Pollution is the introduction of pollutants into the natural environment that cause adverse changes. Pollution can take the form of chemicals or energy such as noise, heat or light. Pollution components can be either foreign substances/energy or natural pollutants.

The main types and causes of environmental pollution:

Air pollution

Coniferous forest after acid rain

Smoke from chimneys, factories, vehicles, or from burning wood and coal makes the air toxic. The effects of air pollution are also obvious. The release of sulfur dioxide and dangerous gases into the atmosphere causes global warming and acid rain, which in turn increase temperatures, causing excessive rainfall or droughts around the world, and making life difficult. We also breathe every polluted particle in the air and as a result, the risk of asthma and lung cancer increases.

Water pollution

It caused the loss of many species of flora and fauna of the Earth. This was due to the fact that industrial wastes discharged into rivers and other water bodies cause an imbalance in the aquatic environment, which leads to serious pollution and death of aquatic animals and plants.

In addition, spraying insecticides, pesticides (such as DDT) on plants pollute the groundwater system. Oil spills in the oceans have caused significant damage to water bodies.

Eutrophication in the Potomac River, USA

Eutrophication is another important cause of water pollution. Occurs due to untreated Wastewater and leaching of fertilizers from the soil into lakes, ponds, or rivers, which allows chemicals to enter the water and block sunlight, thereby reducing oxygen and rendering the water body uninhabitable.

Pollution of water resources harms not only individual aquatic organisms, but the whole, and seriously affects people who depend on them. In some countries of the world, due to water pollution, outbreaks of cholera and diarrhea are observed.

Soil pollution

soil erosion

This type of pollution occurs when harmful chemical elements enter the soil, usually caused by human activities. Insecticides and pesticides absorb nitrogen compounds from the soil, after which it becomes unsuitable for plant growth. Industrial waste, and also adversely affect the soil. Because plants cannot grow as they should, they are unable to hold the soil, resulting in erosion.

Noise pollution

This pollution occurs when unpleasant (loud) sounds from environment affect the human hearing organs and lead to psychological problems, including tension, high blood pressure, hearing loss, etc. It may be called industrial equipment, airplanes, cars, etc.

Nuclear pollution

This is a very dangerous type of pollution, it occurs due to failures in the operation of nuclear power plants, improper storage of nuclear waste, accidents, etc. Radioactive contamination can cause cancer, infertility, loss of vision, birth defects; it can make the soil infertile, and also adversely affects the air and water.

light pollution

Light pollution of planet earth

Occurs due to noticeable over-illumination of the area. It is common, as a rule, in large cities, especially from billboards, in gyms or entertainment venues at night. In residential areas, light pollution greatly affects people's lives. It also interferes with astronomical observations by making the stars almost invisible.

Thermal/thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes the temperature of the surrounding water. The main cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a refrigerant by power plants and industrial plants. When water used as a refrigerant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the change in temperature reduces the supply of oxygen and affects the composition. Fish and other organisms adapted to a particular temperature range can be killed by sudden changes in water temperature (or rapid increases or decreases).

Thermal pollution is caused by excess heat in the environment creating unwanted changes over long periods of time. This is due to the huge amount industrial enterprises, deforestation and air pollution. Thermal pollution increases the Earth's temperature, causing drastic climate change and extinction of wildlife species.

Visual pollution

Visual pollution, Philippines

Visual pollution is an aesthetic problem and refers to the effects of pollution that impair the ability to enjoy the outside world. It includes: billboards, open dumps, antennas, electrical wires, buildings, cars, etc.

Overcrowding of the territory with a large number of objects causes visual pollution. Such pollution contributes to distraction, eye fatigue, loss of identity, and so on.

plastic pollution

Plastic pollution, India

Includes the accumulation of plastic products in the environment that have an adverse effect on wildlife, the habitat of animals or people. Plastic products are inexpensive and durable, which has made them very popular among people. However, this material decomposes very slowly. Plastic pollution can adversely affect soil, lakes, rivers, seas and oceans. Living organisms, especially marine animals, become entangled in plastic waste or are affected by chemicals in plastic that cause interruptions in biological functions. People are also affected by plastic pollution, causing a hormonal imbalance.

Objects of pollution

The main objects of environmental pollution are such as air (atmosphere), water resources (streams, rivers, lakes, seas, oceans), soil, etc.

Pollutants (sources or subjects of pollution) of the environment

Pollutants are chemical, biological, physical or mechanical elements (or processes) that harm the environment.

They can be harmful both in the short and long term. Pollutants originate from natural resources or are produced by humans.

Many pollutants have a toxic effect on living organisms. Carbon monoxide ( carbon monoxide) is an example of a substance that harms humans. This compound is taken up by the body instead of oxygen, causing shortness of breath, headache, dizziness, heart palpitations, and in severe cases can lead to serious poisoning, and even death.

Some pollutants become hazardous when they react with other naturally occurring compounds. Nitrogen and sulfur oxides are released from impurities in fossil fuels during combustion. They react with water vapor in the atmosphere to form acid rain. Acid rain adversely affects aquatic ecosystems and leads to the death of aquatic animals, plants, and other living organisms. Terrestrial ecosystems also suffer from acid rain.

Classification of pollution sources

According to the type of occurrence, environmental pollution is divided into:

Anthropogenic (artificial) pollution

Deforestation

Anthropogenic pollution is the impact on the environment caused by the activities of mankind. The main sources of artificial pollution are:

• industrialization;
• the invention of automobiles;
• the growth of the world's population;
• deforestation: destruction of natural habitats;
• nuclear explosions;
• overexploitation of natural resources;
• construction of buildings, roads, dams;
• the creation of explosive substances that are used during military operations;
• use of fertilizers and pesticides;
• mining.

