transferred from the dungeon to the spacious vaults of the above-ground light temples.
Largest burial
The largest underground tombs of the capital are recognized by the right of the catacombs of St. Callistus, located on the Appian Way, along which the Roman legionaries once followed the next victory, where the Apostle Peter met Christ. Here is the stone tomb of Romulus - the Roman Cain, who killed his twin brother. They are 20 km long and contain 170 thousand burials. Four of them are currently visited.
When the persecution faded into the past, there was no longer the need to sneak to the deceased. Pontiff Damasius has arranged a staircase that provides access to the tombs. In the lower part of the hallway, the Good Shepherd meets, reminding of the freedom of choice given to everyone living on earth. He is ready to lend a helping hand to a lost person.
Crypt dads
It is considered the center, which was surrounded, growing, by others. In the III century. turned into the burial vault of bishops. The rectangular room is quite spacious, propped up by columns with beautiful carved capitals that support the vault. Nine metropolitan pontiffs and eight nonresidents found rest here. Six names remained preserved: Pontian, who ended his life in the mines, Anter - his successor, who died in the walls of the dungeon, Fabian, beheaded during the reign of Decius, Lucius and Eutychius. They were all great martyrs. Their relics were transferred to various metropolitan churches, where they are preserved to this day.
The resting place of the martyr Cecilia
This is a fairly spacious room with a niche on the left side, where her sarcophagus was installed. Paschal I decided to redirect her relics to the capital, but could not find it. Exhausted, he turned to her in a dream for help, the woman indicated the exact location. Only one wall separated him from the tomb. After that, the remains were safely transferred to the Basilica of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere, dedicated to Cecilia. While rebuilding the church, the sarcophagus was opened. The eyes did not believe the miracle they saw: the body remained incorrupt. Looking at the body, amazed sculptor Stefano Maderno made a statue depicting Cecilia in the position in which she lay in the sarcophagus. The crypt contains a copy.
Why was she tortured to death? A native of a noble family from a young age, she believed in the teachings of Christ. She converted her husband to faith and brought to God many who believed in him, for which they decided to execute the woman. Having placed in a hot bath, the torturers wanted to kill her in such a terrible way, but three days later they found her alive. Then they decided to chop off the head. The executioner struck several blows, but could not immediately cut off. Mortally wounded, half-dead, she continued to preach the faith of Christ, trying to convert those present into it. She succeeded.
A cross rises above her grave, around it two angels and three martyrs froze in grief: Policam, Sebastian and Quirin. There are also images of Christ and the Pope-Martyr Urban I.
Cubicles of Sacraments
Designed for one family, consisting of five compartments. There are well-preserved frescoes telling about the sacrament of baptism. The same ritual performed by John the Baptist in the waters of the Jordan is displayed, striking the imagination with the power of faith. Jonah, rescued from the belly of a huge fish, "watches" the newcomers. A staircase was installed here, along which the murdered bishops were secretly brought to rest.
Section of Blessed Miltiades
It is adjacent to the Sacrament Cubes. Formed in the 2nd century, it became a connecting bridge leading to the crypt of Lucina - the resting place of the soul of the Pope Martyr Cornelius. He is rarely mentioned by historical sources. He stayed as pontiff for too short a time, a little over two years. On icons he is depicted with a cow's horn, is the patron saint of animals, healed unfortunate people from many diseases. Here you can see the shining of a phoenix, meaning the death of the flesh and eternal life in Christ, doves, symbolizing the Holy Spirit, a fish, a bird drinking from a cup, which personifies the soul that has found consolation in God.
People perceive these sacred places differently. For a cold person who has visited dark, damp vaults, they will remain so. A person who thinks and understands will produce completely different impressions. Numerous corridors tell about a handful of people who passionately loved life, but died for their faith, blessing the Lord, praying for their enemies. This handful was destined to carry out the greatest revolution in the world - to destroy paganism. Their victory is in fiery love and fortitude. And with faith in the heart and great love, everything is available to man.
Already in the 1st century. catacombs appeared in Rome - underground cemeteries of Christians.
The word "catacombs" comes from the Greek words "kata kyumben" (near the depression) and came into use in the 3rd-4th centuries; Emperor Maxentius at the beginning of the 4th century built a circus near the lowering of the area near the Appian Way, on the third, a mile from Rome, not far from the round mausoleum of Cecilia Metella. ”The underground Christian cemetery appeared here in the III century, and the name of the area was transferred to it (later the name“ catacomb ”was extended to all underground Christian cemeteries).
The oldest are the Priscilla catacombs on the Salaria road and Domitilla on the Ardeatino road. They are named after the noble Roman Christian women of the 1st century. According to Christian tradition, Priscilla, the mother of Senator Pudent, received the Apostle Peter, the first head of the Roman Christian community, who was executed in 64 or 67, in her home on the Viminale.
