Having experienced panic for their capital and privileges during the years of the revolutionary upsurge, the British capitalists were imbued with hatred of democratic institutions. The weaker England's world positions became, the more the feeling of arrogant island "superiority" gripped Mr. Forsythe - this was perfectly shown by Galsworthy in the last books of his "Saga". Anxiety about the colonies intensified racism. The fear of the people, the "crowd", the epoch's storms of liberation gave rise to the desire to withdraw into one's own environment, to move away from insoluble (for the bourgeois) social problems into the realm of intimate experiences, religion, and irrationalism. Ultimately, it was this pessimism of a class doomed by history that underlay the cynical and anti-humanist tendencies characteristic of modernist art in the 1920s and beyond.

The national originality of English painting was almost completely lost, dissolving in a pan-European, cosmopolitan decadence. At first glance, the paintings and murals of S. Spencer (1891-1959) had something in common with the ornament from medieval miniatures or with the works of the Pre-Raphaelites. But this is only a superficial likeness. The chaotic heap of deformed images, in essence, had nothing to do with the fruits of folk fantasy, captured in miniatures. In the same years, the sculptor G. Moore (b. 1898) began to gain fame, the creator of deformed figures - more humanoid than human.

The deformation of the human body in painting and sculpture is also aimed at debunking a person, as is the depiction of deliberately illogical and disgusting actions and emotions in the acclaimed novel by James Joyce "Ulysses" (1922). In this work there are elements of satire on bourgeois society, but vulgarity, hypocrisy, bourgeois imitation of thoughts and feelings appear before the reader not as socially conditioned phenomena, but as features that seem to be eternally inherent in man. Belonging to the stream of consciousness school, Joyce exaggerates the randomness of thought; in the same way, surrealist artists, creating absurd combinations of objects, imposed on the viewer the idea of ​​the chaos of the world in general. The renowned realist writer Richard Aldington (1892-1962) had every reason to say that Joyce's Ulysses was "a monstrous slander against humanity."

Meanwhile, "Ulysses" became the banner of modernist art. He was raised on the shield by the "psychological school", which considered the only task of art to penetrate the depths of the subconscious. The credo of this school was formulated by Virginia Woolf - a gifted writer who, however, gave her talent to extrasocial, extrahistorical and therefore unpromising psychoanalysis: "Let's draw patterns that leave fleeting impressions and even insignificant events in our minds, no matter how incoherent and unclear they may seem." ... The antihumanism of Joyce, Wolfe and other writers of this trend was combined with antidemocracy. It was expressed in the extreme complexity of the form, and, consequently, in counting on a narrow circle of readers, on the intellectual elite.

This anti-democratic tendency was perhaps most clearly manifested in the poetry and journalism of Thomas Eliot, one of the leaders of the ideological reaction. In the poem "The Barren Land" "(1922), he confronts real people of our time with the heroes of myths and literature. A kaleidoscope of names that are not known even to the reader who has gone through the classical school of Eton and Oxford, multilingual quotes, historical and literary hints, understandable only to an extremely narrow circle "Highbrow" - all this expresses contempt for the reader, for "uneducated democracy." the image of “hordes in pointed helmets swarming on endless plains” is already vague!

In the 1920s, “mass culture” became widespread; decadent art and literature, with their modernist currents, were an excellent tool for the intellectual and political disarmament of the intelligentsia, but for the same effect on millions of workers, other means were required - entertainment reading of a detective or erotic nature, shallow but exciting spectacles, jazz music. To intoxicate consciousness, to entertain, to prevent a person from thinking - this is the social function of "mass culture", skillfully implanted by "commercial" publishing houses, theaters, newspaper and magazine empires. The young cinematography played a huge role in the complex of ideologically poisonous means. While his outstanding artistic potential was proven by the genius films of Chaplin and Eisenstein, entertainment films of Hollywood origin predominated on English screens.

In the struggle against the reactionary, humiliating bourgeois culture and the ersatz culture produced for mass consumption, a truly popular democratic culture grew and strengthened. Outstanding writers-realists of the older generation Hardy, Shaw, Galsworthy, Wells remained true to the realistic tradition and continued to develop it in new conditions. During this period, Galsworthy wrote the last novels, The Forsyte Sagas, and three novels that made up the Modern Comedy cycle. Thus, the main work of his life was completed - the artistic history of the degradation of the English bourgeoisie was created.

