GOU SOSH № 000
Prepared by: Burkova Ekaterina, 9 "A" class.
The mirror, having become an integral part of everyday life, opens up a new world to a person - through the looking glass. Looking in the mirror, we see what we dream of - an enlarged space, a mysterious appearance, a different world. It is believed that the larger the mirror, the closer to us the mystery of the parallel world. "
For a long time, the mirror is considered a magical item, full of secrets and magic. People have always wanted to see their own image. It is clear that the very first mirror was an ordinary ... puddle. But the trouble is - you can't take it with you and you can't hang it on the wall at home. Long before the appearance of mirrors, our ancestors tried to grind and polish a wide variety of materials. Stone (pyrite, rock crystal) and metal (gold, silver, tin) were used, but such mirrors were very expensive and, being of great value, were the property of wealthy people. After the "invention" of the first alloy - bronze - bronze mirrors came into use. Bronze and copper mirrors were widespread among the Romans and Greeks. Many of these mirrors have been found during excavations in Pompeii. Bronze metal mirrors , copper and silver have existed for a very long time.
The oldest mirrors are about 5 thousand years old. These are usually gold or silver discs, carefully polished on one side and with patterns on the other. In order to make it look comfortable, a handle was attached to the discs.
But the history of the mirror began as early as the third millennium BC. The oldest metal mirrors were almost always round in shape, and their reverse side was covered with patterns. For their manufacture, bronze and silver were used. The first glass mirrors were created by the Romans in the 1st century AD: a glass plate was connected to a lead or tin backing, so the image was more vivid than on metal. And the Greek philosopher Socrates instructed young men to look in the mirror more often - so that those who have a decent appearance do not disfigure it with vices, and those who are ugly take care to adorn themselves with good deeds.
With the beginning of the Middle Ages, glass mirrors completely disappeared: almost at the same time, all religious denominations believed that the devil himself was looking at the world through the mirrored glass. Medieval women of fashion had, as of old, to use polished metal and ... special basins of water. Carefully polished mirrors were widely used to heal the sick. They treated tuberculosis, dropsy, smallpox and any mental illness. Amazingly, many sufferers actually recovered. It is believed that metals of warm shades (bronze, brass, gold, copper) absorb "cold", oppressive energies and reflect "warm", "sunny". Cold shades of metals act exactly the opposite. By manipulating mirrors made of different materials, the ancestors carried out biostimulation of the body. The patient began to actively resist the illness.
The Japanese believe that it is to the mirror that all the nations of the world owe the fact that the sun rises on earth every day. According to an old myth, the sun goddess Amaterasu took deep offense at her brother Susanoo and locked herself in a deep stone grotto. Without light and heat, all life on earth began to perish. Then, concerned about the fate of the world, the gods decided to lure the bright Amaterasu out of the cave. Knowing the curiosity of the goddess, an elegant necklace was hung on the branches of a tree standing next to the grotto, a mirror was placed next to it and the sacred rooster was ordered to sing loudly. At the cry of the bird, Amaterasu looked out of the grotto, seeing the necklace, could not resist the temptation to try it on. And I could not help but look in the mirror to appreciate the jewelry on myself. As soon as Amaterasu looked in the mirror, the world lit up and remains so to this day. The mirror is still included in the obligatory set of gifts for a Japanese girl who has reached nine years of age. It symbolizes honesty, straightforwardness, purity, and also that all women are still as curious as Amaterasu.
Glass mirrors, despite the fact that glass was invented a long time ago, appeared relatively late. This is due to the fact that for the manufacture of a mirror, sufficient knowledge was needed, which in ancient times was not yet available. The glass mirror is also essentially metallic. After all, metal is reflective in it, only in the form of a thin layer applied to a smooth glass surface. Glass, therefore, is only a transparent base that holds the thinnest metal mirror on it. To make a mirror, it was necessary to have completely colorless, clean, transparent, smooth glass on one side, the thinnest layer of metal, and the mirror itself on the other. A perfect and durable coating of the glass surface with metal was the third prerequisite for the manufacture of such a common glass mirror in our everyday life. For the first time, more or less satisfactorily, these conditions were realized about 600 years ago, when the first glass mirrors began to appear.