Natural (natural) pollution

Eruption

Natural pollution is caused and occurs naturally, without human intervention. It can affect the environment for a certain period of time, but it can be regenerated. To the sources natural pollution relate:

• volcanic eruptions, with the release of gases, ash and magma;
• forest fires emit smoke and gas impurities;
• sandstorms raise dust and sand;
• decomposition of organic matter, during which gases are released.

Consequences of pollution:

environmental degradation

Left photo: Beijing after the rain. Right photo: smog in Beijing

The environment is the first victim of atmospheric pollution. An increase in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere leads to smog, which can prevent sunlight from reaching the earth's surface. As a result, it becomes much more difficult. Gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide can cause acid rain. Water pollution in terms of an oil spill can lead to the death of several species of wild animals and plants.

Human health

Lung cancer

Decreased air quality leads to some respiratory problems, including asthma or lung cancer. Chest pain, sore throat, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease can be caused by air pollution. Water pollution can create skin problems, including irritation and rashes. Similarly, noise pollution leads to hearing loss, stress and sleep disturbance.

Global warming

Male, the capital of the Maldives, is one of the cities facing the prospect of being flooded by the ocean in the 21st century.

The release of greenhouse gases, especially CO2, leads to global warming. Every day new industries are created, new cars appear on the roads, and the number of trees is reduced to make room for new homes. All these factors, directly or indirectly, lead to an increase in CO2 in the atmosphere. Rising CO2 causes the polar ice caps to melt, which increases sea levels and endangers people living near coastal areas.

Ozone layer depletion

The ozone layer is a thin shield high in the sky that prevents ultraviolet rays from reaching the earth. As a result of human activity, chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons are released into the atmosphere, which contributes to the depletion of the ozone layer.

Badlands

Due to the constant use of insecticides and pesticides, the soil can become infertile. Various types of chemicals from industrial waste end up in water, which also affects soil quality.

Protection (protection) of the environment from pollution:

International protection

Many of these are particularly vulnerable as they are subject to human influence in many countries. As a result, some states unite and develop agreements aimed at preventing damage or managing human impact on natural resources. They include agreements that affect the protection of the climate, oceans, rivers and air from pollution. These international environmental treaties are sometimes binding instruments that have legal consequences in case of non-compliance, and in other situations are used as codes of conduct. The most famous include:

• The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), approved in June 1972, provides for the protection of nature for the present generation of people and their descendants.
• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed in May 1992. The main goal of this agreement is "stabilizing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system"
• The Kyoto Protocol provides for the reduction or stabilization of the amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere. It was signed in Japan at the end of 1997.

State protection

The discussion of environmental issues often focuses on the level of government, legislation and law enforcement. However, in the broadest sense, the protection of the environment can be seen as the responsibility of the whole people, and not just the government. Decisions that affect the environment will ideally include a wide range of stakeholders, including industrial sites, indigenous groups, representatives of environmental groups and communities. Decision-making processes in the field of environmental protection are constantly evolving and becoming more active in different countries.

Many constitutions recognize the fundamental right to protect the environment. In addition, in various countries there are organizations and institutions dealing with environmental issues.

While protecting the environment is not simply the responsibility of government agencies, most people consider these organizations paramount in creating and maintaining basic standards that protect the environment and the people who interact with it.

How to protect the environment yourself?

Population and technological advances based on fossil fuels have seriously affected our natural environment. Therefore, now we need to do our part to eliminate the consequences of degradation, so that humanity continues to live in an ecologically safe environment.

There are 3 main principles that are still relevant and important more than ever:

• use less;
• reuse;
• recycle.

• Create compost heap in your garden. This helps to recycle food waste and other biodegradable materials.
• When shopping, use your eco-bags and try to avoid plastic bags as much as possible.
• Plant as many trees as you can.
• Think about how you can reduce the number of trips you make with your car.
• Reduce car emissions by walking or cycling. These are not just great alternatives to driving, but also health benefits.
• Use public transport whenever you can for your daily commute.
• Bottles, paper, waste oil, old batteries and used tires must be properly disposed of; All this causes serious pollution.
• Do not pour chemicals and used oil onto the ground or down drains leading to waterways.
• If possible, recycle selected biodegradable waste, and work to reduce the amount of non-recyclable waste used.
• Reduce the amount of meat you consume or consider a vegetarian diet.

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Introduction

Environmental pollution has almost the same long history as the history of mankind. For a long time, primitive man almost did not differ from other animal species and, in ecological terms, was in balance with the environment. In addition, the number was small.

Over time, as a result of the development of people, their mental capabilities, the human race stood out: it became the first species of living beings that carries a potential danger of balance in nature.

We can assume that "human intervention in natural processes during this time has increased by at least 5000 times, if this intervention can be assessed at all" Kormilitsyn V.I. and others. Fundamentals of ecology - M .: INTERSTYL, 1997 ..

At each stage of development, a person was connected with the outside world. But since the emergence of an industrial society, production, human intervention in nature has intensified - it began to threaten to become a global danger to humanity. Man has to intervene more and more in the economy of the biosphere - that part of our planet in which life exists. The Earth's biosphere is currently undergoing increasing anthropogenic impact.

The purpose of the abstract is to determine the types and severity of human anthropogenic impact on the nature of the Earth, the scale of such environmental impacts.

pollution anthropogenic environmental

The concept of environmental pollution

Environmental pollution should be understood as a change in the properties of the environment (chemical, mechanical, physical, bio), occurring as a result of natural or artificial processes and leading to a deterioration in the functions of the environment in relation to any biological or technological object Voytkevich G. V., Vronsky V. A Fundamentals of the doctrine of the biosphere.- M .: Education, 1989.

