\u003e\u003e Education of seeds and fruits
§ 46. Education of seeds and fruits
What is happening in a nephon after fertilization? Fertilized egg is divided into two cells. Each of the cells arising again is again divided, etc. As a result of multiple cell divisions, multicellular germography is developing plants.
Of the largest cells of the self-sperm with the second sperm, the cells of the endosperma are developing in which nutrient reserves are accumulated. Endosperm supplies them a developing embryo.
From the Intercession of the Summer develops seed skin. So, after fertilization from the nephemer, a seed consisting of peel and the embryo is developing.
Design of lesson Abstract lesson reference frame presentation lesson accelerative methods interactive technologies Practice Tasks and exercises self-test Workshop, trainings, cases, quests Home tasks Discussion issues Rhetorical questions from students Illustrations Audio, video clips and multimedia Photos, pictures, tables, Schemes of humor, jokes, jokes, Comics Proverbs, sayings, crosswords, quotes Supplements Abstracts Articles Chips for Curious Cheat Sheets Textbooks Basic and Additional Globes Other Terms Improving textbooks and lessons Fixing errors in the textbook Updating fragment in the textbook. Innovation elements in the lesson replacing outdated knowledge new Only for teachers Perfect lessons Calendar Plan for the year Methodical recommendations of the discussion program Integrated lessonsPalms are one of the largest flowers of flowering plants - there are about 210 genera and 2780 species (Moore, 1973), and according to some data - up to 240 types and about 3,400 species. Palms are widespread mainly in tropical and subtropical countries of all globe, but especially richly represented in Southeast Asia and in tropical South America; In the ethropic areas there are only few species (Map 13). Further to the north (almost to 44 ° C. sh.) Enters Hamarops squat (Chamaerops Humilis), common in the Mediterranean from Southern Portugal to Malta, as well as in North Africa. On the island of Crete, the Phoenix Theophrasti (Phoenix Theophrasti) is growing. The Aridal Areas of Afghanistan meets Nanoropes Ritchi, or Palma Mazari (Nannorrhops Ritchiana), the area of \u200b\u200bwhich extends further to Pakistan, southeast Iran and South Arabia. Trachycarpus Fortunei (Trachycarpus Fortunei) reaches 35 ° C. sh. in Korea and Japan. This one of the most cold-resistant palm trees is known in culture in Scotland. Another kind of kind - the trachicarpus Takilsky (T. Takil) grows in Western Himalayas at an altitude of almost 2400 m above sea level, where the snow covers Earth from November to April. Liviston (Livistona) comes to South Japan and Eastern Australia (up to 37 ° sh.). The northernmost American palm trees growing in the southeast of the United States - Sabal Small (Sabal Minor) - meets in North Carolina, and in the Pacific Coast in Oasisov, the deserts of Southern California and Western Arizona Washingtonia Filifera (Washingtonia Filifera). The border of the distribution of the family in the southern hemisphere passes through the islands of Juan Fernandez - Robins-Cruzo Island (Juania South - Juania Australis) and coastal areas of Central Chile, Southeast Africa, as well as New Zealand and Chatham Island.
Palm trees are the characteristic components of many tropical ecosystems. They are found in a variety of habitats - from sea coasts and mangroves to the slopes of high spirits, from swamps and wetlands to savannah and oases of hot deserts, in low-rise and mountain rain forests and even in deciduous forests of heat-moderate areas. However, it was in the tropical climate of the palm trees who find the most favorable conditions for their growth. Most palm trees prefers wet and shady habitats - along rivers and streams, in the yields of groundwater, in lowlands, periodically flooded after heavy rains or poured tide waters, in the swamps where they often form extensive, almost clean thickets. Most palm trees grow on wet and hot lowlands, and in the mountains usually on small or medium heights, however, some rising high in the mountains. The latter belongs the rod of the ceroxone, or wax palm (Ceroxylon), which is found in the Andes of South America in the belt belt. So, the coxilone Kinosky (S. Quindiuense) was found in Colombia at an altitude of almost 3000 m, and the ceroxone useful (S. Utile) rises to a height of 4100 m above sea level on the Chiles volcano, meeting near the border of eternal snow. Some palm trees, such as coconut palm (Cocos Nucifera) or Tinaks (Thrinax) and pseudophenix (Pseudophoenix) in the Caribbean region, are the permanent inhabitants of sea coasts. They are resistant to hurricane winds, salted sea splashes, flooding sea water, at least for a short period of time. Palms often grow in swampy coastal forests and swamps, along the inner edge of mangrove thickets, in estuariums and low, river banks poured.
Types of Washingtonia (Phoenix Dactylifera) and some other palm trees - excellent indicators of soil moisture in arid, extremely dry areas, as they meet only in those places where there is a source of water - spring, stream or nonlessly occurring aquifer . Palm palm trees greatly growing in oasises of Sahara and Libyan desert, in Algeria, Arabia and South Iran. Strong heat, extreme dryness of air, no precipitation and even hot winds, ordinary in the deserts, are ideal conditions for cultivating herd palm trees. At the same time, it is not xerofit, since it is timed exclusively to oases. The Arab saying reads: "Queen of the oasis bathes his feet in the water, and a beautiful head on the fire of the Sun." Palm palm can be transferred relatively low temperatures. It grows in areas where the absolute temperature minima is almost annually -9 - -10 ° C, and in some years some sugar oasis are even -12 - -14 ° C. The palm palm feels almost the same well and on the bulk sands of the Sahara and the Arabian desert, and on the extremely heavy clays of the Iraq interference, and on the rocky soils of the southern Iran. Especially striking its endurance for soil salinity. It grows sometimes in salt marshes, where the soil in summer is completely covered with a white salt outflow.
Palm trees are the main components of palm savannah in tropical Africa (for example, deeble palm, or Borassus Ethiopian - Borassus Aethiopum and types of hyphena - Hyphaene) and in tropical America (Sabal - Sabal, Copernation - Copernicia, etc.). The scorching and winds are so much drained so much that only a few plants can survive. Palm trees are transferred and long flooding, and a long dry season without visible damage. Palms living in savannahs, as well as in dry pine forests (for example, sernema creeping - Serenoa Repens), amazingly resistant to fires due to the absence of Cambia. Farmable bases of the leaves at the bottom of the stem in Karnauba (Copernicia Prunifera) form a layer protecting plants from damage to fire, and can also function as a water-platform fabric. In a number of palms, for example, Borassus, the seedlings fell into the ground due to the strong elongation of Seidoli.
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Palmies are inherent in the characteristic appearance, allowing you to almost accurately distinguish them from all other plants. Usually they have a well-developed, straight, unreasonable gluable stalk with crown of large fan or cider leaves on top. There are several figures of palm growth. When preserving the unity of the building plan exterior appearance Palms are unusually diverse. Their stems can be inclined or climbing, creeping and underground or outstretched on the surface of the Earth. Along with the most common tree forms, there are lianas, as well as brown-shaped and so-called "sillery" palm trees that have an overhead stem is strongly shortened or completely absent and above the ground only leaves are towers (Fig. 231). However, most palm trees are tree plants with a high slender column barrel (more precisely, stem-shaped shredded stem), as species of Washingtonian or Corrif (Corypha), striking their majestic appearance and exceptional proportions. Their height can reach (60 m, as in the wax palm of the coxylone kinoko, and the diameter is almost 1 m, like the Chilean wine palm (Jubaea Chilensis), which is also called ivory (Table 57, 4). Other low palm trees with bamboo or reeds with thin stems and elongated interstices resemble miniature trees or shrubs And Siagraus Dwarf (Syagrus Lilliputiana) is the true treasure of Paraguayan flora - - growth does not exceed 10 cm, resembling more herbs; they constitute a striking contrast with the majestic "princes of the plant world", as the palm trees called Karl Linney.