And so glass mirrors reappeared only in the 13th century. But they were ... concave. The then manufacturing technology did not know a way to "glue" a tin lining to a flat piece of glass. Therefore, molten tin was simply poured into a glass flask and then smashed into pieces. Only three centuries later, the masters of Venice figured out how to cover a flat surface with tin. Gold and bronze were added to the reflective compositions, so all objects in the mirror looked more beautiful than in reality. The cost of one Venetian mirror was equal to the cost of a small sea vessel.
Thus, medieval Venice was famous for the art of making glass mirrors. Glass making, as an organized craft, originated in Venice in the 8th century. This was facilitated by 2 factors - the invention by the ancient Romans back in 50 BC. NS. glass blowing method and a convenient geographical location of the city, which served as a crossroads of trade routes between Europe and the Eastern countries, primarily the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa.
The master blew out a large ball, then poured molten tin into the tube (no other method of joining metal with glass has yet been invented), and when the tin spread evenly over the inner surface and cooled down, the ball was broken into pieces. And please: you can look as much as you like, only the reflection was, to put it mildly, a little distorted.
The Venetians not only collected knowledge that flowed into their own hands, but also showed miracles of dexterity in obtaining other people's secrets. The cunning ruler, who managed to reorient the 4th Crusade in the direction he needed, with the conquest of Constantinople in 1204 gained access to the secrets of glassmaking of the great empire, which served as a huge impetus to the development of this craft in Venice.
By the end of the 13th century, the number of glass factories, where fires often broke out, had grown in Venice so much that it began to threaten the very existence of the city itself. In 1291, all glassmakers of this republic were moved to the island of Murano, located 1.5 km from Venice. The authorities explained that this was necessary for fire safety purposes, but in fact it was done to keep a closer eye on the glassmakers. The island was already inhabited during the Roman Empire and was named Ammurianum. On it, local residents fled from barbarian raids. Until the 10th century, Murano was an important commercial settlement and port city. Throughout the history of the Venetian Republic, the island had an independent administrative government, as well as its own coin (silver and gold). In the 17th century, Murano is famous for its uniqueness of its nightlife, especially for its gambling.
The specially created "Council of Ten" jealously guarded the secrets of glassmaking, encouraging the craftsmen in every possible way, at the same time isolating them from the outside world: the profits from the monopoly were too great to lose it. The islands were an ideal location in terms of controlling artisans and maintaining professional secrecy. On pain of death, craftsmen were forbidden to divulge the secrets of their craft. In addition, the insular position of production facilitated the task of collecting taxes for the treasury.
The reflective surface of the first mirrors was prepared from a lead-antimony alloy, but it quickly dimmed in air and lost the properties necessary for a mirror.
A mercury-tin alloy was found 200 years later. It had a good reflectivity, and despite the great harm in production (mirror gunners were poisoned during the manufacture of this alloy with mercury vapor) almost until the middle of the 19th century. was irreplaceable in the mirror business. So, in about 1500, in France they came up with the idea of "wetting" flat glass with mercury and thus sticking thin tin foil on its surface. However, flat glass in those days was incredibly expensive, and they knew how to make them well only in Venice. The Venetian merchants, without hesitation, bargained for a patent from the Flemings and for a whole century and a half held a monopoly on the production of excellent "Venetian" mirrors (which should be called Flemish).
At the beginning of the 16th century, the brothers Andrea Domenico from Murano cut a still hot cylinder of glass lengthwise and rolled it in halves on a copper table top. The result was a sheet mirror canvas, distinguished by brilliance, crystal transparency and purity. This was the main event in the history of the production of mirrors.
The authorities of the city of Murano vigilantly watched that the secrets of skill did not float away to strangers. Using the "carrot and stick" policy, as well as all sorts of restrictions, they tried to keep the unique technologies secret. It was forbidden, for example, to export abroad even materials for the preparation of glass mass. And for an attempt to leave Venice, the master could face death.