Applying different components of the environment in their activities, a person changes its property. Often this is expressed in a form unfavorable to the environment.

Pollution of the environment is expressed in the entry into it of harmful substances that can harm human health, inorganic nature, flora and fauna, or become an obstacle in one or another human activity Wikipedia is the free encyclopedia.

They recognize natural pollution (volcanic eruption, river flooding) and pollution resulting from human actions (anthropogenic).

A significant part of the waste is toxic to microorganisms or accumulates in various areas of the environment.

Air pollution

Air pollution occurs in two ways - natural and artificial. Various volcanic eruptions, dust storms, fires, decomposition of biomaterial are considered natural sources of environmental pollution.

About the artificial source of atmospheric pollution (and not only the atmosphere, but also the soil and air) we will stop separately and consider in detail.

Artificial sources - they are also called "anthropogenic" - are industry, transport, air heating installations. The volume of each source in total air pollution varies by location.

The most polluting air industrial production. Their stations and equipment emit sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, particles and compounds of mercury and arsenic, chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen oxides, fluorine, and phosphorus compounds into the air. As well as cement plants. Gases get into the air as a result of burning fuel, heating, waste processing.

According to scientists, every year in the world as a result of human activity, 25.5 billion tons of carbon oxides, 190 million tons of sulfur oxides, 65 million tons of nitrogen oxides, 1.4 million tons of chlorofluorocarbons (freons), organic compounds lead, hydrocarbons, including carcinogenic (causing cancer) Khorev B.S. City problems. - M.: Thought, 1975 ..

There are several sources of pollution:

Combustion of combustible materials

Industrial production processes

natural sources.

Consider the main harmful impurities of anthropogenic origin Davidenko I.V. The earth is your home. - M.: Nedra. 1989..

Carbon monoxide. The concentration of carbon monoxide in urban air is greater than any other pollutant. But this gas has no color, no smell, no taste, so our senses are not able to detect it. This gas enters the air with exhaust gases and industrial emissions. Carbon monoxide leads to an increase in the temperature on the planet and the creation of a "greenhouse effect".

Carbon dioxide is a colorless gas with a slightly sour smell and taste. Formed during the combustion of any type of fuel. It has the same effect on the atmosphere as carbon monoxide - it heats the air temperature, which is why the "greenhouse effect" develops on the planet.

Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas with a pungent odor, easily soluble in water. It is used for bleaching wool, for canning, as a disinfectant, in refrigeration due to its easy condensability. It is emitted during the production of sulfuric acid, during the combustion of sulfur-containing fuel in forges, boiler houses. Causes cough, runny nose, watery eyes, a feeling of dryness in the throat, harms plants. Attacks limestone and some rocks. I.K. Malina, A.A. Kasparov. TSB - 1969-1978

US only total of sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere amounted to 65% of the global emission. Encyclopedia "I Know the World" (Ecology).

Sulfuric anhydride (or sulfur oxide) is a highly volatile, colorless liquid with a suffocating odor. Wikipedia. As a result of oxidation, a solution of sulfuric acid is formed, which has Negative influence on the soil, exacerbates diseases respiratory tract person. Plants growing near plants that emit such emissions are stained with acid droplets.

Pyrometallurgical enterprises of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, as well as thermal power plants, annually emit tens of millions of tons of sulfuric anhydride into the atmosphere. Our Planet; Moscow; 1985..

Hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide. Hydrogen sulfide is a colorless gas with a characteristic odor of rotten eggs. They come together with other sulfur compounds. The main sources of emissions are enterprises manufacturing nitrogen fertilizers, nitric acid and nitrates, aniline dyes, nitro compounds, viscose silk, celluloid. The amount of such emissions entering the atmosphere is about 20 million tons per year. Monin A. S. Shishkov Yu. A. Global environmental problems. -- M.: Knowledge, 1991.

Nitrogen oxides - a gas, red-brown in color, with a characteristic pungent odor or a yellowish liquid 11. The main sources are fuel power plants, internal combustion engines and in the process of pickling metals with nitric acid. It mainly affects the respiratory tract and lungs, and also causes changes in the composition of the blood, in particular, it reduces the content of hemoglobin in the blood. More often has a state of smog.

Fluorine compounds. Many toothpastes contain fluoride, which is essential for strengthening teeth and gums. V Russian Federation a system of standards for fluorine for drinking water for different climatic zones has been developed. Its concentrations for warm and cold seasons were also determined. Despite the apparent benefits, fluorine compounds have negative impact to the atmosphere. Sources of pollution are enterprises producing various types of enamel, ceramics, aluminum, glass, and phosphate fertilizers. Fluorine-containing substances enter the atmosphere in the form of gas or dust. The compounds are characterized by a toxic effect.

Chlorine compounds. More common as an admixture of the molecule of chlorine and hydrochloric acid. Occurs in the chemical production of hydrochloric acid, pesticides, dyes, soda.

Per 1 ton of pig iron, in addition to 12.7 kg of sulfur dioxide and 14.5 kg of dust particles, which determine the amount of compounds of arsenic, phosphorus, antimony, lead, mercury vapor and rare metals, tar substances and hydrogen cyanide, Danilov-Danilyan V. AND. " Ecological problems: what is happening, who is to blame and what to do? M.: MNEPU, 1997.

In addition to gaseous pollution, the atmosphere is constantly replenished with a large number of solid particles - dust, soot and soot. Pollution of the environment with heavy metals poses a considerable threat. Lead, mercury, copper, cadmium, nickel and many others are constantly present in the air of industrial centers E. A. Kriksunov, V.V. Pasechnik, A.P. Sidorin "Ecology" Publishing House "Drofa" 2005.

