Carbohydrates, along with proteins and lipids, are the most important chemical compounds of living organisms. In the body of animals and humans, carbohydrates perform very important functions: first of all, energy (the main type of cellular fuel), structural (an essential component of most intracellular structures), protective (the importance of polysaccharides in maintaining immunity is great).
Carbohydrates are also used for the synthesis of nucleic acids (ribose, deoxyribose); they are constituents of nucleotide coenzymes that play an extremely important role in the metabolism of living things. Recently, complex mixed biopolymers containing carbohydrates have attracted more and more attention. Such mixed biopolymers include, in addition to nucleic acids, glycopeptides and glycoproteins, glycolipids and lipopolysaccharides, glycolipoproteins, etc. These substances perform complex and important functions in the body.
In the composition of the body of humans and animals, carbohydrates are present in smaller quantities (no more than 2% of the dry mass of the body) than proteins and lipids. In plant organisms, carbohydrates account for up to 80% of the dry mass, therefore, in general, there are more carbohydrates in the biosphere than all other organic compounds combined.
For the first time the term "carbohydrates" was proposed by K. Schmidt, a professor at Dorpat (now Tartu) University in 1844. At that time, it was assumed that all carbohydrates have the general formula C m (H 2 O) n, i.e. carbon + water. Hence the name "carbohydrates". For example, glucose and fructose have the formula C 6 (H 2 O) 6, cane sugar (sucrose) - C 12 (H 2 O) 11, starch - [C 6 (H 2 O) 5] n, etc. B later it turned out that a number of compounds belonging to the class of carbohydrates in their properties contain hydrogen and oxygen in a slightly different proportion than indicated in the general formula (for example, deoxyribose - C 5 H 10 O 4. In 1927, the International Commission on Reform The chemical nomenclature proposed to replace the term "carbohydrates" with the term "glycides", but it did not become widespread. The old name "carbohydrates" took root and is firmly held in science, being generally recognized.
It should be noted that the chemistry of carbohydrates occupies one of the leading places in the history of the development of organic chemistry. Cane sugar can be considered the first organic compound isolated in chemically pure form. The synthesis (outside the body) of carbohydrates from formaldehyde, carried out in 1861 by A.M.Butlerov, was the first synthesis of one of the three basic substances (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) that make up living organisms. The chemical structure of the simplest sugars was elucidated at the end of the 19th century as a result of fundamental research by German scientists G. Kliani and E. Fischer. A significant contribution to the study of sugars was made by domestic scientists A. A. Colley, P. P. Shorygin, and others. In the 1920s, the works of the English researcher W. Heworth laid the foundations of the structural chemistry of polysaccharides. Since the second half of the 20th century, there has been a rapid development of the chemistry and biochemistry of carbohydrates, due to their important biological significance.
According to the currently accepted classification, carbohydrates are divided into three main groups: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides can be considered as derivatives of polyhydric alcohols containing a carbonyl (aldehyde or ketone) group. If the carbonyl group is at the end of the chain, then the monosaccharide is an aldehyde and is called aldose; at any other position of this group, the monosaccharide is a ketone and is called ketose.
The simplest representatives of monosaccharides are trioses: glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone. When the primary alcohol group of a trihydric alcohol, glycerol, is oxidized, glyceraldehyde (aldose) is formed, and the oxidation of the secondary alcohol group leads to the formation of dihydroxyacetone (ketosis):
Stereoisomerism of monosaccharides ... All monosaccharides contain one or more asymmetric carbon atoms: aldotriose - 1 center of asymmetry, aldotetrose - 2, aldopentose - 3, aldohexose - 4, etc. Ketoses contain one less asymmetric atom than aldoses with the same number of carbon atoms. Therefore, ketotriose - dihydroxyacetone - does not contain asymmetric carbon atoms. All other monosaccharides can exist as various stereoisomers. For the designation of stereoisomers, the projection formulas proposed by E. Fischer are convenient. To obtain a projection formula, the carbon chain of the monosaccharide is placed vertically with an aldehyde (or ketone) group in the upper part of the chain, and the chain itself must have the shape of a half-ring, convex facing the observer (Fig. 79).
The total number of stereoisomers for any monosaccharide is expressed by the formula: N = 2 n, where N is the number of stereoisomers and n is the number of asymmetric carbon atoms. As already noted, glyceraldehyde contains only one asymmetric carbon atom and therefore can exist as two different stereoisomers.
The isomer of glyceraldehyde in which, when the model is projected onto the plane, the OH group at the asymmetric carbon atom is located on the right side is considered to be D-glyceraldehyde, and the specular reflection is considered to be L-glyceraldehyde:
Aldohexoses contain four asymmetric carbon atoms and can exist as 2 4 = 16 stereoisomers, of which, for example, glucose is a representative. For aldopentoses and aldotetrosis, the number of stereoisomers is 2 3 = 8 and 2 2 = 4, respectively.
All isomers of monosaccharides are subdivided into D- and L-forms (D- and L-configuration) according to the similarity of the arrangement of atomic groups at the last center of asymmetry with the arrangement of groups in D- and L-glyceraldehyde. Natural hexoses — glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose — belong, as a rule, in stereochemical configuration to D-series compounds.
It is also known that natural monosaccharides have optical activity. The ability to rotate the plane of a polarized light beam is one of the most important features of substances (including monosaccharides), the molecules of which have an asymmetric carbon atom or are asymmetric in general. The property to rotate the plane of a polarized beam to the right is denoted by a (+) sign, and in the opposite direction - by a (-) sign. So, D-glyceraldehyde rotates the plane of the polarized beam to the right, i.e., D-glyceraldehyde is D (+) - aldotriose, and L-glyceraldehyde - L (-) - aldotriose. However, it should be remembered that the direction of the angle of rotation of the polarized beam, which is determined by the asymmetry of the molecule as a whole, is not predictable in advance. Monosaccharides belonging to the stereochemical configuration to the D-series can be levogyrate. Thus, the common form of glucose found in nature is dextrorotatory, and the common form of fructose is levorotatory.
Cyclic (hemiacetal) forms of monosaccharides (Tollens' formula). Any of the monosaccharides, possessing a number of specific physical properties (melting point, solubility, etc.), is characterized by a specific specific rotation [α] 20 D. It was found that the value of specific rotation upon dissolution of any monosaccharide gradually changes and only with prolonged standing of the solution reaches a quite definite value. So, for example, a freshly prepared glucose solution has [α] 20 D = + 112.2 °, which, after long standing, reaches an equilibrium value [α] 20 D = + 52.5 °. The change in the specific rotation of monosaccharide solutions upon standing (in time) is called mutarotation. Obviously, mutarotation should be caused by a change in the asymmetry of the molecule, and, consequently, by the transformation of its structure in solution.