And so, since the 16th century, mirrors have regained the glory of the most mysterious and most magical objects ever created by man. With the help of games with reflection, they cognized and changed the future, evoked dark forces, multiplied the harvest and performed countless rituals. Sober people found more useful uses for mirrors. The intelligence services of Spain and France have successfully used the cipher system invented in the 15th century by Leonardo da Vinci for two hundred years in a row. The main feature of cryptograms was their "inside out". The dispatches were written and encrypted in a "mirror image" and were simply unreadable without a mirror. The periscope was also an ancient invention. The ability to observe enemies unnoticed with the help of a system of mutually reflecting mirrors has saved many lives of the soldiers of Islam. The children's game of "sunbeams" was almost universally used by all combatants during the famous Thirty Years War. It is difficult to aim when thousands of mirrors blind your eyes.
However, in the 15th century, France managed to master the secret of Venetian glass making. The high cost of fashionable products prompted her to do this. According to the French Minister of Finance Colbert, a Venetian mirror measuring 115 by 65 centimeters in a silver frame cost 68 thousand livres, while a painting by Raphael of the same format is only 3 thousand! The minister believed that the mirrors threaten the country with ruin. This was no exaggeration. French aristocrats, boasting to each other of their wealth, paid fortunes for them.
On top of that, at one of the court balls, the queen appeared in a dress strewn with pieces of mirrors. A dazzling radiance emanated from her, but this "splendor" cost the country too dearly. At the end of the 16th century, succumbing to fashion, the French queen Maria de Medici decided to acquire a mirror cabinet, for which 119 mirrors were purchased in Venice.
Apparently, in gratitude for the large order, the Venetian masters presented the Queen with a unique mirror trimmed with agates, onyx, emeralds and inlaid with precious stones. Today it is kept in the Louvre.
Mirrors were extremely expensive. Only very rich aristocrats and royalty could buy and collect them. In France, a certain Countess de Fiesc parted with an estate in order to buy a mirror she liked, and the Duchess de Lude sold silver furniture to be melted down to purchase a mirror one.
Therefore, Colbert, in order not to ruin France, decided on extreme measures. He sent his confidants to the island of Murano. They bribed two craftsmen and secretly took them to France in a small boat at night. Soon, the first mirror manufactory in Europe appeared in the French town of Tour la Ville. Nevertheless, the secret of the production of the most colored Murano glass remained unapproachable.
The French proved to be capable students and soon even surpassed their teachers. Mirror glass began to be obtained not by blowing, as was done in Murano, but by casting. The technology is as follows: molten glass is poured directly from the melting pot onto a flat surface and rolled out with a roller. The author of this method is called Luca De Negu.
The invention came in handy: the Gallery of Mirrors was being built in Versailles. It was 73 meters long and needed large mirrors. In Saint-Gabin, 306 of these mirrors were made in order to stun those who were lucky enough to visit the king at Versailles with their radiance. After that, how was it not to recognize Louis XIV's right to be called "the sun king"?
In 1846, a method was found to cover glass with a thin layer of silver. This method has been perfected for ten years. It was only after 1855, when the French chemist Ptijean and the outstanding German chemist Liebig found simple recipes for applying silver to glass, that a glass-based silver mirror became widespread.
Mirrors in Russia.
In Russia, almost until the end of the 17th century, the mirror was considered an overseas sin. Pious people avoided him. The church council of 1666 took and forbade the clergy to keep mirrors in their homes. Perhaps that is why the number of superstitions associated with mirrors in Russia is second only to the number of Chinese signs on the same occasion. In different regions of Russia, the traditions of using mirrors in fortune telling have acquired directly opposite signs. In the south, love bewitches on a black mirror, in the northern provinces - the disease of the enemy. They agree only on one thing: breaking the mirror - to death or, at least, seven years of misfortune. Few people know a simple and effective way to "disown" future troubles. A broken mirror should be honored ... bury, sincerely apologizing to him for his clumsiness.
"Only mirrors in small format were brought from abroad in large quantities and were part of the women's toilet," he wrote. And the historian Zabelin explains that in Russia "mirrors acquired the significance of room furniture almost from the second half of the 17th century, but even at that time they made up the decoration of only internal beddings in chorus and did not yet have a place in the ceremonial reception rooms ..." and there they were hidden by curtains of taffeta and silk, or kept in icon cases. The time has come for Russia to make its own mirrors. In the era of Peter I, many new crafts were born, including glass. The demand for window glass, mirrors and dishes was very high. In 1705, they began to build a manufactory on the Sparrow Hills in Moscow - "a stone barn eighty-three feet long, ten yards high, in which a smelting furnace is made of white clay bricks." Other factories also appeared, and in Russia mirrored glasses were made of such a huge size that this caused surprise in many countries.
