Declassified topographic maps General Staff USSR roam freely on the Internet. We all love to download them, view, and often print on sheets of paper for further use on them. direct appointment- i.e. go hiking with them.
The topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and the best. Any other purchased cards printed in modern times, will not carry so much accuracy and specificity. Symbols and designations on topographic maps ah General Staff is much more complex than any other designations of cards purchased in the store. We all remember them from the lessons of geography at school.
As an experienced user of such maps, at the beginning of this article I would like to describe the most important, in my opinion, designations. If the rest are more or less clear, since they are almost all identical with other types of maps (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the symbols of rivers, fords, forests and roads.
Rivers and water resources
| River speed and direction (0.6 m / s) | |
|
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - Width (m), 0,8 - Depth (m), TO- Type of soil ( TO - stony, P - sand, T - solid, V - viscous) |
 |
| Water edge elevation, coast height above sea level (393m) |  |
| Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - length, TO- rocky ground, 1,0 - speed (m / s) |  |
| Swamp passable |  |
| Impenetrable swamp |  |
| Characteristics of bridges: D- building material ( D - wood, TO - stone, ZhB - reinforced concrete), 43 - the length of the bridge, 4 - width of the carriageway (m), 10 - carrying capacity in tons |  |
| Forest clearing and width in meters (2m) |  |
| Field and forest roads |  |
| Winter road, the road is valid only in the winter season, in cold period... Can walk through swamps. |  |
| Dirt road, 6 - width of the carriageway in meters |  |
| Gat - the road with wood flooring, flooring from logs, 3 - width of the carriageway |  |
| Gat |  |
| Railway bed |  |
| Gas pipeline |  |
| Power lines (TL) |  |
| Dismantled railway |  |
| Single track railway, narrow gauge railway. Also railway bridge |  |
| Highway: 6 - width of the coated part, 8 - the width of the entire road from ditch to ditch in meters; SCH- coating material ( B - cobblestone, G - gravel, TO - chipped stone, Shl - slag, SCH - crushed stone) |  |
Relief
| Steep river banks, rocky outcrops, parma |  |
| Contours of the relief with the designation of the relative height (260 m) |  |
| Mountainous area without vegetation, covered with stones-curums and outlier rocks |  |
| Highlands with vegetation and sparse trees, the border of the forest is visible |  |
| Outlier rocks with a height in meters |  |
| Glaciers |  |
| Rocks and rocky cliffs |  |
| Height mark (479.2 m) |  |
| Steppe region. Near the border of the forest |  |
| Sands, deserts |  |
Photos of some geographic objects
Main winter road laid through taiga forest... In summer, there are thickets (Yakutia)
Forest dirt road (Ivdel district, North Ural)
Gat - a road with a wooden surface (Lobno forest park, Moscow region)
Rock outcrop, Parma (Stone "Giant", Wed Ural)
Outlier rocks (rock Starik-stone, Wed Ural)
It should be understood that all available topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR are outdated long ago. The information contained on them can date back to 70-80 years of the last century. If you are interested in the details of the passage along certain paths, roads, the presence of settlements and geographic sites, you should check in advance the reliability of information from other sources. Trails and roads may no longer exist at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and represent wastelands, often already overgrown with young growth.
But, in any case, the maps of the General Staff still carry more accurate information, and using them you can more efficiently calculate your route and distance. In this article, I did not bother to fill your heads with unnecessary symbols and conventional signs of topographic maps. I have posted only the most important and significant ones for the mountain-taiga and steppe regions. Anyone interested in the details can see.
The maps of the USSR General Staff were made using the Soviet system of plotting and the nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in Russian Federation and in some of the former Soviet republics. There are newer maps, the state of the terrain on which is approximately 60-80-ies of the last century, and older maps, the so-called General Staff of the Red Army, made by geodetic reconnaissance before the war. "Maps are drawn in the Gauss-Kruger conformal transverse cylindrical projection, calculated from the parameters of the Krasovsky ellipsoid for a six-degree zone," - and if you do not understand, then it does not matter! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) those moments that I gave above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using gps.
The whole world can fit on one sheet of the map, with all the oceans, continents, mountains and plains, countries, cities, minerals, animals and birds. You just need to be able to read the map correctly. In this lesson, we will learn what maps were in antiquity, and what types of maps are now, what are the advantages of a map over a globe, what is the scale, the legend of the map. We will learn to use the scale of depths and heights, determine the coordinates of terrestrial objects.