The phenomenon of mutarotation has the following explanation. It is known that aldehydes and ketones easily and reversibly react with an equimolar amount of alcohol to form hemiacetals:
The reaction of formation of a hemiacetal can also be carried out within the same molecule, if this is not associated with spatial restrictions. According to Bayer's theory, the intramolecular interaction of the alcohol and carbonyl groups is most favorable if it leads to the formation of five- or six-membered rings. When hemiacetals are formed, a new asymmetric center appears (in the case of D-glucose, this is C 1). The six-membered sugar rings are called pyranose, and the five-membered furanose. The α-form is one in which the position of the hemiacetal hydroxyl is the same as the hydroxyl (free or participating in the formation of the oxide ring) on the asymmetric carbon atom, which determines the belonging to the D- or L-series. In other words, in the formulas with the α-modification of the D-series monosaccharides, the hemiacetal hydroxyl is written on the right, and in the formulas of the L-series representatives - on the left. When writing β-forms, do the opposite.
Often the α- and β-forms are called anamers (from the Greek. Ana - upward, upward from), since in the usual vertical image of the aldoses formulas, these forms differ in configurations at the first carbon atom.
Thus, the phenomenon of mutarotation is associated with the fact that each solid sugar preparation is any one cyclic (hemiacetal) form, but upon dissolution and standing of solutions, this form through aldehyde transforms into other tautomeric cyclic forms until equilibrium is reached. In this case, the specific rotation characteristic of the initial cyclic form gradually changes, and, finally, a constant specific rotation characteristic of the equilibrium mixture of tautomers is established. For example, it was found that in aqueous solutions glucose is mainly in the form of α- and β-glucopyranoses, to a lesser extent α- and β-glucofuranose, and a very small amount in the form of aldehyde forms. It should be emphasized that of the various tautomeric forms of glucose in the free state, only α- and β-pyranoses are known. The existence of small amounts of furanose and aldehyde forms in solutions has been proven, but in the free state they could not be isolated due to instability. Below are the tautomeric cyclic forms of D-glucose [show]
Haworth's projection formulas
In the 1920s, Haworth proposed a more refined way of writing the structural formulas of carbohydrates. Unlike Tollens 'formulas, which have the outline of rectangles, the Hewors' formulas are hex or pentagons, and they are shown in perspective: the ring lies in the horizontal plane. The links that are closer to the reader are depicted with bold lines (the carbon atoms of the cycle are not written). The substituents located to the right of the backbone of the molecule in its linear representation are placed below the plane of the ring, and the substituents on the left are located above the plane of the ring. The reverse rule applies only to that single carbon atom whose hydroxyl group participates in the formation of the cyclic hemiacetal. So, in D-sugars, the CH 2 OH group is written in the upper position, and the hydrogen atom with the same carbon atom is written at the bottom. Finally, it should be remembered that when writing structural formulas according to Howors, the hydroxyl group at C 1 will be located below the plane of the ring in the α-form and higher in the β-form [show]
Conformation of monosaccharides ... Haworth's projection formulas do not reflect the true conformation of the monosaccharides. The works of Reeves, and then many other authors, showed that, like cyclohexane, the pyranose ring can take two configurations - the shape of a chair and the shape of a boat. The configuration of the chair shape is usually more stable, and, apparently, it is this configuration that prevails in most of the natural sugars (Fig. 80).
The main reactions of monosaccharides,
reaction products and their properties
- Hemi-acetal hydroxyl reactions... As already noted, monosaccharides, both in the crystalline state and in solution, mainly exist in hemiacetal forms. The hemiacetal hydroxyl is more reactive and can be replaced by other groups in reactions with alcohols, carboxylic acids, phenols, etc. The compound that acts on the hemiacetal hydroxyl of the monosaccharide is called aglycone, and the reaction product is called a glycoside. According to the α- and β-isomers of monosaccharides, there are α- and β-glycosides. For example, in the reaction of methyl alcohol (aglycone) with glucose (for example, in β-pyranose form) in the presence of inorganic acids, an alkylation product, methyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, is formed:
When acetic acid acts on β-D-glucopyranose, an acylation product, acetyl-β-D-glucopyranoside, is formed:
Other hydroxyl groups of monosaccharides can also undergo acylation and methylation, although this requires much more stringent conditions. In cases where alcohols, phenols or carboxylic acids act as aglycones, the reaction products are called O-glycosides. Therefore, methyl-β-D-glucopyranoside and acetyl-β-D-glucopyranoside are O-glycosides (the bond with aglycone is via oxygen). Natural O-glycosides, most of which are formed as a result of plant activity, exist predominantly in the β-form.
A very important class of glycosides are N-glycosides, in which the bond with aglycone is carried out through nitrogen, and not through oxygen. There are also S-glycosides, which are derivatives of cyclic forms of thiosaccharides, in the mercapto group (-SH) at C 1 of which the hydrogen atom is replaced by a radical. S-glycosides are found in a number of plants (mustard, montenegrin, hawthorn, etc.).
N-glycosides are considered as derivatives of sugars, in which the glycosyl part of the molecule is linked through a nitrogen atom to the radical of an organic compound that is not a sugar. Like O-glycosides, N-glycosides can be constructed as pyranosides or as furanosides and have the α- and β-forms:
N-glycosides include the cleavage products of nucleic acids and nucleoproteins (nucleotides and nucleosides), ATP, NAD, NADP, some antibiotics, which are extremely important in metabolism, etc.
- Reactions involving the carbonyl group. Although the linear hydroxycarbonyl form is present in crystalline preparations of monosaccharides and their solutions in small amounts, its participation in tautomeric equilibrium imparts to monosaccharides all the properties inherent in aldehydes (in aldoses) or ketones (in ketosis). We have already met with the ability of aldose and ketosis to add alcohols (see above). Let us now consider some other properties.
- Aminosugar- derivatives of monosaccharides, the hydroxyl group of which (-OH) is substituted by an amino group (-NH 2). Depending on the position of the amino group (at carbon atoms) in the amino sugar molecule, 2-amino, 3-amino, 4-amino sugar, etc. are distinguished. According to the number of amino groups, monoaminosugar and diaminosugar are distinguished.
Aminosugars have all the properties of amines, common monosaccharides, as well as specific properties due to the spatial proximity of hydroxyl and amine groups.
