1. Natural complex. The interrelation of the components of the natural complex.
A natural complex or NTC (natural-territorial complex) is a set of interrelated natural components in a certain area. The largest NTC on the Earth's surface is the geographic envelope (it consists of the upper part of the lithosphere, the lower part of the atmosphere, and the entire hydrosphere). In turn, the geographic envelope is subdivided into smaller NTC - continents and oceans, natural zones and even smaller natural complexes: a ravine, a river valley, a hill, etc.
All of them are formed over a long time under the influence of external (energy of the Sun) and internal (internal energy of the Earth) processes. V natural complex there is a constant interaction of natural components, they are all interconnected and affect each other. These include: climate, water, vegetation and animal world, relief and rocks, soil, people. When one natural component changes, the entire natural complex changes. (Deforestation leads to the appearance of another PC - a field)
The natural complex, like the entire geographic envelope of which it is a part, develops according to special laws, the most important of which are integrity, rhythm, stability, and geographical zoning is manifested.
Integrity. All natural components are interconnected through the circulation of matter and energy. Among them, the circulation of rocks, circulation air masses, the world water cycle in nature, the biological cycle and others.
Rhythm - the repetition of the same phenomena after a certain period of time.
Stability. Renewal of the PTC in the absence of external influence.
The change of the PTC is subject to geographic zoning. (Change of natural zones when moving from the equator to the poles)
2. Australia: geographical location, history of discovery and exploration of the mainland.
Australia is the driest and smallest continent on the planet. Its area is 7.7 million square meters. km and with islands - 9 million sq. km.
Its length from north to south (3 thousand km) and from west to east (4 thousand km) is practically the same.
The mainland is located in two hemispheres: Southern and Eastern. Washed by the waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans... (King Bay, Timor Sea, Joseph Bonaparte Bay, Arafura Sea, Carpentaria Bay, Torres Strait, Coral Sea, Tasman Sea, Bass Strait, Spencer Bay, Great Australian Bight)
Extreme points of the mainland:
north - Cape York 10 ° S NS. 142 ° East etc.,
southern - Cape South East Point 39 ° S. NS. 147 ° East etc.
eastern - Cape Byron 28 ° S. NS. 154 ° E etc.,
western - Cape Steep Point 26 ° S. NS. 114 ° E etc.
The history of the exploration of the mainland.
Australia was discovered by Europeans later than other continents. This land was discovered by the Dutch. In the first half of the 17th century, they already knew the northern, western and southwestern coasts of the mainland. A lot of information about the mainland was collected by the expeditions of Tasman, Torres, D. Cook.
In 1606 the Spaniard Torres discovered the northernmost tip of the Australian Cape York Peninsula, and named the strait separating New Guinea from Cape York as Torres.
A. Tasman. 1642-1643 Dutchman Tasman, bypassing New Holland along the ring route, proved that it is a special continent. Tasman did not see the eastern shores, as he walked too far from them, but he discovered a section of the coast of New Zealand.
D Cook. On August 22, 1770, Cook landed on a small island in the Torres Strait and took possession of the British crown the entire east coast of New Holland, which he called New South Wales. Thus ended the discovery of the fifth continent of the Earth - Australia.
3. Give a definition of what a river is. Show the following rivers on the map: Volga, Amazon, Nile, Mississippi, Murray, Ob, Yenisei.
A river is a stream of water flowing in a channel it has developed.
Natural ingredients - constituent parts that form landscape complexes. The properties of the components, and some of them themselves, are largely derivatives of their interaction in the PTC. The main natural components of PTC: masses of rocks that make up the earth's crust (lithosphere); air masses of the lower atmosphere (troposphere); water (hydrosphere), represented in landscapes in three phase states (liquid, solid, vapor); vegetation, animals, soil. All natural components in terms of their origin, properties and functions in landscapes are combined into three subsystems:
1. Lithogenic base(geological rocks and relief); Bottom part atmosphere (tropospheric air); hydrosphere (water) - geome.
2. Biota- flora and fauna.
3. Soil– bio-inert subsystem.
Sometimes, relief and climate are referred to as special components that have a great influence on the formation and properties of landscapes. However, they are just important properties. crust(lithogenic basis) and surface air masses, which are external form and a set of parameters and processes of contact layers of the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere.