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The Egyptian Dumas-Palm, or Hyphen Fviyskaya (Hyphaene thebaica) and some other types of Indo-African hyphena, are unusual for palm trees, or some other species of Indo-African hyphena: stems are usually dichotomically branched by planting characteristic (Table 54, 4, Fig. 231). Dichotomy is also known for other representatives of the family, for example, from the South African South Poopsis Kafra (Jubaeopsis Caffra), mazari and nepal nipple palms, or mangall palm (Nypa Fruticans). In the family of palm trees, dichotomy is obviously secondary. The branching of creeping shoots, not related to dichotomy, usually at the American Palm of Cepenoa (Serenoa). Separate cases of branching in chrysalidocarpus yellowish (Chrysalidocarpus lutescens) and some other palm trees are probably associated with damage to the top kidney. A number of large palm trees are bottle-shaped or barrel-shaped swollen. An example is the endemics of the Muskarensky Islands Bottle Guyfort (Hyophorbe Lagenicaulis, Table 50, 2), H. amaricaulis H. Amaricaulis) and the famous Barrigon (Colpothrinax Wrightii), which grows in the sandy savanna of Western Cuba and Heatentud (Table 53, 1). Its trunk in the middle of the barrel is expanded, and when looking at it involuntarily suggests a comparison with Anaconda, which swallowed his prey. At the African palm tree, delibe can be two or even three samples of the extension of the barrel in the middle part. The reasons for the occurrence of such extensions of the trunk and their biological significance are not yet quite clear. Pseudophenix Wine Pseudophenix (Pseudophoenix Vinifera) from Haiti Island has a bottle shape, the long neck of which is developing with the beginning of flowering. Sabaly has a localized narrowing of stems into adverse palm growth, with the result that his trunk resembles an hourglass. A peculiar appearance of Iriartea Ventricosa, Socrapius nude (Socratea Exorrhiza, Fig. 242) and some other palm trees are the inhabitants of the swamps flooded low and mountain forests of Tropical America fog. The stems of these plants are equipped with walled roots with a height of up to 2.5 m, dyed spiny spikes - modified lateral roots. In the early stages of the development of interstices, the stems of these palm trees are quickly lengthened, forming an unstable inverse axis, which is supported by walled roots. They are formed from the lower intercosals of the stem and provide support to the plant. After the base of the base, the palm tree is kept on these roots, like in stilts. Many palm trees have the shape of the growth of shrubs due to the formation of numerous stalks from the stem kidney at the base of the stem or on underground side shoots - collises or rhizomes. In the first case, there is a compact beam of stems, in the last - stems appear at some distance from the plant, forming thickets (Fig. 231).
Types of American Sabal, Ropalostlis Delicious (Rhopalostylis Sapida), endemic for New Zealand, and some palm trees from the Coconut subfamily have an underground stem who first growing to the ground (to a depth of 1 - 1.5 m at Attalay Rerevrea - Attalea Funifera ), and then, suddenly changing the direction, bends up (taking the shape of the saxophone), rises to the surface of the Earth and forms the above-ground stem from the tree forms, like Sabal Palmetto (Sabal Palmetto), sometimes strongly shortened, like a small sabal (Fig. 233 ), sometimes heavily twisted and even twisted into a spiral, often S-shaped, from the bottom with roots, similar to ropes. When in dry seasons, fires destroy vegetation, underground attalance stalks and some other palm trees remain intact and soon give new leaves. The American oil palm (Elaeis Oleifera) has an old part of the trunk, it spreads on the surface of the earth and covered along the entire length. putting roots; a smaller rising part lifts the crown of large centered leaves to a height of up to 2 m. Since the most old plot The stem dies and rotates, the palm is almost imperceptibly postponed from the place where it was planted, "walks", the locals say.
Among the palms there are climbing liaans reaching tops of trees in a tropical rain forest (Table 56, 1). Their thin flexible stems with very long (sometimes almost up to 2 m) interstices and placed pasty leaves are often achieved in length more than 100 m, and in some types of Calamus - up to 150 - 180 m. They climb with the help of modified leaves or sometimes inflorescences, firmly Enchanting, as anchor, for surrounding trees or shrubs, hanging between them with festons. Climbing palm trees are found in all tropical areas. This growth form arose independently in various palm groups - in a new and old world. Rotangy, or climbing, palm trees of old world, the most important of which are two large kinds - Kalamus and Demonorops (Daemonorops) are found in the rainforests of Asia, Australia and Africa, but are especially diverse in the rain forests of Southeast Asia. Types of Calamus species are the largest and most specialized lianas that form thick, impassable thickets.
The overwhelming majority of climbing lian - multi-skone plants, climbing stems usually occur from underground rhizomes, only a plectocomia (plectocomia) has single stems. Calamus, the seedlings forms a rosette of leaves, of which several climbing stems rose.
Stem palms are smooth, with ring scars from fallen leaves, like Cuban Royal Palm (Roystonea Regia), or covered with a layer from remnants of leafy vagina and cuffs, sometimes spiny, like American Palms Acromia (Acromia) and Bactris (Vastris). The thin stems of the Astrocaryum Vulgare (Astrocaryum vulgare) - the inhabitant of dry forests in the Amazon pool and Rio-Nehru, as well as other species of this kind, are armed with mutters of long sharp spikes. Straight or curved spikes on the stems of Mexican Cryozophil Karlikova (Cryosophila Nana), protecting the plant from eating animals, nothing but modified apparent roots with pointed solid rootable coveters. At the bottom of the stem, conventional roots are sometimes formed. Root spikes also cover the trunks of Amazon Palms Maurica Kolyach (Mauritia Aculeata) and Maurias armed (M. Armata). The expanded base of the stem, characteristic of many palm trees, serves as a solid foundation for a high and powerful "column". Numerous rope apparent roots depart from it. The primary root is sieve early and is replaced by the apparent roots arising in the lower intercosals of the stems throughout the lifetime of palm trees. These roots are devoid of root spikelets; Sometimes the palm has mycorrhosis (coconut palm trees, peach palm - Bactris Gasipaes - etc.). Stems palm trees, always decisive and perennial, are composed of a cow bed layer and numerous conductive beams and fibers scattered in the main parenchyma. Fibers are hard, dark brown or black, often contain silica and very solid. Conductive beams are more bored to the periphery of the stem, forming a much more dense fabric than in the central part. Such a distribution of support tissues provides maximum strength and gives stability to the trunk, although palm trees due to lack of cambia do not form real wood, like our conventional trees from bipartum and coniferous. Palm tree design meets the best samples of engineering and construction art. Palm's stem reaches a significant thickness as a result of primary growth occurring directly under the top meristem located in the center of a small cupid or a stem-shaped recess on the top of the stem. Top palm kidney (figuratively referred to as "palm cabbage" or "heart palm") - creamy, juicy, curly mass of young leaves - reminds of the look of cabbage. It is deeply hidden in the crown and protected from forest herbivorous animals bases of leaves, usually thick, rough, with sharp edge or spiked. Stem palms are sometimes thicken (as, for example, at the royal palm tree) due to the division and stretching of cells of the main parenchyma and fibers that surround the vascular bundles. Such growth is called diffuse secondary growth or sometimes "continuous primary growth" (J. T. Wathaus and Ch. J. Queen, 1978).
Leaves in palm trees are regular, usually clearly dismembered on the petiole and the plate. The lower part of the petorant is expanded into the vagina, partially or completely covering the stem. Pulls are usually long, but can be very short or even absent. Plates of palm leaves are extremely varied in size, shape and dissection. Their value ranges from several centimeters (12.5 cm in Guatemalan Chamedorea Türkheim - Chamaedorea Tuerckheimii) to the largest in vegetable world: Rafia Royal (Raphia Regalis) Their total length with a cushion is over 25 m. The famous "palm trees" is an urban sank, or a talipot palm tree (Corypha Umbraculifer), - has fan leaves up to 7 - 8 m long (Potter 2 - 3 m) and a diameter of 5 - 6 m. Sheet is so great that it can hide 15 - 20 people from rain. The plate of the sheet in the palm trees is complex, folded, fan or periodic, cariots (CARYOTA) - twice curtain; Less frequently, the plate is solid, not dissected into segments, and the palparter or peristional and is often two-sighted on the top (Fig. 232). One-piece leaves of the American Nanicarian Palm Nachikaria (Manicaria Saccifera), a length of 9-10 m and a width of 1.5 - 2 m, gear along the edge, under the action of wind incorrectly burst, like a banana. Rahis fan leaf (rod) is strongly shortened. The plates are usually dissected on linear or lanceal segments on different depth, sometimes almost to the base. Leaves of some species of the Malesesky family of the likuala (licuala) Palchaty, dissected until the very base for narrow-colored segments with a stupid serrated top, each consists of several folds. In the so-called combber's palm trees (for example, the species of Sabal sabal), Rakhis is continued in the plate and stretches for a certain distance, sometimes almost to the top of the top, forming the middle crest of the sheet and flexing his plate. It gives large leaves greater strength. Such leaves make up the transition from typical fans to the peristry. Many fanish and combber's palm trees on the tip of the pet. In place of its connection with a plate there is a triangular grow, similar to a tongue - gastula (lat. Hastula is a short end, dart, Fig. 232). It is usually present on the upper side of the plate, rarely on both sides. Sometimes gastula reaches significant sizes.