In humans and animals, the most important amino sugars are D-glucosamine and D-galactosamine:
Aminosugars are part of mucopolysaccharides of animal, plant and bacterial origin, are carbohydrate components of various glycoproteins and glycolipids. In the composition of these high molecular weight compounds, the amino group of the amino sugar is most often acylated and sometimes sulfonated (see chondroitin-4-sulfate).
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates, the molecules of which contain from 2 to 8-10 monosaccharide residues connected by glycosidic bonds. In accordance with this, disaccharides, trisaccharides, etc. are distinguished.
Disaccharides are complex sugars, each molecule of which, upon hydrolysis, breaks down into two molecules of monosaccharides. Disaccharides, along with polysaccharides, are one of the main sources of carbohydrates in human and animal food. By their structure, disaccharides are glycosides, in which two monosaccharide molecules are linked by a glycosidic bond.
Among the disaccharides, maltose, lactose and sucrose are especially well known.
Maltose, which is α-glucopyranosyl- (1-4) -α-glucopyranose, is formed as an intermediate product when amylases act on starch (or glycogen) and contains two α-D-glucose residues. The name of the sugar, whose hemiacetal hydroxyl is involved in the formation of glycosidic bonds, ends in "silt".
In the maltose molecule, the second glucose residue has a free hemiacetal hydroxyl. Such disaccharides have reducing properties.
One of the most common disaccharides is sucrose, a common food sugar. The sucrose molecule consists of one D-glucose residue and one D-fructose residue. Therefore, it is α-glucopyranosyl- (1-2) -β-fructofuranoside:
Unlike most disaccharides, sucrose does not have free hemiacetal hydroxyl and does not have reducing properties.
The disaccharide lactose is found only in milk and consists of D-galactose and D-glucose. This is α-glucopyranosyl- (1-4) -glucopyranose:
Since the lactose molecule contains a free hemiacetal hydroxyl (in the glucose residue), it belongs to the number of reducing disaccharides.
Of the natural trisaccharides, few are important. The best known is raffinose, which contains residues of fructose, glucose and galactose, which is found in large quantities in sugar beets and in many other plants.
In general, the oligosaccharides present in plant tissues are more diverse in their composition than the oligosaccharides of animal tissues.
From the point of view of general principles of structure, polysaccharides can be divided into two groups, namely: homopolysaccharides, consisting of monosaccharide units of only one type, and heteropolysaccharides, which are characterized by the presence of two or more types of monomeric units.
From the point of view of functional purpose, polysaccharides can also be divided into two groups: structural and reserve polysaccharides. Cellulose is an important structural polysaccharide, and the main reserve polysaccharides are glycogen and starch (in animals and plants, respectively). Only homopolysaccharides will be discussed here. Heteropolysaccharides are described in the chapter "Biochemistry of Connective Tissue".
Starch is a mixture of two homopolysaccharides: linear - amylose and branched - amylopectin, the general formula of which is (C 6 H 10 O 5) n [show] .
As a rule, the content of amylose in starch is 10-30%, amylopectin - 70-90%. Starch polysaccharides are built from glucose residues connected in amylose and in linear chains of amylopectin by α-1,4-glucosidic bonds, and at the branch points of amylopectin by interchain α-1,6-glucosidic bonds.
In the amylose molecule, on average, about 1000 glucose residues are connected, individual linear sections of the amylopectin molecule consist of 20-30 such units.
Amylose does not give a true solution in water. The amylose chain in water forms hydrated micelles. In solution, when iodine is added, amylose turns blue. Amylopectin also gives micellar solutions, but the shape of the micelles is somewhat different. The polysaccharide amylopectin is stained with iodine in a red-violet color.
The starch has a molecular weight of 10 6 -10 7. With partial acidic hydrolysis of starch, polysaccharides of a lesser degree of polymerization - dextrins are formed, with complete hydrolysis - glucose. Starch is the most important dietary carbohydrate for humans; its content in flour is 75-80%, in potatoes 25%.
Glycogen - the main reserve polysaccharide of higher animals and humans, built from α-D-glucose residues. The empirical formula of glycogen, like starch (C 6 H 10 O 5) n. Glycogen is found in almost all organs and tissues of animals and humans; most of it is found in the liver and muscles. The molecular weight of glycogen is 10 7 -10 9 and higher. Its molecule is built of branching polyglucoside chains in which glucose residues are connected by α-1,4-glucosidic bonds. There are α-1,6-glucosidic bonds at the branch points. Glycogen is similar in structure to amylopectin.
In the glycogen molecule, internal branches are distinguished - sections of polyglucoside chains between branch points, and external branches - sections from the peripheral branch point to the non-reducing end of the chain (Fig. 81) [show] ... During hydrolysis, glycogen, like starch, is broken down to form first dextrins, then maltose, and finally glucose.
Cellulose (fiber) - the most widespread structural polysaccharide of the plant world.
Cellulose consists of α-glucose residues in their β-pyranose form, that is, β-glucopyranose monomer units in the cellulose molecule are linearly interconnected by β-1,4-glucosidic bonds.
Carbohydrates aldoses, and ketone - ketosis
Functions of carbohydrates in the body.
The main functions of carbohydrates in the body:
1. Energy function. Carbohydrates are one of the main sources of energy for the body, providing at least 60% of energy consumption. For the activity of the brain, kidneys, blood, almost all energy is supplied due to the oxidation of glucose. With the complete breakdown of 1 g of carbohydrates, 17.15 kJ / mol or 4.1 kcal / mol of energy is released.
2. Plastic or structural function... Carbohydrates and their derivatives are found in all cells of the body. In plants, fiber serves as the main support material; in the human body, bones and cartilage contain complex carbohydrates. Heteropolysaccharides, such as hyaluronic acid, are found in cell membranes and cell organelles. Participate in the formation of enzymes, nucleoproteins (ribose, deoxyribose), etc.
3. Protective function... Viscous secretions (mucus) secreted by various glands are rich in carbohydrates or their derivatives (mucopolysaccharides, etc.), they protect the inner walls of the genital organs of the gastrointestinal tract, airways, etc. from mechanical and chemical influences, the penetration of pathogenic microbes. In response to antigens, immune bodies are synthesized in the body, which are glycoproteins. Heparin protects the blood from clotting (included in the anticoagulant system) and has an anti-lipidemic function.
4. Regulatory function. Human food contains a large amount of fiber, the coarse structure of which causes mechanical irritation of the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines, thus participating in the regulation of the act of peristalsis. Blood glucose is involved in the regulation of osmotic pressure and the maintenance of homeostasis.
5. Specific functions. Some carbohydrates perform special functions in the body: they are involved in conducting nerve impulses, ensuring the specificity of blood groups, etc.