No matter how complex and contradictory the ideological and artistic searches of H. Wells were, he nevertheless decisively opposed political reaction. Together with Hardy and Shaw, he joined the international organization of the progressive intelligentsia "Klarthe", which fought against the anti-Soviet intervention. During his famous visit to Soviet Russia (1920), he did not understand much, and this was reflected in the pages of the book "Russia in the Dark". But here the honest writer said: "The Bolsheviks are morally superior to everything that has fought them up to now."

Shaw underwent the greatest ideological evolution in these years: socialist construction in the USSR and the general crisis of world capitalism deepened his doubts about "Fabian socialism." In contrast to the modernist apoliticality and asociality, it was during these years that Shaw switched to political satire, caricature, and grotesque. The upper strata of the political hierarchy are being mercilessly exposed - the leaders of the parties, ministers and the real masters behind them - the monopolists. In the political "extravaganza" - "The Cart with Apples" - bourgeois democracy itself finds itself before the court of the satirist.

Somewhat unusual for Shaw was the image of Jeanne D 'Arc created by him in the play "Saint John", Discarding mystical layers in the interpretation of Jeanne's "miracles", Shaw creates a heroic folk character, charming, pure. Unconditionally recognizing the right of the people to a national liberation, just war , Shaw remains a satirist in portraying traitors to the homeland. Jeanne is written as a heroine of a folk tragedy, winning a spiritual victory over enemies. Of course, for Shaw, polemics are important not so much with other interpretations of the image of Jeanne, as with the decadent idea of ​​the insignificance of man. Here she is - a large personality, Shaw said with his play, a person with strength, wisdom, poetic worldview characteristic of the people. No wonder this play immediately entered the repertoire of theaters adhering to the realistic method. In 1924 Jeanne was played by the famous actress Sibylla Thorndike. In 1929 in the theater " Old Vic "25-year-old actor John Gielgud played Hamlet for the first time, and, according to a contemporary ov, put into this image all the throwing of the "lost generation". An extraordinarily gifted actor with excellent technique, Gielgud subsequently played many Shakespearean roles and - as a director - directed many performances.

Theaters turn not only to Shakespeare, but also to other classics of English and world drama. The craving of the leading directors and actors for realism, for the deep embodiment of the “dialectic of the soul” increased interest in Russian drama, especially in Chekhov. In England, the works of KS Stanislavsky are published, his "system" is carefully studied and mastered by the masters of the English scene. Although modernist trends affected some figures in the English theater, in general, during this period, he took a step towards deepening the artistic analysis of reality.

During the 1920s, elements of socialist culture grew within the framework of a democratic culture. But the rise of progressive culture was especially great in the next decade.

The consequences of the First World War for Great Britain are determined primarily by the fact that she emerged victorious from this war, thanks to which she achieved a lot. For example, the danger of Germany ceased to exist. The power of the British Navy has increased and its influence in the world has grown. In the League of Nations, she occupied one of the leading places. The League of Nations' mandate system has benefited Britain the most. For example, most of the colonies of the defeated countries, Germany and Turkey, went to Great Britain. Great Britain received the right to rule in the Middle East, Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq. In Africa, she received the right to manage parts of Tanganyika, Togo and Cameroon. In addition, the dominions of Great Britain did not stand aside. In particular, the Lita of Nations transferred the right of administration to the South African Union of German South-West Africa; Australia by the German colonies in New Guinea; and New Zealand - the islands of Western Samoa.

However, it should be emphasized that the war brought Great Britain not only successes, it caused enormous damage to its international position and leading positions in international trade. Now she was not leading in the financial sector either. As a result, the UK has changed from a creditor country to a debtor country. For example, the domestic public debt of Great Britain in 1914 increased from 650 thousand pounds sterling to 8 billion pounds sterling. It owes $ 5 billion to the United States alone.

Industrial production dropped sharply. The volume of the country's foreign trade decreased by half due to a sharp decline in the competitiveness of the manufactured products.

After that, Great Britain was no longer able to restore the title of "Queen of the Sea". The naval power of Germany was broken, now the United States was trying hard to increase its naval power. As a result, Great Britain in 1920 was forced to abandon the maintenance of a fleet equal to the navies of the two states. These factors and the national liberation movement in the colonies of Great Britain led to the crisis of the colonial system.