A mirror in an icon case, decorated with thin pewter lace, at one time Princess Sophia (the ruler under the boy tsars Ivan and Peter) gave her heartfelt friend Prince Golitsyn. In 1689, on the occasion of the disgrace from the prince and his son Alexei, 76 mirrors were written off to the treasury (mirror passions were already raging among the Russian nobility), but the prince hid the princess's mirror and took it with him into exile to the Arkhangelsk Territory. After his death, the mirror, among other things, according to the will of the prince, fell into the monastery near Pinega, survived and survived to this day. Now it is kept in the funds of the Arkhangelsk Museum of Local Lore.
Having become an important element of furniture and decor, the mirror demanded an appropriate frame. In the mirror frames, artistic taste, the peculiarity of talent of jewelers and artists, national color, craftsmanship and, of course, time, to which both crafts and art are subject, found expression.
Different architectural styles and fashions changed, but there was always a place for the mirror. In the XIIV century, austere Gothic was replaced by a magnificent baroque. Well, how can we do without mirrors! They were used both as decoration of walls and fireplaces in palaces, and as decoration for the humble dwelling of ordinary citizens. By the beginning of the 18th century, baroque was replaced by rococo, the most delicate and sophisticated style. Whole mirrored rooms and galleries are already being built here. So in the Versailles Mirror Gallery, for example, 306 mirrors, as it were, pushed the walls of the room and intensified the power of the light emanating from candles and chandeliers. Then Rococo was replaced by strict classicism - mirrors began to decorate the main staircases, ballrooms, living quarters.
With the beginning of the twentieth century, mirrors lost their exoticism and became a common household item. Today they are widely used in technology. Nowadays, with the help of reflected sunlight, metal is boiled, houses are heated, food is increased, seed yields are increased, sessions of "light massage" are conducted, telescopes, searchlights, lighthouses, microscopes, telephoto lenses, optical resonators, cameras, incandescent lamps and ... all areas of application of this seemingly "frivolous" invention of man! The mirror plays an important role in our daily life. A mirror is not a luxury item, but an absolute must. The impossibility of seeing oneself for a modern person is almost inconceivable. Shaving, correcting negligence in clothing, facial care and much more cannot be done without a mirror. And it is not surprising that the mirror is one of the ancient objects of human use.
The relaxation mirror is one of the new products that is successfully used in psychological relief rooms. However, the essence of the novelty has literally been consecrated for centuries. To relieve fatigue, it is proposed to use the law of binocular vision. Anyone who begins to see poorly from overwork can put a burning candle in front of him. Behind it, at a distance of 5-10 cm, place a mirror and alternately look at the dancing light, then at its reflection. A living light, especially its tip, will alternately excite the receptive fields of the human retina and, indirectly, the cells of the frontal lobes of the brain, which, having received information from the right eye and the left, will build an image of a living fire. It is this image that will unload the muscles, normalize the pressure inside the eye and relieve the incipient disorder.
Geopathogenic zones are considered by many to be fiction. But this is a scientifically established fact. Energy flows arising at the site of anomalies in the earth's crust bring significant harm to health. An ordinary domestic cat will help you find a geopathic zone in your apartment. She will actively avoid the place where the stream is passing. And to cope with harmful radiation will help ... an ordinary mirror. Putting it under linoleum or carpet with a reflective surface down, you can significantly reduce, and sometimes completely get rid of disease-causing radiation. However, dowsing experts insist that the mirror also successfully reflects useful energy coming from space. Therefore, it is strictly forbidden to put the "magic glass" with its shiny surface upwards.
It is known that the optical surface of even the best mirror not only reflects, but also partially absorbs, and therefore “remembers” the energy incident on it. Esotericists are convinced that information "memorized" by a mirror can be emitted and act on our subconscious. There is also a version that a person is the only living creature capable of recognizing himself in a mirror. The mirror is the main criterion for our self-esteem. If you don’t like your appearance day in and day out, it’s difficult to count on good mood and well-being. Therefore, it is necessary to smile more often in front of the mirror. And on the contrary - as rarely as possible to approach him in a bad mood.