The greatest danger to the Earth's atmosphere is aerosols - liquid and solid particles in the air. Aerosol particles are particularly dangerous to organisms and cause disease in humans. Outwardly, such pollution presents itself in the form of smoke, fog.

According to environmental studies, about 1 cubic meter annually enters the Earth's atmosphere. km of aerosol particles during the production activities of people.

The sources of aerosol pollution are most often TPPs using high-ash coal, metallurgical, cement, and carbon black plants. Another way for the appearance of aerosol pollution of the atmosphere is industrial dumps - "a dump, an artificial mound of waste rocks extracted during underground mining of coal deposits and other minerals, a mound of waste or slag from various industries and the combustion of solid fuels." Wikipedia

Naturally, everyone also remembers freons, which are used as refrigerants in everyday life, in solvents, etc. It is their scientists around the world who consider the cause of the formation of ozone holes in the atmosphere. This entails an increase in human skin cancers, because ozone is known to absorb the sun's ultraviolet radiation.

ANTHROPOGENIC POLLUTION: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

Environmental pollution- undesirable change in its properties as a result of anthropogenic intake of various substances and compounds. It leads or may lead in the future to a harmful effect on the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, flora and fauna, buildings, structures, materials, and on the person himself. It suppresses the ability of nature to self-repair its properties.

Human pollution has a long history. More residents ancient rome complained about the pollution of the waters of the Tiber River. inhabitants of Athens and Ancient Greece worried about the pollution of the waters of the port of Piraeus. Already in the Middle Ages, laws on environmental protection appeared.

The main source of pollution is the return to nature of that huge mass of waste that is formed in the process of production and consumption of human society. Already in 1970 they amounted to 40 billion tons, and by the end of the 20th century. increased to 100 billion tons.

A distinction must be made between quantitative and qualitative pollution.

Quantitative environmental pollution arises as a result of the return to it of those substances and compounds that occur in nature in a natural state, but in much smaller quantities (for example, these are compounds of iron and other metals).

Qualitative environmental pollution due to the entry into it of substances and compounds unknown to nature, created primarily by the industry of organic synthesis.

Pollution of the lithosphere (soil cover) occurs as a result of industrial, construction and agricultural economic activity. At the same time, metals and their compounds, fertilizers, pesticides, and radioactive substances act as the main pollutants, the concentration of which leads to a change in chemical composition soils. The problem of accumulation of household waste is also becoming more and more complex; It is no coincidence that in the West, in relation to our time, the term "garbage civilization" is sometimes used.

And this is not to mention the complete destruction of the soil cover as a result, first of all, of open-pit mining, the depth of which - including in Russia - sometimes reaches 500 m or even more. The so-called badlands ("bad lands"), which have completely or almost completely lost their productivity, occupy already 1% of the land surface.

Pollution of the hydrosphere occurs primarily as a result of the discharge of industrial, agricultural and domestic wastewater into rivers, lakes and seas. By the end of the 90s. the total world volume of wastewater has approached 5 thousand km3 per year, or 25% of the "water ration" of the Earth. But since these waters require on average 10 times more pure water to dilute, they actually pollute a much larger volume of channel water. It is not difficult to guess what exactly in this, and not only in the growth of direct water intake - main reason aggravation of the problem of fresh water.

Many rivers are heavily polluted - the Rhine, Danube, Seine, Thames, Tiber, Mississippi. Ohio, Volga, Dnieper, Don, Dniester. Nile, Ganges, etc. The pollution of the World Ocean is also growing, the "health" of which is threatened simultaneously from the coast, from the surface, from the bottom, from rivers and the atmosphere. Every year, the ocean enters great amount waste. The most polluted are the inland and marginal seas - the Mediterranean, Northern, Irish, Baltic, Black, Azov, inland Japanese, Javanese, Caribbean, as well as the Biscay, Persian, Mexican and Guinean bays.

The Mediterranean Sea is the largest inland sea on Earth, the cradle of several great civilizations. 18 countries are located on its shores, 130 million people live, 260 ports are located. In addition, the Mediterranean Sea is one of the main areas of world shipping: it simultaneously hosts 2.5 thousand long-distance ships and 5 thousand coastal ships. 300-350 million tons of oil pass through its routes annually. As a result, this sea in the 60-70s. almost turned into the main "garbage pit" of Europe.

Pollution affected not only inland seas, but also the central parts of the oceans. The threat to deep-sea basins is growing: there have been cases of burial of toxic substances and radioactive materials in them.

But oil pollution poses a particular danger to the Ocean. As a result of oil leakage during its production, transportation and processing, from 3 to 10 million tons of oil and oil products annually enter the World Ocean (according to various sources). Space images show that already about 1/3 of its entire surface is covered with an oily film, which reduces evaporation, inhibits the development of plankton, and limits the interaction of the Ocean with the atmosphere. Most polluted with oil Atlantic Ocean. Motion surface water in the Ocean leads to the spread of pollution over long distances.

Atmospheric pollution occurs as a result of the work of industry, transport, as well as various furnaces, which together annually throw billions of tons of solid and gaseous particles into the wind. The main air pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO) and sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), which are formed primarily during the combustion of mineral fuels, as well as oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, lead, mercury, aluminum and other metals.

Sulfur dioxide is the main source of so-called acid rain, which is especially widespread in Europe and North America. Acid precipitation reduces crop yields, destroys forests and other vegetation, destroys life in river reservoirs, destroys buildings, and adversely affects human health.