Changes in the economic life of the country

The ruling circles of Great Britain tried in every possible way to change the situation in the country. By the end of 1918, an economic recovery began in the country, which continued until the middle of 1920. This was achieved due to the growing demand of the population for consumer goods and the need to restore the destroyed economy.

This was evidenced by the growth of foreign trade. For example, during this period, exports rose to 38.1%, but such an increase was observed for a short time. In the fall of 1920, an economic crisis began, affecting all sectors of the country's economy. In 1921, the volume of industrial production fell by one third and amounted to 68%. Coal production amounted to 30%, the volume of foreign trade decreased by half compared to the pre-war level.

The sharp decline in production led to unemployment. For example, if the number of unemployed in 1920 was 375 thousand people, then in 1921 it was about 2.2 million. In 1922-1923, the economy continued to stagnate.

In 1924-1929. in the economic situation of developed countries began a period of recovery. However, the UK economy stood still. For example, the volume of industrial production in 1929 barely reached the level of 1913, thanks to the development of new industries - mechanical engineering, aircraft construction, chemical and automotive.

If in 1913 the share of Great Britain in the industrial production of developed countries was 14.8%, then in 1929 it dropped to 9.8%.

The main reason for the UK's lag in the economy was low spending on capital renewal, a large investment in overseas countries, and the lack of competitiveness of technology used in industry. The ruling circles of England did not consider these factors in time. Due to the technical lag, Great Britain was gradually losing ground in the world market, exports were declining, and the volume of foreign trade was 87% of the pre-war level. The share of imports was growing. This, of course, had a negative impact on the standard of living of the common people, which dropped noticeably, as did the level of wages.

Political life of the country

Political life in the country during this period was determined by the struggle of three political parties: liberal, conservative and labor. The Liberal Party, which was at the head of the government during the First World War, was losing ground day by day. The leader of the Liberal Party, Prime Minister D. Lloyd George (1863-1945), in order to maintain the position of his party, held parliamentary elections in December 1918. Thanks to the victory in the First World War, the Liberal Party had an impressive weight among the military. The Liberal and Conservative parties went to the polls together.

They ran in elections under the slogan of economic and political restructuring of the country, promising voters jobs, fair wages, cheap housing, peace and social transformation.

The Laborites promised the voters the construction of a new society, which would create the possibility of socializing the means of production, creating a government of workers, national transport, buying out energy resources and banks from their private owners with the aim of nationalizing them.

The union of liberals and conservatives won the elections. They took 477 out of 707 seats in parliament (of which 136 were held by the liberals). Labor won 62 seats: 5 times more than in 1910. 2.5 thousand voters voted for them. Thus, this party in the political arena of struggle began to put pressure on the liberal party.

Lloyd George took over as prime minister and headed the government until 1922. During this period, the government faced setbacks both domestically and internationally. It failed to fulfill the promises made to voters. As a result, the first powerful workers' strikes began. More than 2.5 thousand people took part in this movement in 1919.

The workers demanded a 40-hour work week and wage retention. Particularly large were the strikes of miners, which demanded a 30% increase in wages and the establishment of a 6-hour working day.

Under these conditions, in October 1920, the country's parliament issued emergency powers to the government to suppress the labor movement. The owners of the mines, who did not want to meet the demands of the miners, announced a lockout on April 1, 1921. The government declared a state of emergency and sent army units to the mines.

Workers of railways and transport, in solidarity with the miners, also went on strike. However, the workers' protest was suppressed.

Lloyd George's government, as noted above, has also failed in foreign policy. The national liberation movement blew up the colonial empire of Great Britain from within. For example, in 1919, India's struggle for independence intensified, in 1919-1921. there were uprisings in Egypt, in 1919 the war of independence against Great Britain began in Afghanistan. The ruling circles of Great Britain were forced to make concessions in order to preserve the colonial empire. In particular, in 1918, amendments were made to the constitution, which gave the right to local Indian cadres to take part in governing the country. At the Paris Peace Conference, the Dominions were granted the right to participate as an independent entity. The independence of Afghanistan was forced to recognize. Egypt, albeit in words, was also recognized as an independent state. The British government is facing great difficulties in relation to Ireland.