Classification of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are classified by molecular size into 3 groups:
1. Monosaccharides- contain 1 molecule of carbohydrate (aldose or ketose).
· Trioses (glyceraldehyde, dioxyacetone).
· Tetroses (erythrosis).
· Pentoses (ribose and deoxyribose).
· Hexoses (glucose, fructose, galactose).
2. Oligosaccharides- contain 2-10 monosaccharides.
· Disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose).
Trisaccharides, etc.
3. Polysaccharides- contain more than 10 monosaccharides.
· Homopolysaccharides - contain the same monosaccharides (starch, fiber, cellulose consist only of glucose).
· Heteropolysaccharides - contain various types of monosaccharides, their vapor derivatives and non-carbohydrate components (heparin, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfates).
Scheme No. 1. K lassification of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides
1. Trioses 1. Disaccharides 1. Homopolysaccharides
2. Tetroses 2. Trisaccharides 2. Heteropolysaccharides
3. Pentoses 3. Tetrasaccharides
4. Hexoses
Properties of carbohydrates.
1. Carbohydrates - solid crystalline white substances, almost all sweet in taste.
2. Almost all carbohydrates are readily soluble in water, and true solutions are formed. The solubility of carbohydrates depends on the mass (the greater the mass, the less soluble the substance, for example, sucrose and starch) and structure (the more branched the structure of the carbohydrate, the worse the water solubility, such as starch and fiber).
3. Monosaccharides can be found in two stereoisomeric forms: L-shape (leavus - left) and D-shape (dexter - right). These forms have the same chemical properties, but differ in the arrangement of hydroxide groups relative to the axis of the molecule and in optical activity, i.e. rotate at a certain angle the plane of polarized light, which passes through their solution. Moreover, the plane of polarized light rotates by one amount, but in opposite directions. Let us consider the formation of stereoisomers using glyceraldehyde as an example:
SNO SNO
BUT-C-H H-C- HE
CH2OH CH2OH
L - shape D - shape
When monosaccharides are obtained in laboratory conditions, stereoisomers are formed in a 1: 1 ratio; in the body, synthesis occurs under the action of enzymes that strictly distinguish the L - form and D - form. Since only D-sugars undergo synthesis and decay in the body, L-stereoisomers have gradually disappeared in evolution (this is the basis for the determination of sugars in biological fluids using a polarimeter).
4. Monosaccharides in aqueous solutions can interconvert, this property is called mutation.
HO-CH2 O = CH
C O NO-C-N
N N N H-C-OH
C C HO-C-N
BUT OH N HE NO-C-H
C C CH2-OH
HO-CH2
N N HE
BUT OH N N
Betta form.
In aqueous solutions, monomers consisting of 5 or more atoms can be in cyclic (ring) alpha or beta forms and in open (open) forms, and their ratio is 1: 1. Oligo- and polysaccharides are composed of monomers in cyclic form. In the cyclic form, carbohydrates are stable and youthful, while in the open form, they are highly reactive.
5. Monosaccharides can be reduced to alcohols.
6. In an open form, they can interact with proteins, lipids, nucleotides without the participation of enzymes. These reactions are called glycation. The clinic uses a study of the level of glycosylated hemoglobin or fructosamine to diagnose diabetes mellitus.
7. Monosaccharides can form esters. Of greatest importance is the property of carbohydrates to form esters with phosphoric acid, because to be included in the metabolism, the carbohydrate must become a phosphoric ester, for example, glucose is converted into glucose-1-phosphate or glucose-6-phosphate before oxidation.
8. Aldolases have the ability to reduce metals in an alkaline medium from their oxides in nitrous oxide or in a free state. This property is used in laboratory practice for the detection of aldolose (glucose) in biological fluids. Most often used Trommer reaction in which aldolose reduces copper oxide to nitrous oxide, and itself is oxidized to gluconic acid (1 carbon atom is oxidized).
CuSO4 + NaOH Cu (OH) 2 + Na2SO4
Blue
C5H11COH + 2Cu (OH) 2 C5H11COOH + H2O + 2CuOH
Brick red
9. Monosaccharides can be oxidized to acids not only in the Trommer reaction. For example, when the 6 carbon atom of glucose is oxidized in the body, glucuronic acid is formed, which combines with poisonous and poorly soluble substances, neutralizes them and converts them into soluble ones, in this form these substances are excreted from the body with urine.
10.Monosaccharides can combine with each other and form polymers. The connection that arises in this case is called glycosidic, it is formed due to the OH-group of the first carbon atom of one monosaccharide and the OH-group of the fourth (1,4-glycosidic bond) or sixth carbon atom (1,6-glycosidic bond) of another monosaccharide. In addition, an alpha-glycosidic bond (between the two alpha-forms of the carbohydrate) or a beta-glycosidic bond (between the alpha- and beta-forms of the carbohydrate) can form.
11. Oligo and polysaccharides can undergo hydrolysis to form monomers. The reaction takes place at the site of the glycosidic bond, and this process is accelerated in an acidic environment. Enzymes in the human body can distinguish between alpha and beta glycosidic bonds, therefore starch (has alpha glycosidic bonds) is digested in the intestine, but fiber (has beta glycosidic bonds) is not.
12. Mono- and oligosaccharides can undergo fermentation: alcoholic, lactic acid, citric acid, butyric acid.
General characteristics of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates- organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones of polyhydric alcohols. Carbohydrates containing an aldehyde group are called aldoses, and ketone - ketosis... Most of them (but not all! For example, rhamnose С6Н12О5) correspond to the general formula Сn (Н2О) m, which is why they got their historical name - carbohydrates. But there are a number of substances, for example, acetic acid C2H4O2 or CH3COOH, which, although they correspond to the general formula, do not apply to carbohydrates. At present, another name has been adopted, which most faithfully reflects the properties of carbohydrates - glucides (sweet), but the historical name has become so firmly established in life that it continues to be used. Carbohydrates are very widespread in nature, especially in the plant world, where they account for 70-80% of the dry matter mass of cells. In the animal body, they account for only about 2% of the body weight, however, here their role is no less important. The share of their participation in the total energy balance turns out to be very significant, exceeding almost one and a half times the share of proteins and lipids taken together. In the body, carbohydrates can be stored as glycogen in the liver and consumed as needed.