In Scandinavia, which receives acid rain mainly from Great Britain and Germany, life has died in 20 thousand lakes, salmon, trout and other fish have disappeared in them. In many countries of Western Europe, there is a catastrophic loss of forests. The same destruction of forests began in Russia. The effects of acid precipitation can not withstand not only living organisms, but also stone.

A particular problem is the increase in emissions of carbon dioxide (СО2) into the atmosphere. If in the middle of the XX century. worldwide CO 2 emission was about 6 billion tons, then at the end of the century it exceeded 25 billion tons. The main responsibility for these emissions lies with the economically developed countries of the northern hemisphere. But in Lately carbon emissions have also risen significantly in some developing countries ah in connection with the development of industry and especially energy. You know that such emissions threaten humanity with the so-called greenhouse effect and global warming. And the growing emission of chlorofluorocarbons (freons) has already led to the formation of huge "ozone holes" and the partial destruction of the "ozone barrier". The accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986 indicates that cases of radioactive contamination of the atmosphere also cannot be completely ruled out.

SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS: THREE MAIN WAYS.

But humanity not only litters its "nest". It has developed ways to protect the environment and has already begun to implement them.

The first way is to create different kind treatment facilities, in the use of low-sulfur fuel, the destruction and processing of waste, the construction of chimneys with a height of 200-300 m or more, land reclamation, etc. However, even the most modern buildings do not provide complete cleansing. And ultra-high chimneys, reducing the concentration of harmful substances in a given place, contribute to the spread of dust pollution and acid rain over much larger areas: a pipe 250 m high increases the dispersion radius to 75 km.

The second way is to develop and apply a fundamentally new environmental ("clean") production technology, in the transition to low-waste and waste-free production processes. Thus, the transition from direct-flow (river-enterprise-river) water supply to circulation, and even more so to "dry" technology, can first ensure a partial, and then a complete cessation of wastewater discharge into rivers and reservoirs.

This path is the main one, because it not only reduces, but prevents environmental pollution. But it requires huge expenditures, unsustainable for many countries.

The third way is in a deeply thought out, most rational distribution of the so-called "dirty" industries that have a negative impact on the state of the environment. Among the "dirty" industries, first of all, are the chemical and petrochemical, metallurgical, pulp and paper industries, thermal energy, production of building materials. When locating such enterprises, geographical expertise is especially necessary.

Another way is to reuse raw materials. V developed countries ah, the reserves of secondary raw materials are equal to the explored geological ones. Recycling centers - old industrial areas Foreign Europe, USA, Japan, European part of Russia.

Table 14. The share of waste paper in the production of paper and cardboard in the late 80s, in%.

ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVITIES AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY.

The plunder of natural resources and the growth of environmental pollution have become an obstacle not only to the further development of production. Often they threaten the very lives of people. So back in the 70's and 80's. most of the economically developed countries of the world began to carry out a variety of environmental activities, to conduct environmental policy. Strict environmental laws have been enacted, long-term environmental improvement programs have been developed, fine systems have been introduced (polluter pays), special ministries and other government bodies. At the same time, a mass movement of the public in defense of the environment began. In many countries, the Green parties appeared and achieved considerable influence, various public organizations such as Greenpeace.

As a result, in the 80-90s. environmental pollution in a number of economically developed countries began to gradually decrease, although in most developing countries and in some countries with economies in transition, including Russia, it still remains threatening.

Domestic scientists-geographers distinguish 16 critical ecological regions on the territory of Russia, which together occupy 15% of the country's territory. Industrial-urban agglomerations prevail among them, but there are also agricultural and recreational areas.

Nowadays, for environmental protection, the implementation of environmental policy is not enough measures taken by individual countries. The efforts of the entire world community are needed, which are coordinated by the UN and other international organizations. In 1972, the first UN Conference on the Environment was held in Stockholm, and its opening day, June 5, was declared World Environment Day. Subsequently, an important document "The World Strategy for Conservation of Nature" was adopted, which contained a detailed program of action for all countries. Another similar conference took place in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. It adopted "Agenda for the 21st Century" and other major documents. There is a special body in the UN system - the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), which coordinates the work carried out in different countries, generalizes world experience. Actively participate in environmental activities international union Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the International Geographical Union (IGU) and other organizations. In the 80-90s. international agreements were concluded to reduce carbon emissions, freons, and many others. Some of the measures being taken have distinct geographic dimensions.

In the late 90s. in the world there are already about 10 thousand protected natural areas(OPT). Most of them are in the USA, Australia, Canada, China, India. Total number national parks is approaching 2 thousand, and biosphere reserves - to 350.

Since 1972, the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage has been in force. In 1998 in the List world heritage, which is supplemented annually, included 552 objects - including 418 cultural, 114 natural and 20 cultural and natural. Most of these facilities are in Italy and Spain (26 each), France (23), India (21), Germany and China (19 each), the USA (18), the UK and Mexico (17 each). There are 12 of them in Russia so far.

And yet, each of you, the citizens of the coming 21st century, should always remember the conclusion that was reached at the Rio-92 Conference: "Planet Earth is in such danger as it has never been before."

GEOGRAPHICAL RESOURCES AND GEOECOLOGY

In geographical science, two interrelated directions have recently taken shape - resource science and geoecological.

Geographic resource science studies the distribution and structure of certain types of natural resources and their complexes, issues of their protection, reproduction, economic evaluation, rational use and resource availability.

Scientists representing this direction have developed various classifications natural resources proposed concept natural resource potential , resource cycles, territorial combination of natural resources, natural-technical (geotechnical) systems and others. They also participate in the compilation of inventories of natural resources, their economic evaluation.