The ruling circles of Great Britain again remained true to their traditional slogan “divide and rule”. There was a split in the national liberation movement in Ireland. His right wing entered into negotiations with Great Britain. In 1921, an agreement was signed between Ireland and Great Britain. In accordance with it, Ireland was split into two parts. Southern Ireland with its capital city of Dublin was granted dominion rights. Northern Ireland remained a part of Great Britain. After that, the country became officially known as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".

The struggle of the British government against Soviet Russia ended in failure. In addition, she was forced to conclude a trade agreement on March 16, 1921, which in fact meant the recognition of Russia.

In addition, the aggression organized by Great Britain together with Greece against Turkey was defeated. The patriotic forces led by Kemal Ataturk were able to preserve the independence of Turkey.

This defeat in foreign policy greatly worried the Conservative Party, it decided to withdraw from the coalition government. On October 19, 1922, British Prime Minister Lloyd George was forced to resign. The chair of the prime minister was briefly taken by the leader of the Conservative Party, B. Low, and then he was replaced by S. Baldwin. The main task of the government of S. Baldwin was to bring the country out of the economic crisis. Only in this case it would be possible to put an end to the main disease of society - unemployment and launch enterprises at full capacity.

To this end, the government began to apply the method of protectionism. However, this did not produce the desired results. On the contrary, by the end of 1923, the British economy had come to a standstill, which naturally caused popular discontent. Under these conditions, elections were held in the country in 1923. Although the Conservative Party won in them (258 seats), the Labor Party also achieved an impressive victory (191 seats). This party promised its voters the nationalization of the coal industry.

The Labor Party together with the Liberal Party (jointly 158 seats) expressed no confidence in the Baldwin government. As a result, the government was forced to resign.

Now, for the first time in British history, the power to form a government has been given to the Labor Party. In January 1924, such a government was created under the leadership of the leader of the Labor Party, R. Macdonald (1866-1937). It did not last long, because, under pressure from big capital, it could not fulfill the promises made to the voters (nationalization of the coal industry, reduction of unemployment, construction of housing for workers, etc.).

On October 8, 1924, MPs from the Conservative Party expressed their distrust to the Labor government, which did not have a majority. R. McDonald was forced to resign. The parliamentary elections held on October 29 were won by the Conservative Party (415 seats). In November, S. Baldwin again took the post of prime minister.

Events of 1926.

During the tenure of S. Baldwin (1924-1929) as prime minister, there were no significant changes in the UK economy. Although industries such as the automotive, electrical and chemical industries developed rapidly. Traditional industries like shipbuilding and coal were still stagnant.

The British capitalists preferred to export their capital than to invest it in the reconstruction of the country's industry in a modern way. Great Britain was unable to restore its pre-war position in the world, its national production began to develop in the dominions and colonies, and the import of American currency increased.

Once a thriving industry in the UK, the coal industry was in particularly difficult conditions. Before the war, 1 million 200 thousand people worked in this industry; 290 thousand tons of coal are mined in the country a year. After the war, the situation deteriorated sharply, this industry turned into one of the most backward. The main reasons were that many small mines were closed and their equipment was outdated. In addition, the cost of the land on which the coal deposits were located was very high, for it it was necessary to pay a huge amount to the owners of the land. These factors have led to an increase in the cost of coal in the country. As a result, expensive English coal could not compete with cheap German and Polish ones.

The mine owners tried to increase their profits by lowering workers' wages and increasing the length of the working day, the workers strongly resisted this. But in 1925 they still managed to lower their wages. On July 31, 1925, the miners decided to go on strike, they were supported by transport and railway workers, declaring their solidarity with them. The government of S. Baldwin, in order to prevent a national strike, decided to give subsidies to the owners of the mines. However, this government subsidy lasted only 9 months.

In April 1926, the mine owners issued an ultimatum to the workers. It set out the following requirements - a reduction in the wages of miners, an increase in the working day by 1 hour, consent to the annulment of the agreement between the owners of the mines and the trade unions (trade unions). In case of refusal, they threatened to announce a lockout. The ultimatum caused sharp discontent in the country, but nevertheless, on May 1, 1926, a reduction in wages was announced.

In response, a general strike broke out in Britain on 4 May. A total of 6 million people took part in this strike. The tradeunions made purely economic demands. However, there was a danger of the general strike turning into a political conflict.

Foreign workers also expressed their solidarity with the British. They stopped loading goods destined for Great Britain, began to raise funds to transfer them as material aid to English workers.