Properties of natural components:
1. Real(mechanical, physical, chemical composition).
2. Energy(temperature, potential and kinetic energy of gravity, pressure, biogenic energy, etc.).
3. Information and organizational(structure, spatial and temporal sequence, relative position and connections).
It is the properties of natural components that determine the specifics of the interaction of components within landscape geosystems. At the same time, they are derivatives of these interactions.
Natural components have a wide variety of properties, but they are far from the same value for the organization and development of territorial geosystems of geographic dimension. The most active and important for a specific level of organization of the PTC, the interacting properties of the components are called natural factors. Among the factors, the leading ones are distinguished, the main ones for a certain level of organization of geosystems, and the secondary ones, which determine the specifics of geosystems at other levels. They are one of the main reasons, driving forces that determine the results and types of interactions between natural components, as well as structural and functional features of landscape geosystems (type of relief; climate, type of vegetation, etc.).
The influence of various factors on the properties of natural components in landscape complexes can be represented by the following examples.
The material composition of the surface layer of the Earth (granites, basalts, clays, sands, water, ice) affects the albedo (reflectivity) of the surface and the nature of vegetation, which affects the temperature regime of the surface atmosphere. Temperature regime, which depends primarily on the radiation balance of the territory, also affects the vegetation cover and water regime in landscapes. Chemical composition rocks and water masses closely related to other natural components, for example, determine the geochemical and
the specific originality of soils, vegetation and landscapes in general on different sites land and oceans. Powerful and active landscape-forming factors can be gradients in matter and its properties between components (difference in temperature and heat capacity, difference in chemical composition, in moisture, difference in inertia of structures and processes - lithogenic base and vegetation; lithogenic base and air or water masses ). Due to the fact that each natural component is a special material substance, in the zone of their maximum and active contact, that is, on the surface of the Earth, there are significant gradients in the substance and its properties. These gradients determine the formation and functioning of landscape complexes.
The main external energy factors that create the primary energy basis for the functioning of landscape geosystems are solar radiation, the gravitational forces of the Earth and the Moon, and internal heat.
Among the factors, the leading ones are distinguished, having the main influence on the organization of geosystems of a certain rank and type, as well as secondary ones, which determine the specifics of geosystems at other levels.
NATURAL COMPONENTS AS FACTORS DEFINING THE SPECIFICITY OF LANDSCAPE GEOSYSTEMS
Lithogenic base landscape complexes, or geosystems - this is the composition and structure of rocks, relief earth surface.
The lithogenic base, through the composition of rocks and the relief, sets a rigid, very inertial frame of natural complexes formed on it. In one natural zone on rocks of different mechanical composition, different vegetation is formed. So, in the forest zone of the temperate zone, the NTC on clay and loamy rocks are characterized by spruce forests, and on the sands - the predominance of pine forests. If the clayey rocks in the southern taiga subzone are carbonated, then coniferous-deciduous forests develop here. Differences are also pronounced in desert landscapes formed on sandy, clayey and rubble deposits.
Rocks of different mechanical and chemical composition determine the differences in the ratios and volumes of runoff of surface and underground streams, in the ionic runoff, as well as differences in the soils formed on them (loamy, sandy loam, sandy, gravelly, carbonate, acidic, slightly alkaline, etc.) ).
The presence of altitudinal zonation in the mountains and its change depending on the altitude and exposure of the slopes are known. By redistributing the water of atmospheric precipitation, the relief determines the moisture in natural complexes (all other things being equal). It is the difference in the reliefs of the territories and the NTC formed on them that determine the unequal potential and kinetic energy concentrated in the landscapes. This energy is realized, first of all, in the form of various erosion processes, as well as in the structural elements of the relief itself (the shape of the valleys, the dissection of the territory, etc.).