Topic: The planet we live on
People started drawing maps before they even thought about round earth or flat. Scientists have discovered in Kamchatka a drawing on a bone depicting a path to a place rich in booty. This is probably one of the oldest maps. Maps were drawn on pieces of bark, carved on wooden planks, which were convenient to take on the road. Some peoples scratched maps with a sharp object on damp clay tiles, which, after drying, became durable, with a clear image.
This world map, in the center of which the city of Babylon is located, more than 3 thousand years.
Rice. 1. World map of Ancient Babylon ()
Rock carvings of the area were also found in caves where people lived thousands of years ago.
Rice. 2. Rock painting of the area ()
With the invention of paper, cards began to be drawn on it. All information obtained by scientists and travelers during their wanderings in different lands was applied to the maps.
Rice. 3. Ancient map of the world on paper ()
The production of the map was a lengthy process, as all the details were drawn by hand, so the maps were very expensive.
For a long period of time, only four were present on the maps: Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America... Many years passed before sailors discovered Australia and Antarctica.
When you look for a country on the globe, you see only one hemisphere. And to see something else, the globe must be rotated.
It is impossible to mark on the globe a large number of geographic objects without increasing its size. A globe big size inconvenient for travel use.
Scale is the ratio of the length of the lines on a map or drawing to the actual length. The scale of the physical map of Russia tells us that each centimeter of the map corresponds to 200 km on the ground.
Rice. 7. Physical map of Russia ()
On the map, you can show two halves of the Earth at once. If you divide Earth along the equator, it will turn out map of the northern and southern hemispheres,
Rice. 5. Northern and Southern Hemispheres
and if along the line of the prime meridian - Western and Eastern Hemispheres.
Rice. 6. Western and Eastern Hemispheres
On the minerals map Places of mineral deposits are marked with special icons.
Rice. 9. Mineral resources map ()
On the animal habitat maps habitats indicated different types birds and animals.
Rice. 10. Map of habitats of birds and animals ()
On the contour maps No color coding and depicted, but not signed, all kinds of geographic objects. They are convenient for planning routes.
Rice. 11. Contour map
On the political map the world shows countries and their borders.
Rice. 12. Political map of Eurasia ()
On the synoptic charts Observations of the weather are shown with conventional icons.
Rice. 13. Synoptic map ()
Different cards combine in atlases.
Rice. 14. Geographic Atlas ()
Maps depict different territories. There are maps of districts, cities, regions, states, continents, oceans, hemisphere maps and world maps.
Symbols on the map are the same as on the globe. They're called legend and are usually placed at the bottom of the card.
Find on physical map Russia West Siberian Plain.
Rice. 16. West Siberian Plain ()
Small horizontal lines covering a large part of its territory mean swamps.
Here are some of the most big world swamps - Vasyugan. Lines represent rivers, borders and roads, circles represent cities.
Rice. 17. Vasyugan swamps
Seas and mountains have real outlines and are colored different colors... Blue and blue - reservoirs, yellow - hills, green - lowlands, brown- the mountains.
At the bottom of the map, a scale of depths and heights is placed, with the help of which you can see what height or depth means a particular shade of color on the map.
How deeper ocean, the darker the color. On the map of the North Arctic Ocean the darkest shade of blue in the Greenland Sea, where the depth reaches 5 thousand 527 meters; the lightest shade of pale blue, where the sea is 200 meters deep.
Rice. 18. Physical map of the Arctic Ocean
The higher the mountains, the darker the color with which they are designated. So, Ural mountains, which are considered relatively low (the highest peaks are from 1000 to 2000 m above sea level), are colored light brown on the map.
Rice. 19. Ural mountains
Himalayas - the highest mountains in the world (10 peaks with a height of more than 8 km) are marked in dark brown.
Rice. 20. Himalayan mountains
Chomolungma (Everest) is located in the Himalayas - highest peak the world (8848 m).
Using the scale of heights, it is easy to determine the height of the Caucasus Mountains.
Rice. 23. Caucasus Mountains
Their Brown color indicates that the height of the mountains is more than 5 thousand meters. The most famous peaks - Mount Elbrus (5642 m) and Mount Kazbek (5033 m) are covered with eternal snow and glaciers.
Using a map, you can determine the exact location of an object. To do this, you need to know him coordinates: latitude and longitude, which are derived from a grid of parallels and meridians.