The Supreme Council of Trade Unions, fearing that the general strike would develop into a political conflict, decided to declare May 12 the day of the end of the general strike and to enter into negotiations with the government. The workers were forced to obey the decision of the Supreme Council of Trade Unions. The miners continued to fight until December, but they, in the end, ended the strike. Thus, the 1926 general strike was defeated.

This happened because the leadership of the trade unions supported the existing socio-political system and sought to preserve it. The ruling circles decided to strengthen their positions. For example, they passed a law prohibiting strikes. In accordance with it, a strike could be carried out in one enterprise or in any one branch of industry.

Second Labor government

In May 1929, regular parliamentary elections were held in Great Britain. The Laborites won by a small margin (287 seats, the Conservative Party - 260).

The Laborites won this victory at the expense of their promises made in 1927 to the trade unions to nationalize the coal industry, transport, banks, reduce unemployment and restore the 7-hour working day. In June, R. McDonald formed his second Labor government.

The global economic crisis that began in the fall of 1929 made it difficult for the government to keep its promises. The economic crisis in Great Britain began in 1930 and reached its climax in 1932. This year, the volume of industrial production compared with 1929 decreased by 20%, the number of unemployed reached 3-3.5 million people. The pound sterling fell by a third, and the real wages, respectively. The volume of agricultural production also decreased.

The situation was the same in foreign trade. The process of etching Great Britain from traditional sales markets has intensified.

But despite this, even in such conditions, the government fulfilled some of its promises. For example, in coal mines a 7-hour working day was established, a new law on unemployment benefits was passed, and the deadline for receiving unemployment benefits was extended from three months to one year.

A ministry was formed to combat unemployment, and a new special committee for the employment of the unemployed was created. These measures in some way contributed to the improvement of the situation of the unemployed. However, under pressure from big business, the issue of lower wages and unemployment benefits and an indirect increase in taxes were on the agenda. This situation led to a split in the Labor Party.

R. McDonald, a supporter of the above issues, formed a new coalition government on August 25, 1931 (it included representatives of the National Labor, National Liberal Parties and the Conservative Party). In October 1931, early parliamentary elections were held, which were won by the Conservative Party (740 seats). A national government was formed (1931 - 1935). It was again headed by R. McDonald. The government began to implement a program for overcoming the crisis by reducing the cost of wages and social issues. The government, frightened by the outflow of British capital abroad, canceled the exchange of the pound sterling for gold. At the same time, banks in the United States and France gave the UK a loan of £ 80 million.

In the field of foreign trade, the government took the path of protectionism (protection of the national economy). In accordance with this, it was established that when goods are imported into the territory of the empire, customs duties on British goods are set 10% lower than on goods imported from other states. This event strengthened the UK's position in the empire's markets.

The measures taken by the government have yielded results. And from the end of 1932 some economic recovery began. By 1934, industrial production reached the 1929 level.

The parliamentary elections held at the end of 1935 were won by the Conservative Party (385 seats). The leader of this party, S. Baldwin, formed a national government for the second time, which continued the policy of complete economic recovery. In particular, the policy of protectionism was continued, which had a positive impact on the development of the automotive, aviation, electrical and chemical industries.

The continuation of the refusal to exchange the pound sterling for gold also yielded positive results, this prevented the export of British capital abroad. Now the capitalists tried to invest their capital domestically. For example, if in 1936 the export of capital from Great Britain amounted to 61 million pounds, then 217 million pounds were invested inside the country. This, in turn, led to an even more accelerated development of industry. The placement of private capital on the domestic market was aided by the government's fiscal policy. In particular, the government introduced a 2% procedure for lending by banks to entrepreneurs. (Previously, it was 10-12%).

However, the UK was unable to fully cope with the economic crisis. From the autumn of 1937, the volume of production began to fall again, for example, in 1938 it decreased compared to the level of 1937 by 12%. The number of unemployed remained high. Thus, by the end of the 30s, the economic position of Great Britain in the world has significantly decreased. Now not only the USA were its competitors, but also Germany, Italy and Japan.

Foreign policy 1924-1939

R. MacDonald began his political career when Great Britain was a strong state, and ended his career when only memories of its former greatness remained. Due to the fact that R. MacDonald was a realist politician, he understood well that it was impossible to revive the former greatness and power of Great Britain. But despite this, he wanted to see Great Britain in the future as a state capable of implementing its aspirations and did everything for this. Although he was against the Soviets, he proceeded from the real state of affairs - he recognized this state in 1924, establishing diplomatic relations with it.