Different breeds they form slopes of different steepness, and slopes of different steepness and their exposure absorb different amounts of heat. Warmer habitats are formed on the southern slopes, and colder ones on the northern slopes (a rule of thumb by V.V. Alekhin). All this is reflected in the landscape features of the territory.
So, the lithogenic base is the most inert element of the landscape envelope. Therefore, its main properties are often the leading factors influencing the structural and functional organization of geosystems at a number of regional, and especially local, intralandscape hierarchical levels of the NTC. This is manifested through the features of the relief of the territories, the presence of surfaces with different slopes, hypsometry and exposure, which determine the redistribution of zonal-sector and local hydrothermal resources, the supply of plants with nutrients contained in soils of different types.
Atmosphere, or more precisely, air masses the lower, surface part of the troposphere is also included as a component in the composition and forms landscape complexes. Depending on the rank and type of landscape geosystems (local, regional), the power of the air mass included in the geosystems varies from tens to hundreds and the first thousand meters. The most important properties of air, influencing the characteristics of other components of the landscape, can be represented as follows.
The chemical composition of the air, namely the presence of carbon dioxide, is one of the foundations of the photosynthesis of green plants. Oxygen is necessary for breathing for all representatives of living nature, for the oxidation and mineralization of dead organic residues - mortmasses... In addition, the presence of oxygen determines the formation of an ozone screen in the stratosphere, which protects the protein life forms characteristic of the landscape envelope from harmful ultraviolet radiation sun. At the same time, free oxygen in the atmosphere is itself a product of the photosynthesis process and is released by plants.
in atmosphere. Nitrogen is important component proteins and, accordingly, one of the main elements of plant nutrition.
The air of the atmosphere, relatively transparent to the sun's rays of the visible spectrum, due to the presence of carbon dioxide and water vapor in it, well retains the infrared (thermal) radiation of the Earth. This ensures the "greenhouse effect", that is, temperature fluctuations are smoothed out, and heat solar radiation lingers longer in landscapes.
Air currents in the atmosphere, transferring heat and moisture from one region to another, smooth out the hydrothermal differences between landscapes. Air provides heat and material exchange of substances between various components of geosystems. So, the air, enriched with dust raised from the earth's surface, including salts, can transfer it to water bodies, and the latter enrich the air with moisture, chlorine ions, sulfates, etc. They are carried to land by air currents. Moreover, wind currents are capable of forming meso- and microforms of the relief (dunes, dunes, blowing depressions, etc.) and even determine the shape and character of plants (for example, flag-like, tumbleweed).
If the lithosphere defines a rigid framework and is a very inertial component that determines rigid and sharp boundaries in the spatial differentiation of landscapes, then air masses as a dynamic substance, on the contrary, integrate natural complexes, smoothing the transitions between geosystems, and enhance the continuity of the landscape envelope.
Hydrosphere, or natural waters- an important component of landscapes. At temperatures prevailing in landscapes, water can be in three phase states. The presence of more or less watered territories sharply differentiates the landscape envelope of the Earth into terrestrial (land) and aquatic geosystems (aquatic and territorial landscape complexes).
Water is one of the most heat-consuming substances on Earth (1 cal / g degree). In addition, it is characterized by very high costs of absorbed and released heat during phase transitions (ice, water, steam). This determines its main role in heat exchange between regions, as well as components and elements within geosystems. It is water, due to its properties, that forms many different-scale cycles of matter and energy, connecting different natural complexes and their components into unified geosystems.
Surface runoff is a very powerful factor in the redistribution of matter between geosystems, as well as the formation of exogenous relief-20
pho- and lithogenesis. With water flows, the main types of exchange and migration of chemical elements occur both between landscape components and between the landscape complexes themselves, or geosystems. At the same time, waters with different acid-base properties are formed in different landscape conditions. The latter determine the unequal conditions of water migration and the concentration of various chemical elements in landscapes. So, A.I. Perelman proposed the following classification scheme natural waters by the peculiarities of migration of certain chemical elements in them (Table 2.1).