Rice. 26. Degree grid
The equator serves as a reference point - on it the latitude is 0⁰. Latitude is measured from 0⁰ to 90⁰ on either side of the equator and is called north or south. For example, latitude 60⁰ north means that this point lies in the Northern Hemisphere and is at an angle of 60⁰ to the equator.
Rice. 27. Geographic latitude
Longitude is measured from 0⁰ to 180⁰ on both sides of the Greenwich meridian and is called west or east.
Rice. 28. Geographic longitude
Coordinates Saint Petersburg - 60⁰ N, 30⁰ E
The coordinates of Moscow are 55⁰ N, 37⁰ E.
Rice. 29. Political map of Russia ()
- Vakhrushev A.A., Danilov D.D. The world 3. M .: Ballas.
- Dmitrieva N.Ya., Kazakov A.N. The world around us 3. M .: Publishing house "Fedorov".
- Pleshakov A.A. The surrounding world 3. M .: Enlightenment.
- Academician ().
- Survival ().
- Find on the physical map of the world Pacific Ocean... Determine its deepest place, indicate its name and depth. Describe how you defined this location.
- Make a short test (4 questions with three possible answers) on the topic "Maps".
- Prepare a memo with the rules for working with cards.
To ensure the requirement of visibility of topographic materials and understanding the content of plans and maps, a special system of graphic designation of terrain items has been developed, which is called conventional signs. Symbols subdivided into areal, linear, off-scale, explanatory and special.
Flat (contour or scale) signs are used to fill out the contours of natural and agricultural land, the length and width of which is expressed in terms of the scale of the map. The boundaries of the contours are shown with a dotted line, inside which a conventional sign is depicted, resembling an object in a given area. For example, a forest is represented by circles, sands by dots, etc.
Linear and conventional signs show objects of a linear nature (roads, rivers, power lines, etc.), the length of which is expressed, and the width is not expressed in the scale of the map. Linear signs have various numeral characteristics that complement the information about the subject. For example, on a highway, the width of the carriageway and the total width of the road are shown.
Outside conventional signs serve to display objects, the dimensions of which are not expressed on the scale of the map (bridges, wells, kilometer pillars, etc.).
Definitive symbols are signatures that give characteristics and names of objects, for example, the length and width of bridges, species of forest plantations, etc. These signs are affixed on the main areal, linear and off-scale conventional symbols.
Special symbols are used by the relevant departments when drawing up special maps and plans for this industry, for example, communication pipelines (heating mains, water supply, etc.).
In addition to conventional signs, for greater clarity, the images of various elements of topographic maps are used color:
For rivers, lakes, canals, wetlands - blue;
For forests and gardens - green;
Highways - red;
Railways and the rest of the situation are black;
The horizontal lines that characterize the terrain are shown in brown.
In addition to colors, the type of font, the thickness of the letters, their height and slope in the designation are also used. Symbols for different scales are compiled in special collections published by the services of geodesy and cartography. They are mandatory for all departments and organizations involved in the preparation of plans, maps, topographic survey of the area.
Knowledge of conventional signs is necessary in order to understand the content of topographic materials, to be able to “read” them and to obtain the necessary information. For a better acquaintance with conventional signs on educational topographic maps, their main samples are given.
3.6 Terrain relief and its representation on plans and maps.
Contours and their properties. Contour lines creation methods
by point elevations
Relief called a set of irregularities earth surface... Knowledge of the terrain is necessary in the design and construction of railways and highways, drainage and irrigation systems, industrial enterprises etc. There are several ways to depict the relief on topographic maps and plans. Most old way- This is an image of the relief of sht r and kham and plotted on the map on a special scale. The relief of the area can also be depicted on the basis of the heights of a number of points or of the shades and of different tones. However, it turned out to be the best way to depict the relief in mountains and in combination with some conventional signs and signatures of the marks of characteristic points. A horizontal is a line that connects points on the earth's surface with the same elevation.
To correctly depict the relief, you need to know its basic forms. There are five main forms of relief (Figure 3.5):
Upland (Figure 3.5, a);
Basin (Figure 3.5, b);
Ridge (Figure 3.5, c);
Hollow (Figure 3.5, d);
Saddle (Figure 3.5, d).