Great Britain was one of the initiators of the event in 1925. conferences in Locarno. This conference served as a pretext for the reconciliation of Germany with the rest of the Western countries. At the same time, the Western countries did not create a system of guarantees to prevent the free movement of Germany to the east of Europe.

On March 24, 1927, Great Britain made a military intervention against China. Its goal was to establish the government of Chiang Kai-shek in China, which was established on April 18 in Nanjing.

In the 1930s, British foreign policy faced two major challenges. At first, Germany's aggressive policy in Europe. Secondly strengthening in colonial: countries: national liberation movement.

Great Britain, trying to weaken the influence of France in Europe, began to use Germany for this purpose. As proof of this, on June 30, 1935, Great Britain signed a naval treaty with Germany. In accordance with it, Germany acquired the right to create its own fleet, which makes up 1/3 of the British Navy. This was an open violation of the Versailles Treaty.

Even with the introduction of German troops into the Rhineland, Great Britain remained a silent observer of what was happening. This was tantamount to allowing Germany to continue such attacks in the future. At a time when, in 1936, Germany extended a helping hand to Spain in the establishment of the fascist dictatorship of Franco, Great Britain pursued a policy of non-interference in the affairs of Spain. This policy was confirmed by the fact that Great Britain suspended the export of arms to the legitimate government of Spain, thereby helping the rise to power in Spain of fascism.

In 1937, the leader of the Conservative Party, N. Chamberlain (1869-1940), came to power in Great Britain. During his 3-year tenure as prime minister, he spearheaded the policy of "appeasing" Hitler.

Therefore, in practice, Great Britain helped Germany in her conquest of Austria and Czechoslovakia. She has repeatedly said that with her small “concessions” she keeps the peace for a whole generation.

However, rumors soon reached Great Britain that Germany was going to attack the Western countries in the first place, not the Soviet Union. Now Great Britain began to prepare intensively for war. She doubled her military spending.

In addition, Great Britain developed a new military doctrine, in which it planned to protect France along with itself. On April 15, 1939, Great Britain, for the first time in history in peacetime, announced universal conscription. If Germany attacks Poland, then Great Britain will provide her with military assistance. She gave the same guarantees to Greece and Romania.

However, Chamberlain to this day has not given up the hope of reaching an agreement with Germany. Its purpose was to direct the spearhead of aggression against the Soviet Union. After Germany occupied Prague, Chamberlain's hopes were dashed. Now the war was inevitable. This provision forced the UK to negotiate with Moscow. But through the fault of both sides, these negotiations ended in vain. In particular, the goal of Great Britain and France was to impute unilateral obligations to the Soviet Union, to drag it into a war with Germany, and to remain outside observers themselves.

But Moscow has received information that Britain is secretly negotiating with Germany on dividing the world into spheres of influence. As a result, the Soviet government in response to this began to look for ways of rapprochement with Germany. And on August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a mutual non-aggression pact. Germany, which had consolidated its position in the east, attacked Poland in September 1939. Great Britain and France September 2-3 declared war on Germany. Thus, the Second World War began. Britain was now reaping the rewards of Chamberlain's policy of "appeasing" Germany.

Situation in colonies and dominions

The colonies of Great Britain never stopped their national liberation struggle, and the dominions continued to struggle to expand their rights. Therefore, Great Britain was forced to keep a large army there. In April 1930, the Indian National Congress called on the Indian people to civil disobedience (the first phase took place in 1919-1922). This led to large-scale mass demonstrations. The British administration very harshly punished the leaders of this demonstration.

In 1931, Great Britain was forced to adopt a document annulling the restriction of the rights of its dominions. This document went down in British history as the "Westminster Statute". The document declared the complete independence of their domestic and foreign policies.

Now, decisions taken by the dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand) did not have to be approved by the British Parliament. Thus, the law was canceled, prescribing the passage of the decision adopted by the dominions in the parliament of Great Britain, which could also annul it. However, Great Britain was in no hurry to give the status of the dominion of India. At the same time, the government sought to maintain dominions in its sphere of influence,

In accordance with the "Westminster Statute", the dominions united with Great Britain in the "British Commonwealth of Nations". (This commonwealth exists to this day. The leaders of the former dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand are still appointed by the Queen of Great Britain). In the 1930s, the situation in Ireland became complicated again. In 1937, Southern Ireland declared itself an independent state, while Northern Ireland remained part of the empire.