It is obvious that the device geographic envelope depends on the specific region, therefore it consists of separate natural complexes.
Natural complexes of the Earth
The geographic envelope has a mosaic structure, this is due to the different natural complexes that are included in it. The part of the earth's surface that has the same natural conditions, it is customary to call a natural complex.
Homogeneous natural conditions are relief, water, climate, soil, animal and vegetable world... Separately, natural complexes consist of components that are interconnected by historically established ties.
That is why, if there is a change in one of the components of nature, then all the components of the natural complex also change.
The geographic envelope is a planetary natural complex and the largest. The shell is divided into smaller natural complexes.
Types of natural complexes
The division of the shell into separate natural complexes is due to the heterogeneity of the earth's surface and the structure of the earth's crust, as well as the uneven amount of heat.
In view of these differences, natural complexes are classified into zonal and azonal.
Azonal natural complexes
The main azonal natural complexes are oceans and continents. They are the largest in size. Plain and mountainous areas located on the continents are considered to be smaller.
For example, the Caucasus, West Siberian Plain, Andes. And these natural complexes can be divided into even smaller ones - the Southern and Central Andes.
Even smaller natural complexes will be considered river valleys, hills, various slopes that are located on their territory.
Interrelation of components of natural complexes
The interrelation of the components of natural complexes is a unique phenomenon.
This can be traced back to simple example: if the quantity changes solar radiation and its impact on the earth's surface, the nature of the vegetation in this area will also change. This transformation will result in soil and relief changes.
Human impact on natural complexes
Human activities have had a significant impact on natural systems since ancient times. After all, man not only adapts to the nature of the Earth, but also exerts a constant and extensive influence on it.
Over the centuries, man has improved his skills and created different ways using nature to your advantage. This has an extremely negative impact on the development of most natural complexes.
It is for this reason that people are increasingly talking about such a phenomenon as the rational use of natural resources. Under this concept, it is customary to understand human activities aimed at the careful development of natural complexes and the preservation natural resources in any circumstance.
Geographic envelope and its features
All shells of the Earth are closely interconnected. As a result of this interaction, the upper layers of the lithosphere, the lower layers of the atmosphere, the biosphere and the hydrosphere have formed a special environment - geographic envelope.
Geographic envelope properties:
1. Within the geographic envelope, substances are in three states
2. There is life within it
3. Various cycles take place in it.
4. The main source of energy is the sun
Rice. 1. Scheme of the geographic envelope
Rice. 2. Stages of development of the geographic envelope
Natural complex
Within the geographic envelope, its components constantly interact with each other, forming natural complexes.
Rice. 3. Scheme of interaction of natural components
Natural complex - a combination of natural components in a certain area, closely related to each other.
Rice. 4. Diagram of the natural complex and its components
Examples of natural complexes
The natural complexes of the Earth are very diverse, they differ in plant, animal composition, geographic location, size, soil, climate, etc. The main component influencing the location of a natural complex is the climate.
Rice. 5. Types of natural complexes
The largest natural complex is the geographic shell of the Earth.
Human impact on nature
A person and his activities with the development of science and technology, with an increase in the population, increasingly have an impact on natural environment and its components. At the same time, one must not forget that when one component of the natural complex changes, others also change.
Rice. 1. Factory pipes
Therefore, the use of natural benefits by man should be carried out carefully and wisely.
Rice. 2. Man and nature: positive interaction
In connection with the increasing influence of man on the natural environment, new questions arise before science and society. Scientists are already thinking how to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, how to reuse many types of resources, are trying to develop new energy sources and much more.
Protecting nature does not mean not using its wealth and not changing it. The main thing is to treat nature carefully, use its resources economically and carefully, not take too much, develop new technologies, plant trees, protect rare species of flora and fauna.