Popular Chinese feng shui teachings emphasize mirrors. They are a kind of "redistributors" of vital energy in the right direction. In order for the hearth to be harmonious, it is strictly forbidden to place mirrors in the bedroom opposite the bed and in the corridor opposite the front door. On the contrary: mirrors placed next to the table in the living room or in the kitchen will attract all kinds of well-being to the house. The interior, made with the use of mirror tiles, in which the reflection is "crushed", will also have a negative effect on the attitude of the owners. Such tiles should be positioned in such a way that direct reflection of the occupants is excluded. Mirrors should be as large as possible. When leaving for work, it is useful to leave any banknote in front of your home mirror - let your finances reflect and multiply.
The choice of mirrors for the home is a responsible event. The current abundance of models can satisfy the most picky taste. However, when going to the store to buy "magic glass", it is worth remembering: it is not only the design or the quality of processing that is important. For thousands of years, the glory of the most magical and mysterious objects has been preserved behind the mirrors. Therefore, it is very important to follow a simple rule: you only need to buy the mirror in which you like yourself.
There is not a single apartment in the world that does not have a mirror. In fact, the history of the mirror goes back to the distant past. The oldest mirror on earth is about seven thousand years old. Before the invention of the mirror, stone and metal were used: gold, silver, bronze, tin, copper, and rock crystal.
There is a legend that Medusa the Gorgon turned to stone when she saw her image in the polished shield of the beautiful Perseus. Archaeologists believe that the earliest mirrors were found in Turkey as polished pieces of obsidian dating back about 7,500 years. However, not a single antique mirror could, for example, look at oneself from behind or distinguish shades of color.
Everyone knows the ancient Greek myth of Narcissus, who lay for hours on the shore of the lake, admiring his reflection in the water, as in a mirror. In the days of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, wealthy people could afford to buy a mirror made of polished metal. Making such a mirror was no easy task, and the polished steel or bronze mirrors were no larger than a palm. In addition, the surface of such a mirror quickly oxidized and had to be constantly cleaned.
Experts in the field of linguistics believe that the word - mirror - came from Ancient Rome - the Latin spelling looked like - spektrum. Then this word, having undergone phonetic, morphological, lexical translation in different languages, began to be used everywhere. For example, in German it became Spiegel ("Der Spiegel" - mirror).
The invention of the mirror in the modern sense can be attributed to 1279, when the Franciscan John Peckam described a way to cover ordinary glass with a thin layer of lead.
The first manufacturers of the mirror were the Venetians. The technology was rather complicated: a thin layer of tin foil was applied to the paper, which was covered with mercury on the other side, then it was again laid over the mercury, and only then glass was applied on top, which pressed these layers, and in the meantime the paper was taken out of them. Venice jealously guarded its monopoly of mirrors.
In 1454, the Doji issued an order forbidding mirrors to leave the country, and those who had already done so were ordered to return to their homeland. The "non-returnees" were threatened with punishment in relation to their relatives. Assassins were sent on the trail of especially stubborn fugitives. As a result, the mirror remained incredibly rare and fantastically expensive for three centuries. Despite the fact that such a mirror was very cloudy, it still reflected more light than it absorbed.
King Louis XIV of France was literally obsessed with mirrors. It was during his time that the firm "Saint-Gobain" unraveled the secret of Venetian production, after which prices fell sharply. Mirrors began to appear on the walls of private houses, in picture frames. In the 18th century, two-thirds of Parisians had already acquired them. In addition, ladies began to wear small mirrors attached with chains on their belts.
This process of making a mirror remained with minor changes until 1835, when the German professor Justus von Liebig discovered the fact that, using silver, a much clearer image could be obtained in a mirror.
Given how late the glass mirror appeared in the history of mankind, one cannot but cause amazement, how much it plays a huge role in superstition and in popular culture in general. Already in the Middle Ages, a fragment of a mirror appears among the list of her magical devices in the verdict of a French witch. With the help of a mirror, Russian girls wondered about the groom. The mirror, as it were, opened up the space of the otherworldly, it both attracted and frightened, so they treated it cautiously: sometimes they curtained it, sometimes they brought the cat, sometimes they turned it against the wall, and sometimes they broke it.