You do this several times a day, every day for your entire life. Each of us, in his own way, is a nutritionist. When you cook your own porridge or chop. But just as we don’t become doctors by sticking a plaster We don’t become real nutritionists by opening the refrigerator. Dietetics or nutritional science is a whole science. Dietetics is multidisciplinary, which means that it combines many sciences. These are physiology, chemistry, biology and even social sciences. The main tool of dietetics is diet. These are organized food systems. A set of products suitable for solving a specific problem, for a specific person. Goals and objectives are usually different. Therefore, schemes, such as the healthiest and the most correct nutrition, may suit one person, but may harm another. Indeed, the concept of proper nutrition for the same person weighing 100 kg and a person weighing 50 kg will be strikingly different. It is often very difficult and expensive to find out exactly the effect of a particular product on health. There are many variables. Products, even the simplest ones, differ from each other in macro- and micronutrients. Plus, each person has his own dietary habits and preferences. If we put people in conditions of a double placebo controlled experiment And for years we completely control the diet up to a gram This is quite difficult to imagine All because research of this format is expensive. The food industry especially does not have that kind of money. And the pharmaceutical industry has them.Therefore, placebo-controlled studies are the gold standard in drug research. And it is impossible to obtain a patent for nutritional supplements or food. So now almost all research is about healthy eating. This is an epidemiological study. Scientists study the diet and lifestyle of certain people. And they draw conclusions based on the correlation. What they ate and how it affected their health. But if it is too expensive and difficult to study in detail. And other studies are statistical correlations, so why invest in nutrition research? After all, people eat even without science, and some even eat a lot. For manufacturers of sweets or alcohol, for example, Proving the harmfulness or usefulness of their products is often not required in comparison with the pharmaceutical industry. There is always a demand for products. They are already being bought. But the basic, scientifically grounded pillars of proper nutrition have been established by science. This research has been funded primarily by governments that want the citizens who drive the economy to be healthy and productive. And we're talking about the obesity epidemic. Evolutionarily, a person is inclined to gain weight. After all, homo, for hundreds of thousands of years, lived in conditions of the most severe deficiency. Food had to be obtained. Food had to be stored. And the one who did it Well had the advantage. Simply put, excess weight is a guarantee of survival and an indicator of health. But now everything has changed. 21 century. Sedentary lifestyle. Physical inactivity, availability of high-calorie foods. We just dial the phone and pizza comes to us. And more and more obese people of all ages with chronic diseases that are associated with a high body mass index. All this modern science calls metabolic obesity or metabolic syndrome. The main consequences of being overweight is an increased risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Diseases of the musculoskeletal system And who knows sleep apnea syndrome or "snoring" And other diseases associated with obesity. The main criterion for assessing health risks, according to WHO, is the body mass index or BMI BMI allows you to assess the deviation of a person's weight from the norm, and to find out whether the weight is normal, overweight or insufficient. This criterion is indirect, since body composition Ie. the proportion of muscle mass and fat mass varies from person to person. Body fat percentage can vary by gender, race, and ginetics. For example: Asians have a higher body fat mass At lower BMI values, especially at a young age. Moreover, the percentage of body fat increases with age and the percentage of muscle mass decreases. It seems like the body mass index remains the same, but not at all. Other metabolic parameters must also be considered to assess health risks. These are insulin, glycated hemoglobin, blood lipid profile and other indicators. However, type 2 diabetes AND cardiovascular disease These are companions of overweight And with age the risks increase. Scientists have tried to trace the relationship between total mortality and BMI A number of data shows the closer we are to the norm of BMI, the higher the likelihood of living longer. Especially if the person is not addicted to alcohol or smoking International Collaboration of Research Centers around the world Conducted a meta-analysis in 239 Qualitative Prospective Studies. With the participation of almost more than 10 million people, aged 20 to 90 years old And they found out that being even too thin Ie. having a low BMI Below 18.5 is also harmful. Both overweight and underweight increase the risk of all-cause mortality. The problem is clear, this problem needs to be solved. The dietary pattern, i.e. diet. Which is worth sticking to. Here we are faced with a colossal variety of schemes, diets of various solutions. Each has its own pros and cons. Low carb diets, keto diets. Diets in which macronutrients are eliminated or minimized. These are carbohydrates. Or low-fat diets where fat is excluded. Low-protein diets that exclude protein foods. Intermittent fasting, protein-carbohydrate alternation, separate meals There are many of them and you can go on and on The study of food protocols shows that, in fact, there is no difference in achieving the main result: Weight loss or weight loss, or weight gain Which diet you did not adhere to. Since all diets, no matter how they are called, are still based on the same principle. The amount of energy that a person receives from food AND energy expenditure. For example, low-fat diets are excluded from the diet The most high-calorie nutrient is fats And in this case, if you have no fat in your diet It is very difficult to get more energy than you spend No matter how you eat If it's quite simple, if you eat less than you spend losing weight. If you spend more than you spend, you will get fat. The tool in this case is the simple principle of calorie counting. And control over the food you eat. But, unfortunately, such a simple principle is too difficult in practice. From 60 to 90 percent of people According to various estimates, those who have lost weight are unable to maintain the result of weight loss. And this is all due to a misunderstanding of how all diets work. They are based on a surplus or deficit of calories. People find it easier to apply some extreme approaches. Hard restrictions, like "exclude all flour" Either completely exclude fats, or only fruits for a month. Or we don't eat meat at all and, of course, people get results in this mode. And when they get the result, they return to the old nutritional protocol and gain weight again. Such ready-made diet schemes work, but they have more negative consequences for health and psyche. Despite the obvious results in weight loss. This is the problem with ready-made diets. It's easy to remember a short list of things to eat. But it's hard to live with. We all love simple solutions, they fit best in our heads. But a categorical and tough approach is very difficult to turn into a lifestyle and it is difficult to stick to it in the long term. Moreover, studies in the field of calorie control show that without a system, but by subjective feelings, volunteers tend to underestimate the number of calories eaten. According to the volunteers, they consumed 1,500 calories per day, and according to the estimates of the researchers who followed the volunteers, they actually ate 3,000 calories. And if you want to keep your weight under control, the first thing to do is to learn how to evaluate the calorie content and composition of the product. Those. the amount of food you eat per day. In the first couples it is quite difficult, but in the long term it pays off. This is food hygiene, we eat every day, as well as brush our teeth. Why do we know so little about what we eat? Fast weight loss has a right to exist, for example, for a show or for a photo shoot. But we must understand that the result will be short-term. If you have 25 extra pounds, tune in for a year of weight loss and lifestyle changes in the following. And we come to the third point, what is proper nutrition? GMOs, sugar, fats, salts, gluten, e-additives, glutamate, preservatives, meat, yeast, milk sugar, lactose or palm oil, fast food In the public mind, all of these things are considered unhealthy. Avoid eating after 