Natural resource potential (NRP) of the territory- this is the totality of its natural resources that can be used in economic activities, taking into account scientific and technological progress. The PRP is characterized by two main indicators - size and structure, which includes mineral resources, land, water and other private potentials. resource cycle allows you to trace the successive stages of the cycle of natural resources: identification, extraction, processing, consumption, return of waste back to the environment. Examples of resource cycles are: the cycle of energy resources and energy, the cycle of metal resources and metals, the cycle of forest resources and timber products.

geoecology from a geographical point of view, studies the processes and phenomena that occur in the natural environment as a result of anthropogenic interference in it. The concepts of geoecology include, for example, the concept monitoring
Basic concepts: geographic (environment) environment, ore and non-metallic minerals, ore belts, pools of minerals; structure of the world land fund, southern and northern forest belts, forest cover; hydropower potential; shelf, alternative sources energy; resource availability, natural resource potential (NRP), territorial combination of natural resources (RTSR), areas of new development, secondary resources; environmental pollution, environmental policy.

Skills and abilities: be able to characterize the natural resources of the country (region) according to the plan; use various methods of economic evaluation of natural resources; characterize the natural prerequisites for the development of industry, Agriculture countries (regions) according to the plan; give brief description location of the main types of natural resources, single out the countries "leaders" and "outsiders" in terms of availability of one or another type of natural resources; give examples of countries that do not have rich natural resources but reached a high level economic development and vice versa; give examples of rational and irrational use of resources.

Ionizing radiation, thermal radiation resulting from .

The continuing increase in the number and variety of new industrial enterprises, chemical production, various vehicles, chemicalization of agriculture lead to increasing environmental pollution with all kinds of chemicals (xenobiotics) that enter it with gaseous, liquid and solid emissions and waste.

The environmental situation in Russia has all the main features and manifestations of the global environmental crisis. Recently, first of all, it has taken place, the levels of which exceed the permissible ones.

The current environmental situation is also dangerous. Currently, the annual emissions of industrial enterprises and transport in Russia amount to about 25 million tons. Currently, there are more than 24 thousand enterprises that pollute the environment in the country. According to official data, more than 65 million people living in 187 cities are exposed to pollutants whose average annual concentrations exceed the maximum allowable limits. Every tenth city in Russia has high level environmental pollution.

Significant air pollution in them is caused by stationary sources. Most of the pollutants are gaseous and liquid substances and a much smaller part - for solid impurities. The total emission of harmful gaseous substances into the atmosphere is significantly increased by vehicles. The share of road transport in total emissions is on average 35-40% in the Russian Federation, and in major cities reaches 80-90%. Exhaust gases emitted by vehicles contain more than 200 harmful substances and compounds. The most well-known air pollutants are carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, aldehydes, hydrocarbons, lead, etc. Some air pollutants have carcinogenic properties (benzpyrene).

Air pollution

Atmospheric air is one of the most important components of the environment. The main sources of air pollution are thermal power plants and heating plants burning fossil fuels; motor transport; black and non-ferrous metallurgy; mechanical engineering; chemical production; extraction and processing of mineral raw materials; open sources (extraction of agricultural production, construction).

In modern conditions, more than 400 million tons of particles of ash, soot, dust and various kinds of waste enter the atmosphere and building materials. In addition to the above substances, other, more toxic substances are emitted into the atmosphere: vapors of mineral acids (sulfuric, chromic, etc.), organic solvents, etc. At present, there are more than 500 harmful substances polluting the atmosphere.

Sources of emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere
impurities	main sources		Average concentration in the air mg / m 3
	Natural	Angropogenic
Dust	Volcanic eruptions, dust storms, forest fires	Combustion of fuel in industrial and domestic conditions	in cities 0.04 - 0.4
sulphur dioxide	Volcanic eruptions, oxidation of sulfur and sulfates dispersed into the sea	Combustion of fuel in industrial and domestic installations	in cities up to 1.0
nitrogen oxides	Forest fires	Industry, transport, thermal power plants	In areas with developed industry up to 0.2
Oxides of carbon
Volatile hydrocarbons	Forest fires, natural methane	Motor transport, evaporation of oil products	In areas with developed industry up to 0.3
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons	-	Motor transport, chemical and oil refineries	In areas with developed industry up to 0.01

Many branches of energy and industry generate not only the maximum amount of harmful emissions, but also create environmentally unfavorable living conditions for residents of both large and medium-sized cities. Emissions of toxic substances lead, as a rule, to an increase in the current concentrations of substances above maximum allowable concentrations(MPC).

MPC of harmful substances in the atmospheric air of populated areas- these are the maximum concentrations related to a certain averaging period (30 minutes, 24 hours, 1 month, 1 year) and not having, with a regulated probability of their occurrence, either direct or indirect harmful effects on the human body, including long-term effects for the present and future generations, which do not reduce a person's working capacity and do not worsen his well-being.

Hydrosphere pollution

Water, like air, is a vital source for all known organisms. Russia is one of the countries most provided with water. However, the state of its reservoirs cannot be called satisfactory. Anthropogenic activity leads to pollution of both surface and underground water sources.

The main sources of pollution of the hydrosphere are discharged wastewater generated during the operation of energy, industrial, chemical, medical, defense, housing and communal and other enterprises and facilities; disposal of radioactive waste in containers and tanks that lose their tightness after a certain period of time; accidents and catastrophes occurring on land and in water spaces; atmospheric air, polluted various substances other.

Surface sources of drinking water are annually and increasingly exposed to pollution by xenobiotics of various nature, therefore, the supply of the population drinking water from surface sources poses an increasing danger. About 50% of Russians are forced to use drinking water that does not meet sanitary and hygienic requirements for a number of indicators. The water quality of 75% of water bodies in Russia does not meet regulatory requirements.