Figure 3.5 shows these landforms in cross-section. Consider the essence of the image of the relief by horizontals. Figure 3.5, a shows a hill (hill, mountain), the highest point of which is called the top, the bottom is called the bottom, and lateral surfaces- slopes. To depict the elevation as horizontals, let us imagine that this elevation is intersected by a number of equally spaced planes parallel to the main level surface. The lines of intersection of these planes of the earth's surface will be the horizontals. Having projected them with plumb lines onto a plane, we get an image of a hill on it.
For clarity, some horizontal lines are signed, in addition, they have dashes-bergstriks showing the direction of the slope of the terrain.
The distance between two adjacent cutting planes is called the height of the relief section h. On maps and plans, the height of the relief section is characterized by the difference in heights of two adjacent contours. For example, in Figure 3.5, and the height of the relief section is h = 5 m.
The distance between contour lines on a plan or map is called a location. In Figure 3.5, and the inception d = AC. The relationship between the height of the cross-section of the relief h, the location d, the angle of inclination υ, the slope i and the line of the terrain AB can be obtained from the triangle ABC (Figure 3.5, a):
i = h / d = tg υ. (3.6)
The slope and slope of the terrain line are the main characteristics of the steepness of the slopes. The greater the angle of inclination, the steeper the slope of the terrain. From formula (3.6) it follows that the smaller the location d or the more often the horizontal lines on the plan, the steeper the slope of the terrain.
The horizontal representation of the hollow, hollow, ridge and saddle is shown in Figure 3.5. Basin (depression) - a closed depression of the surface (see Figure 3.5, b). The lowest part of the depression is called the bottom, the lateral surfaces are the slopes, and the line of confluence with the surrounding area is called the edge.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
b)
v)
G)
Figure 3.5 - Basic landforms
A ridge is an elevation extended in one direction with two slopes (see Figure 3.5, c). The line of meeting of the rays in the upper part is called the watershed (dividing line).
A hollow is a depression elongated in one direction with two slopes (Figure 3.5 d). The line of meeting of rays in their lower part is called a spillway or thalweg (spillway line).
Saddle - a decrease between two hills (see Figure 3.5 e). The lowest point between the hills is called the pass.
Bergstriches on maps and plans are usually shown along watershed and spillway lines. The labels on the horizontal lines are made so that the base of the number shows the direction of the slope. The contours are drawn in brown. Every tenth or fifth of them is drawn with a thickened line.
The essence of contour lines implies their properties:
A horizontal is a closed curved line, all points on which have the same height, a multiple of the height of the relief section;
The horizontal lines on the plan cannot bifurcate and break off; if the horizontal does not close within the plan, it closes beyond its limit;
The horizontal lines should not intersect each other, since they are obtained by the intersection of the earth's surface by planes lying at different heights;
The more often the horizontal lines on the plan, the greater the slope of the terrain, or the smaller the location, the steeper the slope;
Dividing and spillway lines and the directions of the maximum slope of the horizontal intersect at right angles.
The height of the relief section is set depending on the scale of the plan and the nature of the terrain so that the horizontal lines do not merge with each other. In the Republic of Belarus, the following relief cross-section heights are adopted at the scale of the survey:
|
1: 500 - h = 0.25; 0.5 m; 1: 1000 - h = 0.25; 0.5; 1m; 1: 2000 - h = 0.5; one; 2 m; |
1: 5000 - h = 0.5; one; 2; 5 m; 1: 10000 - h = 1; 2.5; 5 m. |
For a more complete image and ease of reading the relief on maps and plans, markings of characteristic points of the relief (tops of hills, bottom of hollows, passes, etc.) are signed. For example, in Figure 3.5, b, the bottom elevation of the basin is 98.7 m.
Methods for constructing contour lines from point elevations. To draw contour lines on the plan, you need to draw characteristic points taken on the ground and write out their heights. Those points between which the earth's surface has no fractures, that is, has a constant slope, connect with lines. Further, on each line by interpolation, the points of intersection of its contours are found and the heights of these contours are marked. Having then connected points with the same heights with smooth curved lines, an image of the terrain on the plan is obtained. Thus, the task of constructing contour lines on a plan basically boils down to the ability to find the projections of points of intersection of lines by contour lines, the elevations of the ends of which are known, while the height of the relief section must already be set. This task is called contour lines interpolation, that is, finding intermediate values of contour lines heights from point elevations. Interpolation can be done analytically or graphically.
Analytical method. According to the known heights of points A and B and the distance d between them (Figure 3.6, a), it is necessary to find the values of the distances d 1 and d 2 from point A to points M 0 and N 0 with marks H m and H N equal to the marks of the contour lines.