6, more vegetables and dairy products, veganism, avoiding sugar, mindful eating, palio diets, a few glasses of water a day. Fruit for breakfast or before bed. Such regimens are considered to be beneficial to health. But alas, the first statement and the second are dietary myths. And that's why. In the field of dietetics, it is customary to divide products into useful / healthy and harmful / dangerous. This dichotomy of black and white often leads to serious problems. For example gluten free. In the media, in the professional sphere, gluten is actively demonized, it is a protein of wheat. And this is a vivid example of the tendency of people keen on ideas of a healthy lifestyle to go too far. Celiac disease or gluten intolerance is a problem for up to 1% of the population. Those. specifically, you most likely do not have it. And so people take and project the problem of a small category of the population onto the entire population as a whole. It's just as strange if we decided that a particular group of people are allergic to seafood. Let's declare all dangerous reproductions and say that these are the sources of all troubles. These are the ideas of a gluten-free diet. But often, these ideas work because by eliminating gluten, they remove a lot of fast food and other highly refined foods from their diet. And then they talk about the dangers of gluten. And in general, a positive result from many diets is, as a rule, coincidences. It's the same story with specific substances. Like lactose, milk sugar, salt, food additives, proteins and of course sugar. The mass consciousness is endowed with all kinds of terrible traits and gains weight from it, and it causes addiction, almost like drugs. And sugar is thought to be linked to the risk of type 2 diabetes and the obesity epidemic. Recent studies show that sugar consumption in China is 10 times lower than in the United States. But at the same time, the prevalence of diabetes in the compared area after 50 years is higher and even growing. A roughly similar picture when compared in England and the United States. In England, sugar consumption has been purposefully decreasing over the past 50 years, but the prevalence of diabetes is not lower than the American indicators, and there is also a continued increase in diabetes. DPRK with an increase in the welfare of citizens, active urbanization, an increase in the availability of high-calorie food. With a simultaneous decrease in physical activity, we have a violation of the energy balance in the body and as a result of which the accumulation of excess body weight, due to body fat. And sugar has nothing to do with it. Similarly, the story of food addiction to sugar, tested almost 1,500 students, chased for signs of food addiction to certain categories of foods. They also had their BMI measured, and current data show that sugary foods make minimal contributions to food addiction and an increased risk of being overweight. Instead, the data are consistent with the already known notion that the energy density of food, i.e. calorie intake and individual eating experience are critical to the obesity epidemic. To put it more simply and in your own words, the problem is not in sugar, but in the combination of factors that make a particular product or category of products. At the same time desirable and very high in calories. And this is fast food, sugar has nothing to do with it. So what exactly is proper nutrition? Investigating the effect of food on humans, scientists are not examining the product itself, but what is contained in the food. Compound. What affects your health. Food consists of macro and micronutrients. Macronutrients are proteins, fats, carbohydrates. Something that you can find on a pack of any product after getting to know it. Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals. Micronutrients, unlike macronutrients, do not have energy value, they do not have calories. But nevertheless they are essential or vital substances for health and the course of various biochemical processes in the body. To understand how much you personally need, you can use ready-made calorie calculators. Or calculate your energy consumption rate. You can also find out how much protein, fat, carbohydrates you personally need. You can get acquainted with this on various health sites. Where tables are created and consumption rates are allocated for specific individuals, for specific age categories, women, men, etc. Links to these tables and to the websites of the healthcare organization will be in the description of the video on YouTube. Eating the right diet should meet your body's energy needs and provide adequate levels of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. And from person to person, different groups, individual characteristics, food preferences, intolerance to specific foods, proper nutrition for all these people will be different. Therefore, there is no clearly established standard of proper nutrition. Approximate norms of consumption of macro, micronutrients are established by WHO and health organizations. For specific tasks, it is required to go beyond the consumption rates. If you are doing hard work or sports. Minerals, trace elements, vitamins, as well as a sufficient amount of water per day is necessary for the body. As a result, taking into account the individual characteristics of each person, it is necessary to calculate the amount of energy that is required for you personally. Consider all macronutrients: proteins, fats, carbohydrates. Regimens that suspect the removal of one of the macronutrients from the diet tend to lead to health problems. And does not give long-term results. If you want to cut calories, cut your total food intake. Not specific elements. Track your BMI. BMI changes with age and is a predictor of cardiovascular disease. If you want to stay healthy and reduce your risks of type 2 diabetes, keep your weight under control. This can be done using simple schemes. Controlling calories and food intake. And so friends, thank you very much for your attention. Boris Satsulin was with you. Subscribe to SciOne and see the YouTube video description for links to read the question. Well, thanks and may science be with you.
Definition
Carbohydrates (sugars or saccharides)- organic substances containing a carbonyl group and several hydroxyl groups.
The ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in the molecules of the first known representatives of carbohydrates was 2: 1. Since the general molecular formula of carbohydrates can be written as: $ C_x (H_2O) _y $, then we can say that carbohydrates are compounds of carbon and water.
Carbohydrates are an important component of cells and, consequently, tissues of all living organisms, constituting (by dry weight) the bulk of living biomass (plants - up to 80% and up to 3% - animals) on Earth. The source of carbohydrates for plant organisms is the process of photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis takes place in plant cells and leads to the synthesis of carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide. The equation of photosynthesis can be written as follows:
$ 6CO_2 + 6H_2O \ xrightarrow (h \ nu) C_6H_ (12) O_6 $
Carbohydrates are a very wide class of organic compounds, among them there are substances with very different properties. This allows carbohydrates to perform a variety of functions in living organisms.
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES IN LIVING ORGANISMS
1. Energy function... Carbohydrates serve as a source of energy: when 1 gram of carbohydrates is oxidized, 4.1 kcal of energy and 0.4 g of water are released.
2. Structural and supporting functions. Carbohydrates are involved in building various support structures. So cellulose is the main structural component of the cell walls of plants, chitin performs a similar function in fungi, and also provides the rigidity of the exoskeleton of arthropods.
3. Protective role in plants... Some plants have protective formations (thorns, thorns, etc.), consisting of the cell walls of dead cells.
4. Plastic function... Carbohydrates are part of complex molecules (for example, pentose (ribose and deoxyribose) are involved in the construction of ATP, DNA and RNA).
5. Storage function... Carbohydrates act as reserve nutrients: glycogen in animals, starch and inulin in plants.
6. Osmotic function... Carbohydrates are involved in the regulation of osmotic pressure in the body. So, the blood contains 100-110 mg / l of glucose, the concentration of which depends on the osmotic pressure of the blood.
7. Receptor function... Oligosaccharides are part of the receptor portion of many cellular receptors or ligand molecules.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates can be classified according to various characteristics. The most important is the number of structural units.