The presence of a median ridge, or a powerful medium vein plate - a characteristic feature of a leaf palm. The segments of fan leaves and feathers of the centered leaves are with a noticeable medium vest or with several veins and have numerous and more subtle veins, usually parallel to the middle, but sometimes better diverging from the base or from medium veins and ending along the edge or on the gear of feathers.
Palms are divided into two large groups depending on the nature of the attachment of segments and feathers to Rakhisu (Fig. 232). In one palms, segments and feathers on cross section V-shaped (having a shape of a gutter), i.e., anxplikate, or folded up with a noticeable vein at the bottom of the attachment point to Rakhisu; The plate ends with a unpaired top segment or pen. In other palm trees, segments and feathers on the cross section λ-shaped (having a roof shape), i.e., denselycate, or folded down with a noticeable vein at the top; The plate ends with a pair of segments or feathers with sometimes the thread between them representing the end of Rakhis. And the fiwaches and fan leaves are laid as whole, and all parts of the sheet develop from the initial one-piece tissue. Leaves in palm trees, tough. They are covered with a thick layer of cuticles, often with a wax chain, which in some palm trees reaches a significant thickness. Many palm trees have covers from tiny scales or hairs, which can disappear with age. Sheet plate is mostly smooth, however, some prickly palm trees on Rakhis and feathers have spikes. In the structure of the base of the leaf palm, there is also a wide variety. Many palm trees have long closed tubular vagina. They are often not expressed in an adult state, although in the early stages of development form closed tubes covering the stem.
Since the palm has no specialized coating fabric, such a crust. dichomotor plantsResting with many palm leaves can perform a protective function. At the species of Washingtonia, the trunk is covered with "skirt" from old, dry leaves, which remains in natural conditions for many years, forming a durable column in old plants with a thickness of up to 2.5 m (Fig. 231).
Numerous palm flowers, usually assembled into large strong branched boco color inflorescences. In most cases, this is pancakes with ear-shaped, ferrying or meaty-thickened and feeding branches. Inflorescences, like stems and leaves of palm trees, often achieve significant sizes. The giant top of the inflorescence "Shadow palm trees" - the sononous crucifers - one of the largest in the plant world, reaches a length of 6 - 9 m. Women's Fittelas Fitness Flowers (Phytelephas Macrocarpa), mangall palm trees, oil palm forming heads. Less frequently, unbranched, accuracy (like types of likuala - Licuala or Geonoma - Geonoma). At the overwhelming majority palm trees are stylish; They develop among the leaves in Krone, like coconut palms or types of Sabaly, or below the crown, like the royal palm tree, dropping only after the leaf's feet. Unusual location of the inflorescence at the species of Calamus and loved ones: they have a compliance with the vagina above the lying sheet.
Most palm trees - polycarpics; They form lateral inflorescences in the ascending sequence over many years of life. But at relatively few palms of inflorescences appear on the top of the stem only once in their lives after a long period of vegetative growth, and after fruiting the plant dies. Such plants are called monocariates. Only 16 genera of monocarpic palm trees are known, and they all (with the exception of Rafia Rafia - Raphia Taedigera) are limited to the tropical and subtropical areas of the old light. It is curious that the monocarpical genus of the metroxylon (MetroxyLon) includes one polycarpic kind of Tongsky metroxylon (M. Amicarum), and the demonoropes of the beautiful (Daemonorops Calicarra) is the only monocarpical representative of the largest rathang. Perhaps the most bright example The monocarpic palm tree can serve as an ulter-bearing corneus, growing in South India and on Sri Lanka Island (Table 53, 5, 4). This majestic palm tree carries the crown of large fan leaves. At the 40s - 70th year of life, palm tree blooms, forming a giant top-like boldly inflorescence of many thousands of white flowers; The branches of this huge "bouquet" reach a length of 3 - 5 m. For many years of growth in the central part of the trunk, nutrients in the form of starch are accumulated in huge quantities, which are necessary for the sole palm of the reproductive explosion. On Sri Lanka Island, many copies of this palm tree bloom at the same time.
Similar group flowering is also observed at the giant Malay Malay Rattan of Plectocomia Griffith (Plectocomia Griffithii).
Flowerpot palm trees carries a basal bilee prealist (profile) and usually from one to several crumbling leaves, which conclude young inflorescence and are longitudinally split or broken. They are called sterile crumbling leaves, since they are not associated with floral axes, in contrast to fertile, covering branches of inflorescences at the base and finite axes, bearing flowers. Curving tubular leaves or lands, leathery, webbed, fibrous or sometimes even rustic, smooth or woolly, sometimes spiny. They fall when the inflorescences is disclosed or remain on the flower area (sometimes for a long time after the formation of fruits). Their number varies in different groups of palm trees.
Flowers palm trees are small and unspoken (rare exceptions are large, length 7 - 10 cm, female phytelthress flowers and Seychelian palm (LODOICEA MALDIVICA, or L. SECHELLARUM). They are usually seated, sometimes even immersed in a fleshy axis of inflorescences, rarely on short flowers. Flowers are sometimes scarets, but much more often one-sex; In the latter case, men's and women's flowers are similar or noticeable dimorphous, like Borassus and Geonoma. Plants are usually one-bedroom, less often two-one (for example, Palm palm trees, types of phytelth and chamedori). Women's flowers are located in the same inflorescence, but are placed, as a rule, in different parts of the axis, like Coconut Palm, or are collected in independent male and female inflorescences, sometimes in men's and rigging. Flowers are actinorphic palm trees, less frequently weakened. 2 circles, or rarely spiral, or single-row and incorrectly blade, or rudimentary, and sometimes there is no absolute (in men's phythelph). Segm Perianther free or fraught, webbed, white, yellow, orange or red. Chasselsters and petals in the least specialized palm trees are similar, but much more often a cup of petals. CHASELISTICS Usually 3, rarely 2 or 3 - 7 or more (in female phytelthass flowers); They are free and tiled or fraught. The petals are usually in the same number as the cups, free or threw, usually furnished in men's flowers (less often have grown with free blades) and tiled in female and hawk flowers, sometimes with briefly furnished tops or rarely folded. The stamens are usually 6, located in 2 circles, rare them 3 (Vallenia three thousandth - Wallichia TRIANDRA, Mangroal Palma, three-stroke, Ares of Triandra) or much more than 6, but usually their number of multipolite 3. In some specialized palm trees, for example, at the parawarder (Palandra), they are from 120 to 950 - the largest number of stamens, known in the palm trees; They develop centrifugal. Polyandria (Miogotchinsky) in different groups of palm trees arose independently. The yarn filaments are straight or curved on the top in the bud, free or diverse strucks between themselves or surrounding the petals, or at the same time have grown and affected. Anthers attached by base or back, rarely twofheld or with separated pollen jacks, straight or rarely twisted; They open up longitudinal slots. Pollen grains are most often single-breasted, similar to the polished pollen, less often with a 3-beam furrow, with 2 distal furrows or 1 - 3-pore. Nipple pollen, ring-ring and barbed, differs from pollen of all other palm trees. In female flowers, palm trees are often available - in the form of teeth, cylinder or equipped with rudimentary antiques, free or sometimes struck in a copulus or tube with a paddle or gear tip and sometimes affected by the petals. Ginetsius in the most primitive palm trees, from 1 - 3 (usually 3) of the rest, but most genera are Sinkarpnaya, usually from 3 partially or completely intersecting fruits, sometimes out of 3-7 or 7 - 10; Sometimes the hynetsae pseudo-monomer with 2 reduced and 1 fertile nest and 1 with a seed (like Arka - Ares and many childbirth children). Most palm trees have septal neckers located on the partitions of Zajazi. In some palm trees, they are small and in their position in the basal part of the entrances are considered as less specialized in this family (for example, Sabaly, Livistone - Livistona or Corris). At the pseudophenix, the septaal nekar, located at the base of the rest, opens outwards to the contrary to each petal. In other palm trees with long channels, which are opening on the top surface of the Guineaceous (at Arenga - Arenga, Latania - Latania) or between restoring at the base of the fish (at Boutia - Butia, Polymarm MacArthurii). Trachycarpus has a rudimentary nectar spot on the sides of three free fruichics facing the center of the flower. Hamarops is a squat (Chamaerops Humilis) there is a rudimentary nekar on the upper surface of the bowl formed by the controversial, expanded and thickened bases of stamen threads in a male flower. The columns are free or thorough, long or short and thickened or invisible. Streets straight or bent, sometimes elongated, rarely indistinguishable, in the form of a slit on fruitlessness or double. In each restlessness or in each nest, the wounds are usually 1 (rarely with 1 or 2 additional sees - NIPA). During the maturation of the fetus, 2 of 3 fruits is often underdeveloped. Summer Anatrutopic, Hemitropic, Camplotropic or Orthotropic. Rudimentary Ginets in male flowers is sometimes absent.