Figure 3.6 - Analytical interpolation method
From the similarity of the triangles ABB O, AMM O and ANN O we find:
d 1 = dh 1 / h; d 2 = dh 2 / h,
where h = H B - H A; h 1 = H M - H A; h 2 = H N - H A.
On the plan, the segments d 1 and d 2 are laid and the points M O and N O are obtained, at which their marks are signed. It should be noted that contour lines are interpolated only along lines with a uniform slope. Figure 3.6, b shows the case of incorrect interpolation between points A and C with an uneven terrain slope. As can be seen from the figure, instead of the actual position of point B, point B will be obtained "and, accordingly, instead of H B, an incorrect height H B will be obtained."
Graphical way. Interpolation in this way is performed using graph or transparent paper. If there is millimeter paper, it is applied to the line of the AB plan. A profile of this line is built according to the marks of the ends AB. Projecting then on the plan line of the point of intersection 
Sections of the profile line with graph paper lines taken as secant planes obtain the desired points M and N. In the presence of transparent paper (wax, tracing paper), a number of equally spaced parallel lines are preliminarily applied to it, which are marked with secant planes. The wax is placed on the plan so that the end points of the plan line take a position corresponding to their marks between the wax lines (Figure 3.7). Further, the points of intersection of the line of the plan with the lines of the stencil are re-pinned to the plan. These will be the required points on the plan.
Symbols of topographic maps and plans.
Map frames and coordinate lines. Topographic map sheets have three frames: inner, minute and outer. The inner frame is formed by segments of parallels that limit the area of the map from the north and south, and segments of meridians that limit it from the west and east. The latitude and longitude values on the lines of the inner frame are associated with the nomenclature of the map and are written in each of its corners.
A minute frame is placed between the inner and outer frames, on which divisions are drawn, corresponding to one minute of latitude (left and right) and longitude (above and below). Dots on the frame mark tens of seconds.
System rectangular coordinates represented on the map by a kilometer grid formed by coordinate lines drawn through 1 km x and y... The values x and y, expressed in kilometers, are inscribed on the lines exiting the inner border of the map.
Scale plans 1: 5000-1: 500 with rectangular layout have only a grid of rectangular coordinates. Its lines are drawn every 10 cm.
Symbols. On plans and maps, terrain objects are depicted with conventional signs.
Symbols distinguish between contour, off-scale, and linear.
Contour conventional symbols represent objects, the shape and size of which can be conveyed on the scale of the plan (map). These include land (forests, gardens, arable land, meadows), water bodies, and for a larger scale - buildings and structures. The outlines of objects (outlines) on the plan are shown with dotted lines or lines of a certain thickness and color. Signs are placed inside the outline to indicate the nature of the object.
Out-of-scale conventional signs depict objects that need to be plotted on the plan, but it is impossible to depict on a scale (gas stations, wells, points of a geodetic network, etc.).
Linear symbols represent objects, the length of which is expressed on the scale of the plan, but the width is not expressed (power lines and communications, pipelines, fences, paths).
To reflect the characteristics of the depicted objects, many conventional signs are accompanied by explanatory captions. So, when displaying railroad indicate the height of the embankment and the depth of the excavation, the track width on a narrow-gauge road. When depicting a highway, indicate its width and surface material; when displaying communication lines - the number of wires and their purpose; when depicting forests - tree species, average height, trunk thickness and distance between trees.
Relief image. On maps and plans, the relief is depicted using contour lines, elevations and conventional signs.
Horizontal lines- lines of section of the earth's surface by equidistant level surfaces. In other words, horizontals are lines of equal heights. Horizontals, like other terrain points, project onto a level surface Q and put on the plan (Figure 4.3).
Rice. 4.3. Horizontal lines: h- the height of the relief section; d- laying
Difference h heights of adjacent contours, equal to distance between the cutting surfaces is called relief section height... The value of the section height is signed at the bottom of the plan.
The horizontal distance between adjacent contours is called laying down... The minimum in a given place is a position perpendicular to the horizontals, - stingray... The smaller the slope is, the steeper the slope.
The direction of the slope is indicated bergstriked- short strokes on some contours, directed towards the descent. On separate horizontals, in their gaps, their height is written so that the top of the numbers points in the direction of the rise.
Horizontal lines with round values of heights are made thicker, and to reflect the details of the relief they use semi-horizontal- dashed lines corresponding to half the height of the relief section, as well as auxiliary contours with short strokes, drawn at an arbitrary height.