More than 600 billion tons of energy, industrial, household and other waste waters are annually discharged into the hydrosphere. More than 20-30 million tons of oil and products of its processing, phenols, easily oxidizable organic substances, copper and zinc compounds enter the water spaces. Unsustainable agriculture also contributes to the pollution of water sources. Residues of fertilizers and pesticides washed out of the soil enter water bodies and pollute them. Many pollutants of the hydrosphere are able to enter into chemical reactions and form more harmful complexes.

Water pollution leads to the suppression of ecosystem functions, slows down the natural processes of biological purification of fresh water, and also contributes to a change in the chemical composition of food and the human body.

Hygienic and technical requirements for water supply sources and the rules for their selection in the interests of public health are regulated by GOST 2761-84 “Sources of centralized domestic drinking water supply. Hygienic, technical requirements and selection rules”; SanPiN 2.1.4.544-96 “Requirements for water quality of non-centralized water supply. Sanitary protection of springs”; GN 2.1.5.689-98 “Maximum Permissible Concentrations (MPC) of Chemical Substances in the Water of Water Bodies of Domestic Drinking and Cultural Water Supply”, etc.

Hygienic requirements for the quality of drinking water of centralized drinking water supply systems are specified in sanitary rules and regulations. The norms are established for the following water parameters of reservoirs: the content of impurities and suspended particles, taste, color, turbidity and water temperature, pH, composition and concentration of mineral impurities and oxygen dissolved in water, MPCs of chemicals and pathogenic bacteria. MPCv is the maximum allowable pollution of water in reservoirs, at which safety for human health and normal conditions for water use are maintained. For example, for benzene MPCv is 0.5 mg/l.

Soil pollution

The soil- numerous lower animals and microorganisms, including bacteria, mold fungi, viruses, etc. The soil is a source of infection with anthrax, gas gangrene, tetanus, botulism.

Along with the natural uneven distribution of certain chemical elements in modern conditions, their artificial redistribution takes place on a huge scale. Emissions from industrial enterprises and agricultural facilities, dispersing over considerable distances and getting into the soil, create new combinations of chemical elements. From the soil, these substances, as a result of various migration processes, can enter the human body (soil - plants - man, soil - atmospheric air - man, soil - water - man, etc.). All kinds of metals (iron, copper, aluminum, lead, zinc) and other chemical pollutants enter the soil with industrial solid waste.

The soil has the ability to accumulate radioactive substances that enter it with radioactive waste and atmospheric radioactive fallout after nuclear testing. Radioactive substances are included in food chains and affect living organisms.

Among the chemical compounds that pollute the soil are carcinogenic substances - carcinogens, which play a significant role in the occurrence of tumor diseases. The main sources of soil pollution with carcinogenic substances are vehicle exhaust gases, emissions from industrial enterprises, thermal power plants, etc. Carcinogens enter the soil from the atmosphere together with coarse and medium-dispersed dust particles, when oil or its products leak, etc. The main danger of pollution soil is linked to global air pollution.

Rationing of chemical contamination of soils is carried out according to the maximum allowable concentrations of MPC in accordance with GN 6229-91 “List of maximum allowable concentrations (MPC) and approximate allowable amounts of chemicals in the soil”.

The most common type of negative human impact on the biosphere is pollution, which is associated in one way or another with the main most acute environmental situations. by pollution refers to the entry into the environment of any solid, liquid, gaseous substances, microorganisms, energy (in the form of sound waves, radiation) in quantities that are harmful to human health, animals, plants and other life forms.

pollutant- this is a substance, physical factor, biological species that are in the environment in an amount that goes beyond their natural content in nature. In other words, a pollutant is everything that is present in the environment in the wrong place, at the wrong time, in the wrong quantity.

Any substance or factor can become a pollutant under certain circumstances. For example, sodium cations are necessary for the body to maintain electrolytic balance, conduct nerve impulses, and activate digestive enzymes. However, in large quantities sodium salts are poisonous; so, 250 g of table salt is a lethal dose for humans.

Consequences of pollution of any type can become:

- violation of life support systems at the local, regional, global levels: climate change, a decrease in the natural rate of circulation of substances and energy necessary for the normal functioning of humans and other living beings;

- harm to human health: the spread of infectious diseases, irritation and diseases of the respiratory tract, changes at the genetic level, changes in reproductive function, cancerous cell transformations;

– causing damage to vegetation and wildlife; reduced productivity of forests and food crops, harmful effects on animals, leading to their extinction;

– damage to property: corrosion of metals, chemical and physical destruction of materials, buildings, monuments;

– unpleasant and aesthetically unacceptable impact: unpleasant smell and taste, reduced visibility in the atmosphere, soiling of clothes.

Pollution natural environment can be controlled at the input and output. Inlet control prevents a potential pollutant from entering the environment or drastically reduces its entry. For example, sulfur impurities can be removed from coal before it is burned, which will prevent or drastically reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere, which is harmful to plants and the respiratory system. Exit control aims to eliminate waste already released into the environment.

Classification of pollutants

Distinguish natural and anthropogenic sources of pollution. natural pollution is associated with the activity of volcanoes, forest fires, mudflows, the release of polymetallic ores to the surface of the earth; the release of gases from the bowels of the earth, the activity of microorganisms, plants, animals. Anthropogenic pollution is associated with human activities.