The opportunity to see oneself from the outside led to colossal consequences: Europeans began to control their behavior (and even facial expressions) more, the emancipation of an individual increased, and philosophical reflection increased (after all, even this word means "reflection"). When in Europe at the end of the 19th century, problems with human self-identification arose, this found a way out in increased attention to the mirror.
The equipping of premises with mirrors has a two-hundred-year history in Russia, its palaces and noble estates. In the ballrooms, bright and high, the Russian nobility paid special attention to the placement of mirrors in order to create the effect of space.
Even ten years ago, the usual set of mirrors in the interior of an apartment was limited to mirrors in the bathroom, hallway and in the closet. With the development of European-quality renovation, exclusive interior, the art of using mirrors in the room has found a second wind.
An interesting trend of recent years is the departure from the mirror as an object of utilitarian function and the use of light and space to enhance the illusion of light and space, to hide the flaws in the layout of the dwelling. The explanation for this is very simple. We are still experiencing a shortage of meters, layout inconveniences and other architectural flaws. The mirror is a very powerful tool in solving such problems. The correct distribution of light sources and their reflections significantly expands the scope of the room, creating the illusion of infinity of space.
The plane of the mirror is subjected to design experiments: it is outlined in every possible way, painted, "aged", given color, and the reflective properties of sheet metal are used. A baguette is used to decorate mirrors.
Scientists suggest that the history of the creation of mirrors began more than 7000 years ago. As they then served various metal surfaces, polished to a shine - gold, silver, pewter, copper, bronze. Sometimes even stones were used.
Mirror surfaces are mentioned even in ancient Greek mythology. Let us recall the story of Perseus and Medusa the Gorgon. According to legend, anyone who looks into the eyes of the Gorgon Medusa will turn to stone. It was this that Perseus took advantage of, substituting his shield for her as a mirror. Medusa Gorgon, seeing her reflection, turned to stone.
The first mirrors in history, according to archaeologists, were polished pieces of igneous rock - obsidian. Such "mirrors" were found in Turkey and were about 7,500 years old. True, they can be called that very conditionally, since it was impossible to carefully consider something in them. Only very wealthy people could afford such a metal polished surface, since the mirrors required long daily maintenance.
Much later, in 1279, John Pecan first described the following method for making a mirror: a very thin layer of lead was applied to ordinary glass. Later, another method was used: a tin foil covered with mercury was placed between two sheets of paper, glass was placed on top, and then the paper was carefully removed. At that time, the Venetian mirrors were considered the best. They were incredibly expensive, so Venice tried in every way to keep the secret of their manufacture. The mirrors were strictly forbidden to leave the city. In the wake of those who nevertheless disobeyed, they sent murderers, and their relatives were threatened with reprisals. All these measures allowed Venice to retain the primacy in the production of mirrors for three centuries!
During the time of the French king Louis XIV, who was a great lover of this luxury item, the mystery of the manufacture of Venetian mirrors was solved, which immediately reduced the price for them. Products became more accessible to ordinary citizens, and already in the 18th century, most Parisians could boast of this little thing. The first floor mirror also appeared in Paris, in the royal palace.
When this subject of home furnishings entered the life of people, it became possible to look at ourselves from the outside. This led to the fact that wealthy citizens began to pay more attention to their appearance, rather than behavior.
In 1835, a German scientist, Professor Justus von Liebig, invented a new technology for making mirrors. In order to make them clearer and more sparkling, he suggested using silver instead of tin.
For many centuries, mirrors were treated with respect, with apprehension and even with mystical fear. They were an invariable attribute of fortune telling.
Nowadays, the mirror has become a common, everyday thing in every home. Of course, even now the fashion for them is changing. Round and oval mirrors, which were so widespread in the 1920s, are replaced by rectangular ones. In the middle of the century, irregular shapes became fashionable, and in the 70s they were striving to stylize them "antique". Today you can buy any mirror in appearance and size, which will undoubtedly help to decorate any interior.
For a person, the main way of perceiving information about the world around is visual. Ancient people looked at their reflection in the water. In the Stone Age, people carefully polished pieces of obsidian. Similar pieces were found during excavations in Turkey.With the development of civilization, mankind began to use metals as mirrors - silver, copper or gold. These metals were used to make discs, polished to a shine on one side. On the reverse side, the discs were finished with various decorations. But the metal ones had a big drawback - the image in them was cloudy and blurry.