Nature conservation organizations
There are many international organizations for the protection and protection of nature:
1. World Fund wildlife(the main goal is to preserve the biosphere).
Rice. 3. Emblem of the Wildlife Fund
2. Greenpeace (the main goal is to achieve a solution to global environmental problems).
3. United Nations Program on environment(UNEP).
Rice. 4. UNEP logo
4. World Conservation Union
5. Green cross, etc.
Dam erection
When a dam is built on a river, a reservoir is created, thereby increasing the amount and volume of water upstream. Due to this, the humidity of the area increases, waterlogging of the territory can occur, the emergence of new plants and animals to replace the former inhabitants of these places. Thus, due to human activity, a change in the natural complex occurs.
Red Book
The Red Book is a list of rare and endangered plants, animals and fungi. In Russia, this book is published in two volumes.
Rice. 5. Red Book of the Republic of Belarus (plants)
Earth Day
April 22 - Earth Day. At the end of the 20th century, the celebration of this date became an international action. Earth Day has been celebrated in Russia since 1992.
Bibliography
The main
1. An initial course in geography: textbook. for 6 cl. general education. institutions / T.P. Gerasimova, N.P. Neklyukova. - 10th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, 2010 .-- 176 p.
2. Geography. 6th grade: atlas. - 3rd ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard; DIK, 2011 .-- 32 p.
3. Geography. 6th grade: atlas. - 4th ed., Stereotype. - M .: Bustard, DIK, 2013 .-- 32 p.
4. Geography. 6 cl .: cont. maps: M .: DIK, Bustard, 2012 .-- 16 p.
Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical compilations
1. Geography. Modern Illustrated Encyclopedia / A.P. Gorkin. - M .: Rosmen-Press, 2006 .-- 624 p.
1.Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().
2. Russian Geographical Society ().
3.Geografia.ru ().
Studying the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity:
Ø to deepen understanding of the essence of the concept of "components of nature" and the relationship between them;
Ø to study the structure, basic properties of the NTC and landscape
Natural component- This is an integral material part of nature, representing one of the spheres of the geographic shell of the Earth (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, etc.). Natural components on the Earth's surface are represented rocks, air, surface and groundwater, soil, vegetation and animal world... Climate (long-term weather conditions) and relief are not components of nature, since they are not material bodies, but reflect the properties of air masses and the earth's surface.
There are three groups of natural components: lithogenic, hydroclimatogenic and biogenic (Fig.).
All components of nature are closely interconnected and a change in one leads to a change in others.
The closest interaction of the components is typical for the near-surface (soil) and the nearest above-surface layer of the Earth, since it is here that all spheres of the Earth's geographic shell (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, etc.) come into contact. For example, the climatic features of the territory are influenced by the relief. Climate and relief affect the formation of waters, soils, vegetation and wildlife. In turn, flora and fauna are united by a system of interaction with each other and affect other components of nature. The relationship between the components of nature must be considered when organizing economic activity... For example, dehumidification leads to a decrease groundwater territory, and this has an impact on soil, vegetation and fauna, etc.
Natural components, closely interacting with each other on a certain territory, form complexes, which are called natural-territorial complexes. Under natural-territorial complex(PTC) is understood as a relatively homogeneous area of the earth's surface, which is distinguished by a peculiar combination of natural components. By the size of the territory, there are three levels of PTK: planetary, regional and local
The largest - the planetary or global level of the PTC is represented on the planet by a geographic shell.
PTC at the regional level: continents, natural zones, physical-geographical countries, are structural parts of the geographic envelope. The NTC at the local level are represented by landscapes (facies, tracts).
The boundaries of the PTC, as a rule, are not clearly identified and the transition from one complex to another proceeds gradually. On maps, the boundaries of natural complexes are drawn with lines that are conventional sign... Each natural complex has its own structure. The structure of the PTC Is a combination of the components of nature that form the PTC.
Properties of PTC. The main property of PTC of various ranks should be considered its integrity. Integrity means the close relationship of the components of the PTC.