Classification of anthropogenic (technogenic) impacts caused by environmental pollution includes the main categories:

1.Material and energy characteristics of impacts: mechanical, physical (thermal, electromagnetic, radiation, acoustic), chemical, biological factors and agents, their various combinations. In most cases, emissions (i.e. emissions - emissions, sinks, radiation, etc.) of various technical sources act as such agents.

2.Quantitative characteristics of the impact: strength and degree of danger (intensity of factors and effects, masses, concentrations, characteristics such as "dose-effect", toxicity, acceptability according to environmental and sanitary and hygienic standards); spatial scales, prevalence (local, regional, global).

3.Time parameters of impacts by the nature of the effects: short-term and long-term, persistent and unstable, direct and indirect, with pronounced or hidden trace effects, reversible and irreversible, actual and potential, threshold effects.

4.Categories of impact effects: various living recipients (capable of perceiving and reacting) - people, animals, plants, as well as environmental components, which include: the environment of settlements and premises, natural landscapes, soil, water bodies, atmosphere, near-Earth space; structures.

Within each of these categories, a certain ranking of the environmental significance of factors, characteristics and objects is possible. In general, in terms of the nature and scale of actual impacts, chemical pollution is the most significant, and the greatest potential threat is associated with radiation. Recently, not only the growth of pollution, but also their total impact, often exceeding in the final effect the simple summation of impacts, which has a “peak” effect, is of particular danger. synergy. As for the objects of influence, the person is in the first place.

Sources anthropogenic environmental pollution are enterprises of industry, energy, agriculture, construction, transport, production and consumption of food, the use of household items.

Sources of technogenic emissions can be organized and unorganized, stationary and mobile. Organized sources are equipped with special devices for the directed emission of emissions (pipe, ventilation shafts, waste channels), emissions from unorganized sources are arbitrary. The sources also differ in geometric characteristics (point, line, areal) and in the mode of operation - continuous, periodic, salvo.

Sources of chemical and thermal pollution are thermochemical processes in the energy sector - fuel combustion and related thermal and chemical processes. Associated reactions are associated with the content of various impurities in the fuel, with the oxidation of air nitrogen and with secondary reactions already in the environment.

All these reactions accompany the operation of thermal power plants, industrial furnaces, internal combustion engines, gas turbine and jet engines, metallurgy processes, and the firing of mineral raw materials. The greatest contribution to energy-dependent pollution of the environment is made by energy and transport. On average, about 150 kg of pollutants are emitted per 1 ton of standard fuel in the fuel heat power industry.

Consider the balance of substances of an "average" passenger car with a fuel consumption of 8 liters (6 kg) per 100 km. With optimal engine operation, burning 1 kg of gasoline is accompanied by the consumption of 13.5 kg of air and the emission of 14.5 kg of waste substances. Up to 200 compounds are registered in emissions. The total mass of pollution - an average of about 270 g per 1 kg of gasoline burned, in terms of the entire volume of fuel consumed by passenger cars in the world, will be about 340 million tons; for all road transport - up to 400 million tons.

By scale pollution can be local, local, characterized by an increased content of pollutants in small areas (city, industrial enterprise); regional when large areas are affected (river basin, state); global when pollution is found anywhere on the planet (pollution of the biosphere) and space(garbage, spent spacecraft stages).

As a rule, many anthropogenic pollutants are no different from natural ones, with the exception of xenobiotics, substances alien to nature. These are artificial and synthetic compounds produced by the chemical industry: polymers, surfactants. In nature, there are no agents for their decomposition, assimilation, so they accumulate in the environment.

Distinguish primary and secondary pollution. At primary pollution harmful substances are formed directly in the course of natural or anthropogenic processes. At secondary pollution, harmful substances are synthesized in the environment from primary ones; the formation of secondary pollutants is often catalyzed by sunlight (photochemical process). As a rule, secondary pollutants are more toxic than primary ones (phosgene is formed from chlorine and carbon monoxide).

All types of environmental pollution can be combined into groups: chemical, physical, physico-chemical, biological, mechanical, informational and complex.

chemical pollution associated with the release of chemicals into the environment. physical pollution associated with a change in the physical parameters of the environment: temperature (thermal pollution), wave parameters (light, noise, electromagnetic); radiation parameters (radiation and radioactive). form physical and chemical pollution is aerosol (smog, smoke).

biological pollution is associated with the introduction into the environment and reproduction of organisms undesirable for humans, with the penetration or introduction of new species into natural systems, which causes negative changes in biocenoses. Clogging of the environment with materials that have an adverse mechanical effect without physical and chemical consequences (garbage) is called mechanical pollution. Complex pollution environments - thermal and and informational, due to the combined action of various types of pollution .

Some pollutants acquire toxic properties after entering the body during the chemical transformations taking place there. The same substance or factor can cause multiple effects on the body.

The effect of pollutants on the human body manifests itself differently. Poisons act on the liver, kidneys, hematopoietic, blood, respiratory systems. Carcinogenic and mutagenic effects - as a result of changes in the information properties of germ and somatic cells, fibrogenic- the appearance of benign tumors (fibromas); teratogenic- deformities in newborns; allergenic- causing allergic reactions: damage to the skin (eczema), respiratory tract (asthma); n neuro- and psychotropic effect associated with the effect of a toxicant on the central nervous system of the human body.

According to the mechanism of action of the pollutant on the body, there are:

- irritant substances that change the pH of the mucous membrane or irritate nerve endings;

- substances or factors that change the ratio of oxidative and reduction reactions in the body;

- substances that irreversibly bind to organic or inorganic compounds that make up tissues;

- fat-soluble substances that disrupt the functions of biological membranes;

- substances that replace chemical elements or compounds in the cell;

– factors affecting electromagnetic and mechanical oscillatory processes in the body.