Palm rest manifests many features of primitive trimps of flowering plants. They are often leafling, can be equipped with a leg and usually conflictically folded, often with open abdominal seams and laminal or sublaminal placenta. The trachicarpus Third Tichoma is developing along and to some extent inside the open abdominal seam, like some primitive bipartal plants. Strugs sitting or almost seated. The genus is different from the remaining palm trees a kind of asymmetric cup-shaped fit of the fruitfulness with a funnel-shaped stall, the wide inner surface of which is deployed and rejuvenated during flowering. The combination of hawk flowers and the apocircuits was found only in primitive clans included in the subfamily of the cornflower. Apocrappy is also characteristic of the palm tree and nipp. Along with the archaic features of the Guinesey structure, inherent in some palm trees, other representatives can also be observed with many signs of high specialization.
Palm trees - cross-peer plants with various adaptations that prevent self-pollution. The most reliable of them is a disadvantage, which is known for relatively few palm trees. Odnodomnaya Palms have a rareral maturation of male and female flowers in inflorescences, as a result of which the plant is in the male, then in the women's flowering phase. These phases are sharply delimited in time and, as a rule, do not overlap. The exceptions are palm trees, in which there are several inflorescences in the leaf sinus (like a row) and simultaneously male and female flowers can be opened in different nodes of the stem, as well as bushy palm trees, which may have incomplete opening of flowers on different stems. Dikogamia manifests itself in palm trees in the form of both the protandardria and sometimes protesting. The protanorria is well expressed in many palm trees (for example, coconut and sage). Men's flowers that are blooming first in the protary scenery, ephemeral. They are usually revealed at dawn and fall out after a few hours. Women's flowers remain susceptible for several days. In the triad, men's flowers open consistently, one by one, (rarely two men's flower are open at the same time), and only after their appeal, often in a few days or even weeks, women's flowers are revealed. The blooming of flowers located in the vertical rows is in the Basipetal sequence: the upper flower is falling before the next one blooms. A similar way to breaking flowers in palm trees provides a pollen plant for a longer period of time. The protesting is occurring much less often and is known, for example, in Pipa, Palmetto Sabel and some palm trees, pollinated by beetles.
Most palm trees are apparently pollinated by insects. Although the flowers in the palm trees are small and, despite the sometimes brightly colored perisheries, as a rule, are not obvious, they are collected in large inflorescences that are noticeably stand out against the background of dark green foliage. The flowers of many palm trees, such as Hamedores, soul (Clhamaedorea Fragrans) from Peruvian Andes, are very fragrant. Sometimes pollen palm trees (like an acroomy - Acromia) has a characteristic smell or brightly painted (like NIPA). Bees, flies, hoverings, fruit flies, beetles, trips, moths, ants and other insects attend flowers for the sake of nectar, pollen, juicy floral fabric or use flower as a place for breeding, egg laying and developing larvae. In flower palm trees, usually a variety of insects, although not all of them are effective pollinators. Some palm trees are pollinated by the beetles that feed in pollen and flower tissues. Different types of beetles are pollinated, especially often - weevils (Curculionidae). Palms pollinated by beetles, as a rule, produced and form a large amount of pollen, the flowers are also devoid of nectar. Weighs pollinate the flowers of two types of Bactris in Costa Rica (Bactris Big - Bactris Major and Bactris Guinean - V. Guineensis), prickly palm trees from the subfamily of coconut. Like the NIPA, they are proto-goods, and bloom begins with a disclosure of female flowers, which remain susceptible 12 hours. Men's flowers are revealed at 24 hours later female and publish a musky smell, attracting beetles eating their large thick petals. When men's flowers are revealed and lose pollen - beetles loaded by this pollen, move to newly open inflorescences with susceptible female flowers, pollinating them. Abdicted pollen male flowers also feed glistening (Nitidulidae), bees, and flowers of flowers - fruit flies. About 10% of visitors of Bactris flowers - predatory beetles of stafilinides. The mechanism of pollination of the Bactris is very effective. Women's flowers do not need to develop any special devices for attracting pollinators and therefore can concentrate energy on their main function - the formation of fruits and seeds.
The mechanism of pollination of the Hydriastele MicroSpadix (Hydriastele MicroSpadix) from New Guinea is surprisingly similar to the just described. Flowers of the hydraoles are pollinated by weevils, which are almost exclusive in palm trees and are pantropic in their propagation (a wonderful example of the conjugate evolution of palm trees and insects). Weighs pollinistraphylum eneeget rapidophyllum flowers (Rhapidophylum Hystrix), low shrubid palm, which, due to numerous long (15 - 20 cm), sharp black needles on leaf vagina are called a dicker. This palm tree is growing on raw places and coastal plain swamps from South Florida to Carolina. Short, tightly compressed inflorescences with 5 - 7 crumbling leaves are literally buried in the mass of needles and dark brown vagina and are never issued even in the ripening of fruits. Male and to a lesser extent female flowers make a musky smell. There are data on pollination by the beetles of flowers of a number of other palm trees. The beetles were found in the closed male inflorescences of Ammanndra (Ammandra), and the heat release of the phythelfas flowers is a phenomenon that is often associated with the pollination of the beetles - suggests the idea of \u200b\u200bcantarophilia. Milk-white flowers of Johannestijsmannia Altifrons on the pale yellow velvety branches of the inflorescence, partially hidden in humus and vegetable residues accumulating at the base of the leaves of this "basic" palm trees, attract their spinning milk and sewage of numerous insects. In the flowers there are many shiny beetles (adults and larvae), stafilinide, as well as larvae flies, trips, ants, termites, beetles. In the ceratolobus (CeratoBus) - one of the most remarkable bombing clans of the rathaling palms in the wet areas of the Malseia - the inflorescence is incorporated inside the only cover sheet, which is opened with two tiny side sludge on the top. Through them penetrate numerous insects attracted by the shallow smell of flowers. In the inflorescences of the ceratolobus of the Sovita (S. Glaucescens) - the extinction species, the only small population of which is found in Western Java, are abundant beetles, trips and ants. The latter will quickly populate inflorescences and all the plant. They are attracted by nectar. At species with the hanging inflorescences of pollen in abundance accumulates near the holes, through which insects penetrate in inflorescence or chosen outward. Ceratolobus flowers are closed from larger articulate visitors who cannot penetrate the small slots. The "Filter for Persian" is also available at the American Palm of Manyakaria Machinsky, the inflorescence of which is concluded inside the bag-crooked liste with tiny holes between the fibers (Fig. 243).
However, among the palm trees are quite a few and wind-sour plants. A classic example is the palm palm tree. In natural conditions, in the population of this downtime, about half of men's instances. The only covering sheet covers all the inflorescence. Male and female flowers bloom immediately after the release of inflorescences from the cover sheet. Women's flowers are obviously susceptible 1 or 2 days. In culture to obtain a sustainable harvest, herd palm is pollinated artificially, tapping cut-off branches of male inflorescences to the tip of female. One male instance is enough to pollinate 100 women. Artificial pollination was first applied by the ancient Assyrians and practiced at least 3 or 4 millennia. This reception has survived to this day almost unchanged. The pollen of the palm tree forming in huge quantities remains viable for one season or even 1 to 2 years. The fact that pollen in the palm trees retains its viability for a relatively large period of time, it was found for another dwarm wind-pin Palma - Hamero Poischy. In 1707, Josef Kölreyter, with the name of which is connected with the doctrine of the field in plants, sent to the pollen of Hammerance, taken from a male copy in the Botanical Garden in Karlsruhe, at the same time in Berlin and St. Petersburg. The gardener Ekleben pollinated the old copy of this palm, delivered by Peter I and was in the greenhouse at the summer palace. Although the journey took several weeks, pollen did not lose its ability to germinate, and the plant faced abundant fruits.