One more important property natural complex - sustainability, which consists in the ability of the PTC to return to its original state when exposed to it external forces(deforestation, land reclamation, etc.).
The stability of natural complexes is of great importance in connection with the increasing human impact on nature. Crisis phenomena in nature arise when the stability and ability of the PTC to self-repair is disrupted. Sustainability is ensured by a variety of relationships between the components of the natural complex. The more complex the PTC, the more stable it is, i.e. has more opportunities for self-healing and counteraction to human economic activity.
PTKs are constantly evolving, i.e. possess such property as variability... This can be seen in the example of local complexes, when the processes of overgrowing of lakes, the emergence of ravines, waterlogging of forests, etc. take place. It is believed that in natural conditions the evolution of natural complexes occurs in the direction of increasing their stability. In this regard, the main problem with anthropogenic impact on nature is not to reduce the natural stability of natural-territorial complexes.
Landscape concept. Landscape structure . With the development of geography, the concept of the PTK changed. On the basis of the doctrine of natural-territorial complexes, a new direction was formed - landscape science, the object of study of which is landscape (from German land - land, schaft - a suffix expressing interrelation).
The landscape is a homogeneous natural formation within natural area and reflects its main features. The landscape can be taken as the basic unit for physical and geographical zoning. To form an idea of the territory, it is enough to study it within the landscape. Each landscape is part of a larger territorial geographic unit.
A landscape is a relatively homogeneous area of a geographic envelope, characterized by a natural combination of its components and the nature of the relationship between them.
The landscape includes not only natural components, but also small NTC - facies and natural boundaries that make up its morphological structure.
The simplest (elementary) complex is the facies, which is characterized by the greatest homogeneity of natural components. An example can be a section of a small river valley, hollow, a small depression, etc., which have homogeneous geological deposits and soils, the same microclimate, water regime and composition of the biocenosis.
The facies are combined into tracts. The tract is a system of facies confined to a separate large landform or watershed on a homogeneous substrate and the general direction of physical and geographical processes. Examples of natural boundaries are PTK within a ravine, a hill. The larger unit of the landscape is the area, which is a combination of natural boundaries, regularly repeating within the landscape. The allocation of areas is primarily due to the characteristics geological structure and relief.
Anthropogenic landscapes. As a result of the transforming human activity in place of natural landscapes, transformed - anthropogenic ones appear.
In landscape science, depending on the degree of anthropogenic impact, they distinguish primary natural landscapes, which are formed by action only natural factors; natural and anthropogenic landscapes, which are formed by the action of both natural and anthropogenic factors, and anthropogenic landscapes, the existence of which is supported only by the activities of people. The degree of their change depends on the intensity economic use... The greatest changes are taking place in the industrial, transport and agricultural use of landscapes.
Under anthropogenic landscape a geographical landscape is understood, transformed by human activity and differing in structure and properties from natural ones. Since human activity causing the formation of anthropogenic landscapes can be purposeful and non-purposeful (unintentional), various anthropogenic landscapes are formed. Slightly altered, altered and strongly altered landscapes are distinguished.
Purposeful impact on landscapes leads to their transformation and the formation of landscapes with specified parameters and functions. Agricultural, industrial, recreational, urbanized and others are formed, which are sometimes called cultivated, or cultural. Under cultural landscape is understood as the territory in which, as a result of human activity, the landscape has acquired new properties in comparison with its previous state (Fig ...).
Landscapes, over time, are characterized by changes in qualitative and quantitative parameters. Such transformations are called - landscape development... The factors causing the processes of landscape development are divided into internal and external. As a result of development, some landscapes can transform and disappear, while others, on the contrary, can be formed. The task of rational nature management is to prevent unwanted destruction (degradation) of landscapes, i.e. manage the development of the landscape.
Questions and tasks
1. What is PTC and what natural components are released in them?
2. What does the concept of "sustainability of the PTC" mean and what factors ensure it?
3. As a result of what economic activity can the interconnections of the PTC be destroyed ?. Give examples.