Domitilla is a woman from the imperial family of Flavians (there are two known Flavia Domicillas involved in Christianity: the wife of Titus Flavius \u200b\u200bClement, consul in 95, and the daughter of the sister of this consul, expelled from Rome for adherence to the new faith; the consul himself was killed at the behest of Domitian, probably for the same reason).
For the construction of underground cemeteries, the Christians used the old tuff quarries, located one to three miles south of Rome; tuff is an extremely convenient stone, since the corridors dug in it do not crumble and do not require special supports. The Roman catacombs, however, as a rule, are not former quarries, but specially created underground cemeteries in layers of granular tuff: first they cut down the stairs, and then corridors with niches in the walls and small rooms.
The catacombs arose on land owned by wealthy Romans who became adherents of Christianity. Over time, the length of the underground corridors increased so much that it reached the boundaries of the land plot, and then it was necessary to go deeper into the ground and start digging the second tier; some of the catacombs have five tiers, with the upper one being the oldest, and the lower ones being the later. The upper tier is usually located at a depth of three to eight meters. One of the deepest places in the Roman catacombs is the lower tier of the Callistus catacombs near the Appian Way; it is located at a depth of 25 m.
There are three main types of burial places in the catacombs: loculi, arcosolii and cubiculi. Loculi are horizontal niches in the walls where corpses were walled up; arkosolii - small vaults in the walls, under which the dead were buried in stone boxes; kubikuli - small rooms with sarcophagi. The poor were buried in lokuli, richer people were buried in arcosols, and the most significant ones were buried in stone sarcophagi in cubicles. The catacombs are made very economically: the stairs are narrow with high steps, the corridors are so cramped that in places two people can hardly disperse, and the cubicles can barely fit twenty people standing. The catacombs were intended only for burial and did not serve as a meeting place or a refuge from persecution. There are more than seventy catacombs in Rome.
For the period from 150 to 400, from 500 to 700 thousand people were buried in them. The total length of the studied underground corridors is about 900 km; part of the catacombs has not been explored.
Since the III century. murals appear in the catacombs; artistically, they do not differ in any significant way from contemporary pagan art; they still have many purely decorative elements. The Christian attitude is manifested mainly in biblical subjects, and not in painting techniques.
Christianity preached the equality of people, not real, but only spiritual, that is, equality before God alone. Evidence for this understanding of equality is preserved in the catacombs. For example, in the catacombs of Domitilla there is an inscription:
“... Flavia Sperande, the most holy wife, the incomparable mother of all, who lived with me for 28 years and 8 months without any annoyance. Onesiphorus, the husband of the Most Serene Matron, who deservedly deserved, made (a tombstone). "
Judging by the name, Onesiphor is a slave; he married a woman of the senatorial class, as indicated by her title "Most Serene". According to the imperial decrees of the II century. a woman lost this title if she did not marry a senator; if she married a freedman or slave, then such a marriage was not recognized as valid at all. However, the Roman bishop Callistus I (217-222) declared such marriages legal for Christians. This inscription indicates that such marriages really existed. Judging by the language of the original (there are many deviations from the norms of literary Latin), Onesiphorus was a man of little culture, but, apparently, this did not serve as an obstacle to his successful marriage with a Roman of the upper class.
Most of the images of the Good Shepherd in the catacombs date back to the 3rd-4th centuries.
Domicilla's catacomb. 4th century.
Catacomba di Commodilla. Roma
Catacombs of Saints Peter and Marcellinus.
Catacombs of Saints Peter and Marcellinus
left - Adam and Eve, right - Oranta
Paul the Apostle (4th century fresco)
Baptism of the Lord (fresco from the beginning of the 3rd century)
Eucharistic bread and fish (catacombs of St. Callistus)
There are two versions: the gospel story about the Baptism of the Lord from John the Baptist and just an image of the sacrament of baptism. The main difference between the plots is the symbolic depiction of the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove on the frescoes of the Baptism of the Lord.
Ancient icon of Christ
Adam and Eve
Jonah is thrown into the sea
Images of Jonah can often be found in the catacombs. The authors of the paintings presented not only the basis of the biblical story about Jonah, but also details: a ship, a huge fish (sometimes in the form of a sea dragon), a gazebo. Jonah is depicted as resting or asleep, personifying the "sleeping" in cubicles and sarcophagi of the catacombs.
The appearance of the images of Jonah is associated with the prophecy of Christ about his three-day stay in the tomb, in which he compared himself to Jonah (Matthew 12: 38-40).
Images of the four apostles - Peter, Paul, Andrew and John in Rome in the catacombs of the tomb of Santa Tecla. 4th century.
Adam and Eve with their sons. Catacombs on Via Latina