The reduction of the perianth in Trinaks (Thrinach), primitive kind with rinse flowers with the apocarpny guinesem, is undoubtedly associated with winding (Fig. 235). Current leaves are relatively thin, and the inflorescence is quickly revealed. A particularly remarkably rapid elongation of branches of inflorescences, which grows in length by 15 - 20 cm for 10 hours, before the anthers open. Flowers are concurred. Trinaksa small butterflies (T. Parviflora) are opened early in the morning, and abundant dry powder dust covers branches of inflorescences. During the male phase of flowering lips of a two-lobby, one-lifting guinesey, tightly pressed to each other, which reduces self-pollution. The stilts are moved 24 hours after opening the anthers. The funnelized canal rest is open distal. Trinaks have detected pollen grains on a nest in the nest, which is unusual for flowering plants. The open channel of the column obviously represents a direct entrance for the transferred to the wind pollen. Self-pollization occurs often and successfully, which indicates abundant cropping of fruits on isolated instances.
Until now, Botany has no consensus with respect to pollination of coconut palms - one of the most studied palm trees. This plant is obviously pollinated both insects and wind. Small male flowers are open at first about 6 hours in the morning and fall out at noon. Women's flowers are susceptible for several days. The female flowering phase lasts 4 - 7 days. In addition, the flowers of coconut palm are visited and birds are neckers and parrots that feed in pollen. In the dwarf species of this palm tree on the Malacca Peninsula, men's and women's flowers are revealed, as a rule, at the same time, self-pollution prevails. At the Boution of the Gladkoocryal (Butia Leiospatha) - the inhabitant of Brazil Serrados, like the coconut palm tree, pollination by the wind is combined with pollination insects. The flowers are visited by the wasps, flies, and weevils and shiny worship in inflorescences. They use closed inflorescences and young fruits as a place for egg laying.
Some palm shows also self-pollination. Overall Corris Flowers High (SoPha Elata) self-compatible. Abundant, fruit with fertile seeds as a result of self-pollution is quite commonly in isolated cultivated copies, which is of particular importance due to the monocarpia of this species. At the rathana palm tree, Daemonorops Kunstleri (Daemonorops Kunstleri), most fruits and seeds are formed, obviously, parthenogenetically.
Fruits palm trees are unusually diverse. Their value ranges from a few millimeters to a half-meter from the Seychelles Palm, the fruits belong to the number of the largest in the plant world. Nipp, Fithelefas and Oil Palm Fruits are collected in large compact heads. Fruits are usually 1-seed, but sometimes 2, 3 - 10-seed. They are dry or fleshy syncampable fire with endocarpium, surrounding seed or free, less often fruits, beagle-like (examples, dates). Based on the fruits are often surrounded by a growing and hardened perianth. The overwhelming majority palms are fruitless. Only in several species in maturation they are split at the top (MicroCoelum microcelum, lithocarium - lytocaryum, Sulazar Reduction - Socratea Salazarii), and at the species of AstroCarium (Astroceum) open completely, exposing sometimes brightly painted flesh.
The fetal mesocarpium juicy, sometimes with abundant needle crystals calcium oxalate, often oily, white, fibrous or dry. Endocarpium, concluding seed, thin, shrinkable or membrane, sometimes with a lid over the embryo (like clini-clinostigma), or thick, corrosive or bone, then often with 3 or rarely more seeding pores (like coconut palm and other related pores childbirth). The number of pores corresponds to the number of fruitlessness, and their location (in the middle, below or above the middle of the endocampia) - the position of the micropower of the nephery. In one-step fruit, only one of the pores is functioning, the oppression of the fertile fertility. Endocarpius is sometimes equipped with longitudinal ribs, and in Seychelles palm, it is deep 2-, sometimes 3-, 4- and even 6-blade. Palm seeds are very diverse in size and shape. Their value ranges from only a few millimeters to the largest size in the plant world - 30 or 45 cm from Seychelles Palm. Seed peel is thin, smooth or fleshy (like Salacca - Salacca), free or fragile with endocarpium. Endosperm is plentiful, homogeneous or culminated, in immature seeds is often liquid or jelly-like, then becomes very solid, and some species of palm trees are a source of plant "ivory" (Fithelefas Large-Room, Hyphen Swimmed - Hyphaene Ventricosa, etc.). Endosperm contains a large amount of oil and protein. The embryo is small, cylindrical or conical. Several species of palm trees have a polyembrianium.
Palm seeds do not have a rest period, the embryo grow continuously. Seed germination can begin when the fruits are still attached to the plant. The embryo does not stop growing even during the spread of seeds. In Malay villages, you can often see the germination of coconut nuts suspended on the pillars of huts. The embryo receives water and nutrients from the endosperma. The roots of the seedling growing in the fibrous mesocarpics are capable of absorbing rainwater that leaks through the peel. However, the juicy octoplodnik (for example, the Libiston) slows down the germination of the seed or prevents it. When storing seeds, as a rule, they quickly lose their germination. They should be sown shortly after collecting. The exception is pseudophenix, the "long-lived" seeds of which germinate after two years of storage. This ability to germinate after a long dry period is probably essential for survival in arid conditions - on sands and porous limestone in the Caribbean region. Seeds of palm trees germinate under the ground, with the exception of the NPCs, in which the seeds germinate on plants or floating fruits. Semi-alder never reveals as a green photosynthetic organ, as its top remains submerged in the endosper of the seed and is modified into a suction body - Gautory. It dissolves and sucks the endosperm nutrients to ensure the growth of the embryo, while the young plant does not form leaves. Many seed palm trees are lengthened in the form of a seedy tube and breaks the seedlings to the ground for some depth, which may have an adaptive value for palm trees growing in savannas. The deepening of the seedlies into the soil in different types of palm trees occurs on an unequal depth, which is largely determined by the habitat. Deliching into the soil, the lower part of the seedlies grows in the form of a tubular vagina at some distance from the fetus.
The palm shows three types of seed germination (Fig. 233). At species with a noticeable elongation of the seedlies, the seedlings are removed from the seed and Gautory. At the palm tree, the trachicarpus, the corneus, the lower part of the semiodoli grows under the ground in the form of a long tubular vagina, and from the seedlock, generated in its upper part, comes out. Sabaly, Washington, Jubai (Jubaea) of the SemiLon, is expanded in the form of a significantly shorter tubular vagina, which forms a tongue at the top. ArchonTophenix, Coconut Palms and some other palm trees are extended only to bring the embryo from the endocampia. The lower part of the seedlies immediately at the outlet of the seed is growing in the form of a squab, forming a tongue. From the founding of Semilyti, germ begins to germinate, parts of which are closely adjacent to the Gaustoria.
The fruits of many palm trees, juicy and brightly painted, spread by animals. Their main distributors are birds, although a wide variety of animals - from rodents to monkeys - also feed on the fruits of palm trees and distribute seeds. Large birds swallow the fruit entirely, throwing out intact seeds near the palm trees or more often to transfer them to a known distance. Some birds, in particular, pigeons obviously played a big role in the spread of a row of palm trees. So, thanks to them, and also obviously oceanic currents Priechadia (Pritchardia) penetrated the Hawaiian Islands. The birds of the Royal Palm Haitian (Roystonea Hispaniolana) were listed on the birds on the island of Small Inagua (Bahamas), where palm trees growing at the bottom of several major karst funnels were relatively recently discovered. List of palm trees, the fruits of which the birds eat are large enough. The fruits of cariots in Java eat predatory mammals - jackals, Malay palm curtain and viverse. Palm cywesters, wild pigs Feeds are powered by sugar palm (Arenga Pinnata), and black and dwarf gibbons eaten in Indonesia. Mature fruit rugs Tupoliste (A. Obtusifolia). Food for gibbones also serve the fruits of rathen palm trees - Calamus and Demonorops. The fruits of the Egyptian Duma Palma feed on bavians. AT Ancient Egypt Tota - God wisdom, patron science - read in the form of Ibisa or Pavian, and since the bavaans often feed on the fruits of the Duma palm, she became sacred tree Tota. Images of bavians on the palm trees are encountered on painting, covering the walls of ancient tombs. The monkeys attract the fruits of the Phalenix Roebelenii palm tree (Phoenix Roebelenii) in Laos, American manicarian palm trees and Maximiliana Maripa, as well as African oil palm.