1. By the number of structural units - saccharides carbohydrates are divided into simple sugars or monosaccharides and polymers of these simple sugars or polysaccharides. Among the polysaccharides, a group should be distinguished oligosaccharides containing in the molecule from 2 to 10 monosaccharide residues. These include, in particular, disaccharides.
Definition
Definition
Monosaccharides- carbohydrates that do not hydrolyze (do not decompose by water).
Depending on the number of carbon atoms in the chain, monosaccharides are subdivided into:
trioses(contain three carbon atoms),
tetroses(four C atoms),
pentoses(five atoms),
hexoses(six atoms), etc.
In nature, monosaccharides are represented mainly by pentoses and hexoses.
Pentoses include ribose$ C_5H_ (10) O_5 $ and deoxyribose$ C_5H_ (10) O_4 $. They are part of RNA and DNA.
Remember!Glucose, fructose, galactose belong to hexoses and have the general molecular formula $ C_6H_ (12) O_6 $
Definition
Disaccharides- hydrocarbons, which form two molecules of monosaccharides upon hydrolysis. General molecular formula of disaccharides $ C_ (12) H_ (22) O_ (11) $
The general equation for the hydrolysis of disaccharides can be written as follows:
$ C_ (12) H_ (22) O_ (11) + H_2O \ longrightarrow 2C_6H_ (12) O_6 $
Definition
Polysaccharides- carbohydrates, which are hydrolyzed to form many molecules of monosaccharides, most often glucose.
Polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose and etc.
Remember! To obtain the molecular formula of the polysaccharide, you need to "subtract" the water molecule from the glucose molecule and write the expression with the index n: $ (C_6H_ (10) O_5) _n $
2. By the rate of assimilation by organisms:
Simple or fast carbohydrates synthesized in green plants and readily soluble in water. These carbohydrates are high glycemic index, that is, they are very quickly absorbed by the body. Foods rich in complex carbohydrates are broken down slowly, gradually increasing the glucose content and have a low glycemic index, which is why they are also called slow carbohydrates.
3. By ability to hydrolysis for monomers carbohydrates are divided into two groups: simple and complex... Carbohydrates that are made up of three or more units are called complex carbohydrates.
Complex carbohydrates are polycondensation products of simple sugars (monosaccharides) and, unlike simple ones, in the process of hydrolytic cleavage, they are capable of decomposing into monomers, with the formation of hundreds and thousands of monosaccharide molecules.
Carbohydrates- these are organic substances that are part of the tissues of the human and animal body and contribute to the production of energy for the full functioning of all organs. They are divided into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides. They are integral components of tissues and cells of all living organisms and perform important functions for their life.
Why are carbohydrates so important? Scientists have proven that the use of a sufficient amount of substances contributes to a quick reaction, stable, uninterrupted functioning of brain activity. It is an irreplaceable source of energy for people with an active lifestyle.
If you stick to, then you are observing the daily allowance of proteins, fats and carbohydrates. Let's find out how to do it more efficiently and why it is necessary for health. In recent years, nutritionists have negated the benefits of carbohydrates, calling for and for weight loss. But what are the problems behind quitting carbohydrates? And which ones are most beneficial? Let's find out the features and determine which food should be left in the diet, and which one should be discarded.
Carbohydrates are an essential component for the production of energy in the body of any living being. But besides this, they perform a number of useful functions that improve vital functions.
- Structural and supporting. Substances contribute to the construction of cells and tissues of all living things and even plants.
- Storing. Thanks to carbohydrates, nutrients are retained in the organs, which are quickly excreted without them and do not benefit.
- Protective. Protects from the adverse effects of external and internal environmental factors.
- Plastic. Carbohydrates are involved in the construction of ATP, DNA and RNA, because they are part of complex molecules such as pentose.
- Regulatory. Carbohydrates activate digestion processes in the gastrointestinal tract.
- Anticoagulant. They affect blood clotting and are effective in fighting tumors.
- Osmotic. The components take part in the control of osmotic pressure.
Together with carbohydrates, many useful substances come in: starch, glucose, heparin, fructose, deoxyribose and chitin. But the level of carbohydrates received should be observed, because when they are in excess, they accumulate in the tagging and muscles in the form of glycogen.
Please note that the oxidation of 1 g of substances contributes to the release of 20 kJ of clean energy, so the human body works hard throughout the day. If you limit the amount of the incoming substance, the immune system will weaken, and the strength will become much less.
Important! With a deficiency of carbohydrates, a person's well-being worsens significantly. It slows down, the work of the cardiovascular system is disrupted, the state of the nervous system worsens.
The metabolism of carbohydrates consists of several stages. First, they are broken down in the gastrointestinal tract to the state of monosaccharides. Then they are absorbed into the bloodstream. They are synthesized and decomposed in tissues, break down sugar and turn into gescose. The final stage of carbohydrate metabolism is aerobic oxidation of glycolysis.
Expert opinion
Egorova Natalia Sergeevna
Nutritionist, Nizhny Novgorod
Yes, carbohydrates are an essential component of the cells of the human body and also play an irreplaceable role in metabolism. But their most important function is to provide daily energy to internal organs, muscle tissue and nerve cells. Note that the brain and nervous system "feed" exclusively on carbohydrates, so their lack is critical for people whose work is associated with active mental activity.
I am extremely negative about diets that completely exclude or significantly limit carbohydrate intake. Indeed, in the diet of a healthy person, all the necessary nutrients, fiber, vitamins and minerals should be present in normal quantities.
But note that not all carbohydrates are created equal. If we talk about the "fast" carbohydrates found in white bread, sweets and baked goods, then they are a rather "dubious" source of energy. They are stored in the body in the form of fatty deposits, contributing to rapid weight gain.
So you need to eat carbohydrates wisely, giving preference to those that have a low glycemic index (GI).
The harm and benefits of carbohydrates
To properly formulate your diet, you must first make sure of the benefits of the food that enters the body.
Consider the benefits of the components:
- Energy supply. Any activity, even brushing your teeth, takes some effort. Since carbohydrates contain sugar, which contains insulin, with the correct calculations, its level can be regulated. This is a beneficial property for diabetes and weight management.
- Fight against diseases provoked by metabolic disorders. Carbohydrate fiber protects patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, high cholesterol and obesity. A carbohydrate diet stabilizes heart rate and blood pressure.
- Body weight control. Changing your list of foods you eat can help you shed excess weight. It is not necessary to completely refuse food, otherwise violations are possible. For example, whole grain foods can help reduce specific gravity.
- Improved mood. Foods containing carbohydrates contribute to increased production of serotonin. If discarded, anxiety, depression, and unnecessary anger develop over time.