The invention of the real mirror
The first glass mirror was in France. Franciscan John Peckam in 1279 described the method of covering glass with a layer of tin. The production of mirrors was done according to the following technology - molten tin was poured into a glass vessel in a thin layer. When the vessel cooled down, it was broken into pieces. Of course, the concave pieces gave a distorted image, but it was clear and. Handicraft production of mirrors first began in Holland in the 13th century. Then mirrors were made in Flanders and in the city of Nuremberg.Development of mirror production
In 1407 Venice bought a patent for the production of mirrors from the Flemings. For a century and a half, Venice was a monopoly in the production of mirrors. Venetian mirrors were of high quality and price. The Venetian masters added gold and bronze to the reflective compositions. Reflection in such mirrors was more beautiful than reality. Such mirrors were very expensive, for the same amount it was possible to purchase a small ship.A breakthrough in the production of mirrors occurred at the beginning of the 16th century. Craftsmen from Murano were able to cut a hot glass vessel and roll it out on a copper tabletop. Thus, a mirror cloth was obtained - shiny and clean. The mirrored sheets did not distort the image.
Since mirrors were very expensive, the French decided to organize their own production.
In the 17th century, the French were able to bribe the craftsmen from Murano. The craftsmen and their families were secretly taken to France. Having adopted the secrets of making mirrors, in 1665 the French opened the first mirror manufactory. After the opening of the manufactory, the price of a mirror sheet decreased and became affordable for the majority of the population.
Where mirrors are used today
Now mirrors are used not only for exterior care. Interior decoration with mirror canvases has become widespread. Mirrors are also used in lighting, scientific and optical devices. Before the invention of the first mirror, people admired their reflection in water. The ancient Greek myth of Narcissus tells of a handsome young man who spent whole days looking at his face in the surface of the lake. However, already in those days, about 5 thousand years ago, the wealthy inhabitants of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome could purchase mirrors made of polished metal - steel or bronze. These accessories required constant care and cleaning. their surface was constantly oxidizing and darkening, and the quality of the reflection was poor - it was quite difficult to distinguish between details and colors.In different countries in different eras, gold, copper, silver, tin, and rock crystal were used to obtain a reflective surface. Only the wealthiest people could afford a mirror. A product similar to a modern mirror was invented in 1279 by Franciscan John Peck, who was the first to try to cover glass with the thinnest layer of lead: molten metal was poured into a glass flask, and after solidification, it was broken into smaller pieces. The mirrors obtained in this way were concave.
A little later, mirrors began to be produced in Venice. The craftsmen slightly improved the method of John Peckam and used tin foil, mercury and paper in the production. The Venetians strictly guarded their secret, in 1454 a decree was even issued forbidding the masters of mirror business to leave the country, and even hired killers were sent for those who disobeyed. And although such a mirror was also cloudy and faded, it remained a very rare and expensive commodity for three centuries.
In the 17th century, King Louis XIV of France wanted to build a magnificent Gallery of Mirrors in Versailles. King Colbert's minister seduced three Venetian masters with money and promises and brought them to France. Here the technology was changed again: the French learned not to blow molten glass, but to roll it out. Thanks to this method, large mirrors could be produced. The built Gallery of Mirrors delighted people of that time: all objects were endlessly reflected, everything shimmered and sparkled. And by the 18th century, mirrors had become a familiar item for many Parisians - prices for this accessory had dropped dramatically.
The French production method remained unchanged until 1835, when Professor Justus von Liebig of Germany discovered that silver plating produced a cleaner image.
How mirrors have influenced people's lives
For many centuries, people have experienced fear of mirrors, which were considered the gates to the other world. In the Middle Ages, a woman could be accused of witchcraft if this item was among her things. Later, mirrors began to be actively used for fortune telling, including in Russia.With the advent of the opportunity to see their reflection, people began to pay more attention to their appearance and behavior. Thanks to the mirror, one of the directions in psychology was born, called reflection, i.e. - "reflection".
In modern interiors, the mirror has not only reflective functions, it is used to enhance the feeling of space and light. Correctly installed mirrors expand the boundaries of the room, make it light and cozy.