In the spread of fruits of some palm trees play a big role the batswhich, like birds, can distribute seeds on long distances. Large (15 - 20 cm diameters) Cystaine deeble palm trees, or Borassus Ethiopian, - Favorite food of an African elephant. It is his palm tree owes his spread throughout Tropical Africa. Elephant, eats fruits, and endocriums with seeds enclosed in them are emitted intact with excrement. However, the presence of the kind in Madagascar, New Guinea and, possibly, even in Australia, where there are no elephants, according to Harold Mura (1973), eliminates the assumption of the conjugate evolution of elephants and borassus, as well as the close small genus Borassodendron (Borassodendron). The African layers are also powered by smaller fruits of a swollen gifone, growing in hot dry valleys in the south of Zambia, and the African wild palm palm (Phoenix Reclinata). Favoring fruits of palm trees eaten tapir, deer, lavies, bakers, goats, cattle. Coyota and gray foxes feed on the fruits of Washington nittens. Proteins and numerous rodents (pack, mice, rats) are also involved in the spread of fruits and seeds. They often drag the fruits into the nest or fold them anywhere in the reserve, some seeds are lost in the way or remains unused. In Brazil, rodents are buried the fruits of the Attaley Funifera (Attalea Funifera) and the Barbosian Orbine (Orbignya Barbosiana) in the underground holes, where their germination is stimulated high temperatures Because of the annual savanna fires. The fragrant flesh of the fruit and seeds with a juicy leather Salakki edible (Salacca Edulis), almost a basic, very barbed palm trees on the Islands of the Malay Archipelago, attract not only rodents and birds, but also of the wrashers and turtles. Astrocaryum Vulgare Astrocarium (Astrocaryum Vulgare) serves food for fish, the fruits are also eating Geonoma Schottiana (Geonoma Schottiana) in South America.
Despite the abundant fruiting palm trees, their fruits and seeds often predatoryly destroy beetles and other insects, wood mice and rats, pigs and crabs. There is a close biological connection between the coconut palm tree and a huge crab, which is called the palm thief (Birgus Latro). It feeds on the flesh of immature coconuts: breaking the fibers, powerful culbage punch a hole in the "soft" peephole area, pulls out the flesh, sometimes breaking endocarps to the stones. Crab not only destroys fruit on Earth, but, as you know, even climbs on the palm tree, knocking coconut nuts. Crab lives in the tropical islands of the Indian and Western part of the Pacific Ocean - in the field of propagation of coconut palm. Chemical study of his fat showed that it resembles coconut oil, having a little common with animal fat. This crab also feeds on small juicy fruits of the other, palm trees - leaser (Arenga Listeri), endemic for Christmas island.
Sea currents, rivers and streams, storm flows play a large role in the spread of seeds and fruits of a number of palm trees. Water contributes to the spread of species inhabiting the banks of rivers, such as Mauritia Mauritia Fiaxuosa, and many other palm trees found in the abundance of the "palm" river Amazon, Orinoco and their tributaries, as well as inhabitants of swamps and wetlands (as Rafia and metroxyl). Fruits and seeds of a row of palm trees are picked up by floods. Floating fruits of coconut palm trees, NPP, Sadchadia, Sabela Palmetto and other tolerate sea currents. Sometimes fruits become floating only when drying, like a pseudophenix Sargenti (Pseudophoenix Sargentii), or when the seed is destructed. High buoyancy possess the fruits of the manicaria brazing. Falling, they fell into deriters or are taken out of rivers far into the sea, but they do not stand for a long stay in salty water and will soon be destroyed. Fruits with rotten or dry seeds can be transferred to currents. They are found in large quantities on the beaches of the West Indian Islands, on the islands of the Terek (south-eastern tip of the Bahamas) and even on the west coast of Scotland. From seeds who have reached the islands, the islands, not more than 1 - 2% retain the ability to germinate.
A man played a large role in the spread of many palm trees, especially such vital for him, like coconut, oilseed, palio, sugar, etc.
The classification of palm trees is based mainly on the structure of the guinesey and the fetus, the type of inflorescence, the nature of the location of flowers on the joint axles, the number of crumbling leaves. Most of the modern authors take the division of palm trees on 9 submenses: Corrif (Stohenicoideae), Phoenicoideaea, Borassoideae (Caryotoideae), NIPOIDEAEA (Nypoideae), Lepidocaria (LepidocaryAdeae), Ark (AreCoideae), Coconut (Cocosoideae) and Phytelephantoideae (PhyTelephantoideae). With the exception of the largest and heterogeneous subfamily of arke, which will continue to be obviously disseminated, they all represent natural, well-distinguishable palm groups. American palmologist Harold Moore (1973) divided the family to 15 large groups (without the indication of their taxonomic rank), representing 5 lines of evolution in the Palm family; 8 of these groups fully correspond to the received subimbates; The remaining 7 groups in the aggregate constitute the subfamily of arcs, while most of them coincide (partially or completely) with individual tribes, and the group of arcoidal palm trees hugs a set of tribes in the classification systems of palm trees. These large palm units often correspond to those that distinguish between P. Tomlinson (1961) on the basis of these comparative anatomy.
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Palm tree order (Bincipes)
Palma Family (Palmae, or AreCaceae)
Trees, sometimes lianas with unreasonable trunks, without secondary thickening and the crown of finger-or cross-disseated leaves. Flowers are small, rigging, correct, in simple or complex, often very large inflorescences, seats or, often immersed in fleshy axes. The perianth is simple, 3-membered, in 2 circles, sometimes spiral, separately or somewhat aggregate. Stamens 6 in 2 circles, often 9 or more. Stagging threads are free or at the base struck in the ring or tube. Owner's ovary, 1-3-nest with 1 anatrical seed with 2 integments. Column. Placentating Central Corner. Fruit - berry or kitty. Seeds are large, with endosperm, often closely threw out with endocarp.
235 clans and about 3,400 species in the tropics and subtropics, especially Asia and America.
The endowment of the tropics is rightly associated with palm trees. They are often determined by tropical landscapes. They even say about the "palm belt", having in mind the coconut cultivation zone, between 20 ° latitude north and south of the equator. These latitudes approximately accumulate tropics from subtropics. Especially rich in palm trees on alluvial soils of large rivers such as Amazon and Orinoco. But a lot of palm trees in savannah, and in mountain subtropical forests, where they can reach the borders of frosts. The only European look hammerops low (Chamaerops Humilis), in the south of Spain and Italy, withstand even the temperature in -7 ° C. The geographical distribution of palm trees is generally wonderful. In America, 92 kind and 1140 species are known. In the Australian-Asian space of species only a few more - 1150, but clans 167, which is explained by the high number of births endemic for individual islands. But Africa has only 50 species of 15 types.
For many, palm trees are characterized by high column-like trunks with a height of 20-30 m, but possessing throughout the same thickness, and sometimes the trunk at the top is even thicker than at the base due to the remaining leaf stuffs. The secondary thickening of the palm trees, as practically all single-bedroom, is absent, but the primary thickening flows very intense. Below the growth point is formed by a large number of rapidly dividing cells and is laid quite a lot of incorrectly arranged vascular beams with powerful sclerorenchive plates. As palm trees grow, the primary thickening can progress, and then fluff out again. This leads to some species to the fracture of the trunk in the middle part (reminiscent of the fishing that swallowed large prey).
Palm trunks are not branched, with the exception of the kind hiphen (Hyphaene), which assumes this dichotomic branching. Along with high-vehicle species, there are many short-barreled and almost basic species whose leaves socket leaves as it were from under the ground. Very peculiar climbing so-called "rathang" palm trees kalamus (Calamus), inhabitants in the tropics of the old light. Rotans have relatively thin flexible trunks are seated with strong bent spines. Curly leaves in a clearly regular location (not typical of palm trees!), Have several pairs of lateral segments, as well as densely dodied Rakhis spiny, which is presented top part Sheet. The length of the Rotang trunks reaches 100-200 m.
Leaves palm trees of two main types. The initial is the peristicular type (Fig. 204). Calm-disseated palm leaves reach maximum for leaves of size 10 m or more, but conventional dimensions - 3-5 m. The leaf popping with noise of such palm can seriously embed. The finger-disseated sheet in the phylogenetic attitude was seconded and arose as a result of the growth of Rakhis growth. The segments of the palphet sheet to a greater or lesser extent resulting at the base. The trunks of many palm trees (and more often the cutters of the leaves) are the strongly connected.