As we can see, there are plenty of positive properties, but it should also be said about the harm. As a result, they have a negative impact on the figure of a man or woman.
After the deficiency is replenished, the residual substances are converted into fats and deposited on problem areas of the body (abdomen, thighs, buttocks).
Interesting! Refined carbohydrates pose a particular health hazard. They use energy reserves by depleting the body. Due to synthetic production, they are easy to digest, but do not bring anything good. It is found in large quantities in lemonades, chocolate, chips.
The peculiarity of carbohydrates is that they are easier to overeat than fats and proteins. This is due to the fact that a lot of carbohydrates are found in sweets, baked goods, and carbonated drinks. If you eat this food uncontrollably, it is very easy to exceed the daily dose.
Types of carbohydrates
All carbohydrates are divided into two groups: and. They differ from each other in chemical composition, effect on cells and answer the question of what carbohydrates are in food. The process of splitting simple carbohydrates ends with the formation of 1 - 2 monosaccharides. Slow (or complex) ones, in turn, consist of 3 or more monosaccharides, which take a long time to digest and quickly penetrate into cells.
| Carbohydrate type | Name | Where is found |
| Monosaccharide | Glucose | Honey, grapes |
| Fructose (fruit) | Citrus fruits, peaches, watermelon, apples, preserves, compotes, dried fruits, juices, jams | |
| Disaccharide | Sucrose (food grade) | Flour confectionery, sugar, jam, compote, juice |
| Lactose (milk) | Kefir, milk, cream | |
| Maltose (malt) | Kvass, beer | |
| Polysaccharide | Starch | Potatoes, cereals, pasta and other flour products |
| Animal starch (glycogen) | Energy stored in muscles and liver | |
| Cellulose | Fresh fruits and vegetables, cereals (oat, pearl barley, buckwheat), bran from rye and wheat, wholemeal bread |
Simple carbohydrates generate energy that is not enough for a long time. Therefore, the feeling of hunger arises faster after eating. They also include fast-digesting sugar, which raises blood glucose levels. Due to this, there is a risk of diabetes or obesity.
To limit simple carbs, avoid packaged juices, starchy fruits, potato starch, and cornstarch. Refrain from any snacks, soft wheat pasta, instant cereals and baked goods made from wheat flour.
It is important! In order not to completely abandon sweets and unhealthy foods, replace them with healthy ones. Replace wheat flour with oatmeal and sugar with honey.
Complex or slow carbohydrates protect against uncontrolled overeating, as they provide energy for a long time. They should be consumed during the diet. Complex substances have a low glycemic index, so they can be consumed by people with diabetes. They are found in grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and herbs.
What are carbohydrates?
If you are concerned about your health and the quality of your figure, then you should learn the principles of proper nutrition. By adhering to them, you will not only get rid of excess weight, but also get rid of toxins and other harmful substances, notice an improvement in the condition of the skin, hair, nails and the functioning of internal organs. Hazardous foods, high in simple carbohydrates, are all that are manufactured. This is indicated by the presence of an organic composition without GMOs, flavor enhancers, dyes, and long shelf life. To keep yourself safe from unhealthy foods, make it a habit to cook your own meals. Then you will definitely know the energy value of each dish and protect yourself from overeating.
Study the table and list of high-carb foods provided and identify the main ingredients for your menu.
| Food | Carbohydrate content per 100 grams | Caloric content (per 100 g) |
| Bakery and confectionery | ||
| Boiled durum wheat pasta | 25 | 118 |
| Wheat bread | 50 | 240 |
| Wholemeal bread | 42 | 210 |
| Bran | 27 | 206 |
| Flour of the highest grade | 80 | 350 |
| Butter baked goods | 55 | 530 |
| Cream cake | 68 | 450 |
| Biscuit | 55 | 320 |
| Cereals | ||
| Buckwheat | 62 | 313 |
| Rice | 87 | 372 |
| Oatmeal | 15 | 88 |
| Millet | 69 | 348 |
| Milk products | ||
| Whole milk | 12 | 158 |
| Kefir | 5 | 52 |
| Meat products | ||
| Beef sausage | 15 | 260 |
| Pork sausage | 12 | 318 |
| Fruits | ||
| Bananas | 20 | 78 |
| Oranges | 8 | 35 |
| Grape | 15 | 72 |
| Pears | 10 | 42 |
| Melons | 5 | 24 |
| Raisin | 65 | 245 |
| Fig | 10 | 45 |
| Prunes | 40 | 160 |
| Vegetables | ||
| Boiled / fried potatoes | 17/38 | 80/253 |
| Carrot | 5 | 25 |
| Bell pepper | 15 | 20 |
| Corn | 15 | 80 |
| Beet | 10 | 45 |
| Sweets | ||
| Chocolate candies | 55 | 570 |
| Milk iris | 72 | 440 |
| Milk chocolate | 62 | 530 |
| Lollipops | 88 | 330 |
| Sugar (sand) | 105 | 395 |
| Strawberry jam | 72 | 272 |
| Apricot jam | 53 | 208 |
| Marinades and sauces | ||
| Mayonnaise (Provencal) | 2,6 | 624 |
| Ketchup | 26 | 99 |
| Beverages | ||
| Coca Cola | 11 | 58 |
| Lemonade | 5 | 21 |
| Coffee with milk | 11 | 58 |
| Cocoa | 17 | 102 |
| Alcoholic drinks | ||
| Vodka | 0,4 | 235 |
| Dry red wine | 20 | 68 |
| Dry white wine | 20 | 66 |
| Beer | 10 | 32 |
You shouldn't give up complex carbohydrates completely. It can be seen from the proposed list that even some fruits and vegetables are saturated with substances.
Do not think that only junk food refers to carbohydrates, some foods contain slow (complex) ones, therefore they are beneficial. Whole grains, legumes, and low-fat dairy products are also considered essential.
Interesting! The daily energy requirement depends on each person individually and on the way of his life. For athletes and people leading an active lifestyle, the norm is different. Nutritionists recommend compiling a menu based on 45 - 65% of food from complex carbohydrates.
To gain muscle mass, it is often recommended to consume a large amount of protein and avoid carbohydrates. But this is not quite the right decision. You just need to shorten the simple ones a little and increase the complex ones. Otherwise, after consuming carbohydrate energy, it will be taken for protein. As we can see, complex carbohydrates are highly valuable for humans. They fulfill the necessary functions for a fulfilling life. But an excess amount provokes the deposition of unwanted fats. Balance your diet to get all the ingredients you need. Then you will notice an improvement in your health and shape.