The image of the relief with horizontal lines is supplemented by inscribing elevation marks around the characteristic points of the relief and special conventional signs depicting cliffs, rocks, ravines, etc. on the plan.
The main landforms are a mountain, a hollow, a ridge, a hollow and a saddle (Fig. 4.4).
Rice. 4.4. The main landforms: a- mountain; b- basin; v- ridge; G- hollow; d- saddle; 1 - watershed line; 2 - spillway line.
Mountain(elevation, hill, mound, hill) is depicted by closed horizontals with bergstrikas facing outward (Fig.4.4, a). The characteristic points of the mountain are its top and points at the bottom.
Hollow(depression) is also depicted as closed horizontals, but with bergstrikas facing inward (Fig.4.4, b). The characteristic points of the basin are points at its bottom and along the edge.
Ridge- an elongated hill. It is depicted as enveloping the crest of a ridge and elongated horizontals going along its slopes (Fig.4.4, v). The bergstrichs, like those of the mountain, face outward. The characteristic line of the ridge is the line running along its crest dividing line.
Hollow(valley, gorge, ravine, ravine) - a depression extended in one direction. It is depicted as elongated, horizontals with bergshrikhs facing inward (Fig.4.4, G). The characteristic line of the hollow is spillway(thalweg) - the line along which the water runs.
Saddle(pass) - a decrease between two hills (Fig.4.4, d). Hollows adjoin the saddle on both sides. The saddle is the intersection of the watershed and spillway lines.
Latest Content
Basic laws of the tatic deformation of soils
Over the past 15 ... 20 years, as a result of numerous experimental studies using the above test schemes, extensive data have been obtained on the behavior of soils under a complex stress state. Since currently in ...
Elastoplastic deformation of the medium and loading surface
Deformations of elastoplastic materials, including soils, consist of elastic (reversible) and residual (plastic). To draw up the most general ideas about the behavior of soils under arbitrary loading, it is necessary to study the regularities separately ...
Description of schemes and results of soil tests using invariants of stress and strain states
In the study of soils, as well as structural materials, in the theory of plasticity, it is customary to distinguish between loading and unloading. Loading is a process in which an increase in plastic (residual) deformations occurs, and a process accompanied by a change (decrease) ...
Invariants of the stressed and deformed states of the soil environment
The application of invariants of stress and strain states in soil mechanics began with the emergence and development of soil studies in devices that allow for two- and three-axis deformation of samples under conditions of a complex stress state ...
On the coefficients of stability and comparison with the results of experiments
Since in all the problems considered in this chapter, the soil is considered to be in the ultimate stress state, all the calculation results correspond to the case when the safety factor k3 = 1. For ...
Soil pressure on structures
The methods of the theory of limiting equilibrium are especially effective in the problems of determining the soil pressure on structures, in particular retaining walls. In this case, a given load on the soil surface is usually taken, for example, normal pressure p (x), and ...
Bearing capacity of the bases
The most typical problem of the limiting equilibrium of the soil environment is to determine bearing capacity foundations under normal or inclined loads. For example, in the case of vertical loads on the base, the task is reduced to ...
The process of detaching structures from the bases
The task of assessing the separation conditions and determining the force required for this arises when lifting ships, calculating the holding force of "dead" anchors, removing sea gravity drilling supports from the ground when they are rearranged, and ...
Planar and spatial consolidation solutions and their applications
There is a very limited number of solutions to flat and, moreover, spatial problems of consolidation in the form of simple dependencies, tables or graphs. There are solutions for the case of applying a concentrated force to the surface of a two-phase soil (B ...
More materials
Some physical fundamentals
The study of the relationship between the mechanical, including elastic properties of solids, their structure and composition is one of the most important areas of physics. solid... In the last 10-15 years, theoretical and experimental ...
Truss mono-support drilling bases can be piled and pileless. The latter are more convenient for installation and transportation from one point of drilling to another. Drilling rigs mounted on truss mono-support bases ...
Physicochemical aspects
Introduction For a long time, the experience and ideas of laboratory modeling of the seismic process have been widely used in the formulation of real monitoring and analysis of its data. However, this experience did not bring us closer to solving the practical problem of the exact ...
Laboratory modeling problems
Modeling processes in earth crust in connection with earthquakes has always been fraught with significant difficulties. However, the semblance of destruction in the earth's crust and in a monolithic laboratory sample was recognized practically without discussion that ...