Interesting the problem of herbarization of palm trees. Of course, you can collect flowers for herbarium, often fruits or pieces of inflorescence. And what about the leaves, inflore the whole form or with a barrel? Here, the Herbarium is largely replaced by sketching, accompanied by the necessary quantitative measurements, such as the width of the cutter, the number of segments, etc.
The inflorescences of many species are often intensively branched and achieve significant sizes, sometimes up to 1.5 m or more. Thes of them are often thickened and brightly painted. Surprisingly, always small flowers Palms form
Fig. 204. Palms. Cocos (Cocos Nucifera): 1 - general view; 2 - inflorescence with male (a) and female (b) flowers; 3 - Male flower (ChL - CHELSELISTICS); 4 - Fruit (coconut) in the context. Calipotrocalix (Calyptrocalyx Spicatus): 5 - the upper part of the plant with fruits. Sabal (Sabal Mauritiiformis): 6 - general view with inflorescences. Bactris (BACTRIS GUINEENSIS): 7 - part of the plant with fruits. Seychelles Palma (Lodoicea Maldivica): 8 - part of a female plant with fruits; 9 - Two-hand endocrium with seed. Calamus (Calamus Longiseetus): 10 - transverse section of the wound
sometimes such large fruits like coconut (Cocos Nucifera) or seychelles Palma (Lodoicea Maldivica). The latter fruits are the largest among wood plants, and the seeds are generally the largest. So in these relations, palm trees act as record holders.
The value of palm trees in the life of the population of tropical countries is difficult to overestimate. Folded-disseated leaves of many species - the usual material that goes on the roofs of the so-called palm huts. From stems sagovy Palma (MetroxyLon) mining starch contained in parenchymal cells and going for the manufacture of this Sago. One of the most important world-scale oilseeds is undoubtedly oil palm (Elaeis Guineensis). Fats in exceptionally high concentrations are postponed by this palm tree not in endosperm, but in pericarpium, so that they cannot be used by a seedlings, but undoubtedly attract animals that spread fruits. This perched palm of African origin is cultivated in many areas of the tropics. In biologically, it is interesting in that it has separate inflorescences that dissolve undisaded. In men's inflorescences, there are up to 140,000 flowers, in women - no more than 5,000. There are also purely doubtful varieties.
Peristological species include, perhaps, the most famous among palm trees. coconut palm, or coconut, especially abundant in coastal areas. The landscape of the coastal regions of India, South Vietnam, Cuba, Ceylon is largely determined by coconut palm. It is assumed that the birthplace of the plant is the islands of Polynesia, from where it applied not only by means of man, but also by transferring fruits on water. The average pericarpium layer is represented by an air layer. Seeds are capable of germination through 3 and even 4 months of swimming. The fruit of coconut is not quite common. Inside the powerful, 3-layer pericarpium is a "shell" from an endosperm with a thickness of 1 cm, to which a tiny embryo is adjacent. The middle of the fetus is filled with protein-rich muddy liquid - "coconut milk" (the taste of it, however, with milk does not have anything in common). With full maturation of "nuts", 9-11 months after flowering, liquid solidifies. One inflorescence brings 8-10 "nuts", and the tree gives a harvest for at least 25-30 years. Endosperm coconut (the so-called copra) is a valuable product that is coming for the manufacture of coconut oil, as well as confectionery. The processing of coconut "nuts" is poorly amenable to mechanistence and is still manually, a qualified worker reveals on the day of 2000 "nuts".
In a huge family of palm trees, only a few species form like coconut edible fruits. Dates are also among the latter - fruits palm tree (Phoenix Dactylifera). The origin of it is unclear, but it is no doubt that it refers to the number of ancient cultivated plants. For the appearance, the palm palm like a little bit like coconut, but the last trunk is smooth, and at the palm tree, he is thickly covered with remnants of the pets of dead leaves. Coconut palm tree divorces in the conditions of a wet seaside climate, the palm palm, on the contrary, can grow in dry places, up to the oasis of the desert. Its root system can reach deep groundwater. Divor's palm tree. On plantations are located predominantly female trees, and inflorescences from men's palm trees that serve the subject of trade are tied in crowns of women's individuals. Fruits - dates - single-bedned berries with juicy sugar mesocarpium.
Special use has palm trees ageki. (ARECA CATECHU). They are sold on any market of South Asia in abundance and go to prepare
a narcotic chewing makeup - Bethel, which also includes the leaves of one type of black pepper and lime. The arcaeloids contained in the fruits strongly excite the central nervous system And brand the activity of the heart.
We see, in such a way that palm trees find the most different application. Let's give some more examples. From young inflorescence wine Palma (Raphia Vinifera) Get Sweet Juice, which is on the manufacture of palm wine. By the way, the leaves from one of the species of this kind reach 15 and even 20 m lengths, from the petioles of the leaves of many species of palm trees, fiber mines for the manufacture of ropes, networks, etc.
Palms are solely decorative. They decorate the boulevards and embankments of cities, up to the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas (however, only the most cold-resistant species can grow here. Some species of palm trees can be seen on national coat of arms and flags. Royal Palma (Roystonea Regia), adorning the Central Square of Havana, - National Cuba Tree, and the highest of palm trees - cercastic Andjian (Ceroxylon Andicola), reaching 60 meters of height, is the national emblem of Columbia.
Palms - undoubtedly, an ancient family, which confirms the paleobotanic. Most scientists believe that palm trees have general origin With Lilyna. However, except for some general signs, characteristic of single-bedroom, palm trees, at least with modern Lily, have little in common. Important features of palm trees, like the next family, is a tendency to aggregation of flowers in complex inflorescences and the complete absence of boxes. In any case, the position of palm trees in the system is quite separate.
A lot of different concepts are being studied in the course of nerds. One of them is endosperm. What is it, what functions in the plant performs this structure? These and other questions you will find the answer in this article.
Endosperm is part of the embryo
People have long surprised the ability of a tiny seed to give rise to an entire body. It turns out that this is due to its unique consist of germinal root, stalk, kidney and leaflet. These embryonic structures are surrounded by a nutrient connective tissue. It is an endosperm. Outside seed has additional defense - peel.
This term comes from two Greek words "Endo" - inside, "sperm" - seed. In fact, the substances necessary for the development of the nucleus tissue.
Nutrient value
Endosperm is a fabric that is formed in the fertilization process. By chemical composition, it is a combination of carbohydrate starch, proteins and vegetable oils. Therefore, a person uses seeds as an energy source and vitamins. But beneficial features They remain only in raw form. In terms of heat treatment, the macromolecules of organic substances occurs.
Endosperm vote
Nutrient fabric of plants can be primary and secondary. The voted endosperm is formed before the process of merging Games - fertilization. It develops from megapor, which is a motherboard with a haploid set of chromosomes. Primary endosperm is a cloth formed in a seed. As a result of its development, the formation of a female inlet, or Gametophyte.
Double fertilization of plants
In seeds, coated with endosperm is formed during fertilization. During this process, two sperms are involved, which are in the anthers of the stamens. The marking of the pestle contains one female game and a central germinal cell. Fertilization occurs here. One sperm merges with an egg, forming a seed embryo. The other is connected to the germinal cell. The result of the last process is endosperm. This type of formation is called secondary. Endosperm is located around the embryo, warming and eating it, creating conditions for germination of the seed.
How is it formed?
Endosperm is formed in two ways. In the first case, the fertilized germinal bag core is divided many times. The resulting structures are located along its walls. This type of endosperm formation is called nuclear. In this case, the feed fabric seeds is liquid. For example, coconut milk.
But most coated after nuclear division occurs cellular. It changes the aggregate condition of the nutrient tissue. At the same time, cells are formed during each division. So, if collecting fruits of corn during the nuclear fission period, it will be juicy and sweet. Then the transformation of simple carbohydrates in polysaccharides. This chemical transformation accompanies cell division.
So, endosperm, which is the nutrient of the seed embryo, performs essential functions. These include the provision of embryos of energy, vitamins and microelements, transportation of solutions of mineral substances from an adult plant. The regulation of the process of differentiation of cells of the embryo in organs, which occurs due to cytokinins of the endosperma.
Seed - plant reproduction body, developing after fertilization from a nephery.
In the formation of seed and fetus, one of the sperm merges with an egg, forming diploid zygot (fertilized egg). In the future, the zygotes is expanding repeatedly, and as a result, a multicellular embryo plant is developing. The central cell, which fastened with the second sperm, is also repeatedly divided, but the second embryo does not occur. A special fabric is formed - endosperm. Endosperm cells accumulate nutrient reserves required for the development of the embryo. Child covers grow and turn into seed peel.
Thus, as a result of double fertilization, a seed is formed, which consists of an embryo, a flat tissue (endosperma) and seminal peel. The wall of the fetus is formed from the wall of the waters, called the ocoplodnik.
Types of seeds
1. With endosperm (the seed consists of three parts: seed peel, endosperm and embryo. Seed with endosperm is inherent in single-grade, but can occur in dicotyledtic - poppy, grated, umbrella);
2. With endosperm and perisperm (usually a rare type of structure, when the seed is germin, endosperm and perisperm. It is characteristic of the lotus, nutmeg);
3. With perisperm (endosperm is fully spent on the formation of the embryo. Seeds of this type are characteristic of cloves);
- without endosperma and perisperma (the embryo occupies the entire cavity of the germ bag, and the spare nutrients accumulate in the semi-units of the embryo. Together, the seed consists of two parts: seed peel and the embryo. Such a structure is peculiar to bean, pumpkin, rose, nut, bukov, etc.)
Perisperm - stocking diploid cloth of the seed in which nutrients are laid. Arises from the nomalus.
Endosperm - Large-milking Flashing fabric, main power supply for developing embryo. At first, he actively conveys the germ of the substance coming from the parent organism, and then serves as a tank for laying nutrients.
Fig. Seeds
16. Classification of fruits. SPLATE .
The fruit of the reproduction of the coated bridges, which is formed from one flower and employee for the formation, protection and distribution of seeds in it. Many fruits-valuable food, raw materials for drugs, coloring substances, etc.
Classification of fruits
In most classifications, fruits are usually divided into real(Forming from the outstanding promise) and false(Other organs participate in their education).
Real fruits are divided into simple (formed from one pistil) and sophisticated (arising from the polynomial of the apocarpical guinesey).
Simple divide on the consistency of the octopulodnik on dry and juicy.
Among dry distinguishes single-seat (for example, a grain, walnut) and multispical. Multivine fruits are divided into open (bob, box, bag, pod, etc.) and unbroken. Invisible dry multifreemary fruits are divided into segic (segmenty bob, segmental pod) and fractional (tubing, double-straw, etc.)
Among juicy fruits also allocate multi-semen (tsykina, Apple, Berry) and single-stage (Kostyanka).
Complicated are called, based on the names of simple fruits (multicast, multi-perts, etc.).
In contrast to the fetus (simple or complex), the nozzle is formed not from a single flower, but from a whole inflorescence or its parts. In any case, the axis of inflorescences participate in the formation of the hodge. The nozzle is a product of modification (after fertilization) not only flowers, but also the axes of the inflorescence. In typical cases, the nozzle imitates the fruit and matches it functionally. Classic example - pineapple hoping.
17, vegetative reproduction of plants and its biological Value of vegetative reproduction of plants(from lat. vegetativas. - Vegetable) is the reproduction of plants with the help of vegetative organs (root, stem, sheet) or their parts. Vegetative plant reproduction is based on regeneration phenomenon. During such a method of reproduction, all properties and hereditary qualities in subsidiaries are fully saved.
Distinguish natural and artificial vegetative reproduction. The excellent reproduction occurs constantly in nature through the impossibility of or difficult seed breeding. It is based on the separation from the parent plant of viable vegetative organs or parts capable of regeneration to restore a whole plant from its part. The whole combination of the individuals thus obtained is called clone. Clone(from Greek. CLON - sprout, branch) - population of cells or individuals, which is formed as a result of the forgeless division from one cell or individual. Vegetative reproduction of plants in nature carried out by:
Separation (single-cell);
Root sprouts (cherry, apple tree, raspberries, blackberry, rosehip);
Korebolbami (orchid, dahlia);
Messengers (currants, gooseberry);
Mustache (strawberries, sludge creeping);
Owls (drink, reed);
Tubers (potatoes);
Bulbs (tulip, onions, garlic);
Brood kidneys on the leaves (broofіlyum).
Biological significance Vegetative reproduction:a) one of the devices for the formation of descendants where there is no favorable conditions for sexual reproduction; b) the descendants are repeated by the genotype of the parent form, which is important to maintain signs of the variety; c) one of the ways to maintain valuable varieties and properties; d) with vegetative reproduction, the plant can be kept under the conditions of impossibility of seed reproduction; e) a preferred method of reproduction of decorative plants; e) When vaccinated - in the submitted plant, resistance to external conditions increases. The following are the shortcomings of vegetative reproduction: a) negative features b) are transmitted to the diseases of the parent organism.
18. Casual reproduction, its role and form Reproduction is a universal property of all living organisms, the ability to reproduce themselves like. With it, it is saved in time of species and life in general. The life of the cells, much shorter than the life of the body itself, so its existence is supported only by the reproduction of cells. There are two methods of reproduction - cull and sex. With a bunch of reproduction, the main cellular mechanism ensuring an increase in the number of cells is mitosis. The parent is one part. The offspring is an accurate genetic copy of the parent material. 1) the biological role of the powerful reproduction maintenance of adaptability enhances the value of the stabilizing natural selection; Provides rapid pace of reproduction; Used in practical selection. 2) Forms of non-cellular reproduction in single-celled organisms allocate the following forms of cull breeding: division, endogonium, sisogonia and binding, spore formation. The division is characteristic of amoeba, infusoria, flagella. First, the mitotic division of the nucleus occurs, then the cytoplasm is divided into half an increasingly deepening hauling. In this case, the daughter cells receive about the same amount of cytoplasm and organoids. Endogonia (internal kinding) is characteristic of toxoplasm. In the formation of two subsidiaries, the maternal gives only two descendants. But there may be an internal multiple binding, which will lead to sizogonia. It is found in disputes (malaria plasmodium) and others. There is a multiple division of the kernel without cytokinesis. From one cell a lot of subsidiaries are formed. Burning (in bacteria, yeast mushrooms, etc.). At the same time, a small tubercle containing a subsidiary (nucleoid) is originally formed on the maternal cell. The kidney grows, reaches the size of the maternal individual, and then separated from it. Spore formation (at the highest spore plants: mosses, ferns, plane, horsages, algae). A child organism develops from specialized cells - disputes containing a haploid set of chromosomes. 3) The vegetative form of reproduction is characteristic of multicellular organisms. At the same time, the new organism is formed from a group of cells separated from the parent organism. Plants are breeding with tubers, rhizomes, bulbs, cornklubs, rootpods, root pigs, tanks, cuttings, broken kidneys, leaves. In animals, vegetative reproduction occurs in the lowest organized forms. The cilia worms are divided into two parts, and in each of them the missing authorities are restored by disordered cell division. Killed worms can restore a whole body from one piece. This type of division underlies the regeneration - restoration of lost tissues and parts of the body (in ring worms, lizards, salamander)
19 sexual reproduction - associated with the merger of specialized genital cells - Games with the formation of zygota. Gamets may be the same and different in morphological terms. Isogimy - merging the same heams; heterogamia - the merger of different Games; Oogamia is the fusion of a movable sperm with a large stationary egg.
For some plants groups, the alternation of generations is characterized, in which the sexual generation produces sex cells (Gametophyte), and the contradianship (sporophyte) is disputes.
Fertilization - this is an association of nuclei of male and female genital cells - Games, leading to the formation of the zygota and the subsequent development of the new (subsidiary) organism.
Gamete - This is a reproductive cell having a single (or haploid) a set of chromosomes involved in sexual reproduction. That is, in other words, the egg cell and spermatozoa are gates with a set of chromosomes of 23 each.
Zygote - This is the result of the fusion of two heams. That is, the zygota is formed as a result of the merger of the female egg and a male spermatozoa. In consequence, it develops into a person (in our case, in a person) with the hereditary signs of both human organisms.
Isogami
If the merging machines morphologically do not differ from each other, the magnitude, structure and chromosomal set, they are called izoatami, or cullless gates. Such gametes are mobile, can carry flavors or be amosides. Isimy is typical for many algae.