Unsustainable cable-stayed systems of arbitrary type
A rod of an arbitrary hinge-rod Byte system in a stable equilibrium position is given by a vector in a Cartesian coordinate system * In a deformed state, a rod is represented by a vector. ua and ui, are the displacement vectors of the end nodes ...
Development and consolidation of spatial cryogenic crystallization structure
The development and consolidation of the spatial cryogenic crystallization structure due to freezing of the liquid phase and metamorphism of ice crystals can occur both at a constant temperature due to aftereffect phenomena and with a decrease in temperature ...
Symbols there are contour, linear and off-scale.
- Contoured(areal) signs shown, for example, lakes;
- Linear signs - rivers, roads, canals.
- Out-of-scale signs on the plans they mark, for example, wells, springs, and on geographical maps- settlements, volcanoes, waterfalls.
Rice. 1. Examples of off-scale, linear and areal symbols
Rice. Basic conventional signs
Rice. Symbols of the area
Isolines
There is a separate category of conventional signs - isolines, i.e. lines connecting points with the same values depicted phenomena (Fig. 2). Lines of equal atmospheric pressure are called isobars, lines of equal air temperature - isotherms, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - isogypsum or horizontals.
Rice. 2. Examples of contour lines
Mapping methods
To depict geographical phenomena on maps, various ways.By the way of habitats show areas where natural or social phenomena, such as animals, plants, some minerals, are distributed. Traffic signs used to show sea currents, winds, traffic flows. High-quality background show, for example, states on a political map, and quantitative background - subdivision of the territory according to any quantitative indicator(fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Cartographic methods: a - way of areas; b - traffic signs; в - the method of high-quality background; d - quantitative background - point marks
For show average size phenomena in any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One way to get an interval is to divide the difference between the largest and smallest values by five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest is 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 ... When showing these intervals on the map, more than light background or sparse shading represent less intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and thick shading - more. This method of cartographic representation is called cartogram(fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Examples of cartograms and cartodiagrams
To the way cartodiagrams resort to show the total magnitude of a phenomenon in a territory, for example, electricity production, the number of students in schools, stocks fresh water, the degree of plowing of the land, etc. Schematic map they call a simplified map that does not have a degree network.
Relief image on plans and maps
On maps and plans, the relief is shown using contour lines and elevation marks.
Horizontals, as you already know, these are lines on a plan or map connecting points on the earth's surface that have the same height above sea level (absolute height) or above the level taken as a reference point (relative height).
Rice. 5. The image of the relief by horizontals
In order to depict a hill on a plan, you need to define it relative height, which shows the vertical distance one point of the earth's surface is higher than another (Fig. 7).
Rice. 6. Image of a hill on a plane
Rice. 7. Determination of the relative height
The relative height can be determined with a level. Level(from fr. niveau- level, level) - a device for determining the height difference between several points. The device, usually mounted on a tripod (tripod), is equipped with a telescope adapted to rotation in the horizontal plane and a sensitive level.
Spend leveling the hill - this means making measurements of its western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the bottom to the top with the help of a level and driving in the pegs in those places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four pegs will be driven in at the foot of the hill, four at a height of 1 m from the ground if the level is 1 m, etc. The last peg is driven in at the top of the hill. After that, the position of all the pegs is plotted on the terrain plan and first all points with a relative height of 1 m are connected with a smooth line, then - 2 m, etc.
Rice. 8. Not lighting the hill
Please note: if the slope is steep, the horizontal lines on the plan will be located close to each other, but if the slope is flat, they will be far from each other.
Small lines drawn perpendicular to the contours are bergstrokes. They show in which direction the slope is going down.
The horizontals on the plans depict not only heights, but also depressions. In this case, the bergstriches are turned into inner side(fig. 9).
Rice. 9. Image by horizontals different forms relief
Steep slopes of cliffs or ravines on maps are denoted by small teeth.
The height of a point above the mean sea level is called absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level Baltic Sea... Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is above the water level in the Baltic Sea by an average of 3 m, the territory of Moscow is 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is 26 m below this level. The elevation marks on geographical maps indicate the absolute heights of points.
On a physical map, the relief is depicted using layer-by-layer coloring, that is, with a color of varying intensity. For example, areas with a height from 0 to 200 m are painted over in green color... At the bottom of the map there is a table from which you can see which color corresponds to which height. This table is called scale of heights.