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Great Britain in 1918-1939 Updated: November 22, 2016 Posted by: admin

Abstract outline:

2. Economic downturn

1. Form of government and state structure of Great Britain

Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy led by a queen. The legislature is a bicameral parliament (Monarch + House of Commons and House of Lords - the so-called King (Queen) in Parliament). Parliament is the highest authority throughout the territory, although Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governing administrative structures. The government is headed by the monarch, direct control is exercised by the prime minister, appointed by the monarch, who is thus the chairman of His (Her) Majesty's Government.

A distinctive feature is the absence of any single document that could be called the basic law of the country, there is no written Constitution, moreover, there is not even an exact list of documents that would relate to the Constitution. Relations between the people and the government are governed by statutes, unwritten laws and conventions, and British imperialism was one of the main culprits of the First World War.

In this war, the British bourgeoisie hoped to find a way out of the deepest social and political crisis in which Britain found itself like other imperialist states in the second decade of the twentieth century. During the First World War, British imperialism sought to strengthen the class positions of the bourgeoisie in Great Britain itself and to strengthen the British colonial empire, expand its possessions, by capturing new territories.

2. Economic downturn

The war of 1914-1918 initiated by the imperialists of all countries led to the most unexpected results for them. The war further exacerbated the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in each of the countries participating in the war and created the preconditions for the maturing of a revolutionary situation in a number of countries. Since the time of the First World Imperialist War and the Great October Socialist Revolution, the capitalist world has entered a period of general crisis of capitalism.

The split of the world into two camps and the loss of one-sixth of the world from the capitalist system, the revolutionary impact of the Great October Socialist Revolution on the peoples oppressed by capitalism significantly weakened the position of British imperialism. The general crisis of capitalism manifested itself in a particularly acute form in England, which was a classic example of a country of decaying capitalism.

True, England continued to be one of the largest colonial powers. She captured most of the German colonies and territories of the former Ottoman Empire. But the British bourgeoisie has irrevocably lost its former monopoly in the world industrial and financial markets. The center of the financial exploitation of the capitalist world moved from England to the United States of America, which became extremely rich in the war.

England entered the war with a public debt of 650 million pounds, and in 1919 its national debt reached a whopping 7,829 million pounds. After the war, Britain's external debt to the United States alone rose to $ 5.5 billion.

The material and human losses suffered by England (along with the colonies and dominions) in the First World War were very significant. Great Britain lost about 3 million people in the war (875 thousand were killed, over 2 million people were wounded). During the war, 70 percent were sunk. merchant fleet of England.

In comparison with other social classes, the proletariat of England suffered the greatest number of casualties, since the English army consisted mainly of workers. But even after the end of the war, the British bourgeoisie strove to shift the entire burden of military expenditures onto the working masses. War debts were paid, first of all, by the working class, forcibly drawn into the war and most of all affected by this war.

At the same time, the bourgeoisie, profiting significantly during the war, continued to enrich itself in the post-war period. The loans made by the British government during the war became one of the main sources of enrichment for the British and American financial oligarchy. The British government took loans from American and British bankers on very unfavorable terms for England. The interest paid by the British government on the war debt was 2 to 3 times higher than on the international stock exchange.

Subsequently, over the years, the British government annually spent 40 percent. the expenditure budget (about £ 350 million) to pay interest on war loans. The process of concentration of capital, the merging of banking and industrial capital, and the merging of monopolies with the state apparatus intensified. Stock traders, bankers and large industrialists held high government posts and exerted a decisive influence on the policy of the British government. The plundering of the working masses of Great Britain and her colonies could not save the British capitalist economy from a severe economic and chronic financial crisis, which took place on the basis of the general crisis of capitalism. After the First World War, the British economy is characterized by an increasingly worsening decline in the main industries (coal, textile, metallurgy), chronic underutilization of enterprises and the presence of millions of unemployed armies that have turned from reserve to permanent armies of the unemployed. The clearest expression of the crisis in the British economy was the situation in industry.

Over the course of 20 post-war years (from 1918 to 1938), British industry barely exceeded the 1913 level. During this period, industry in England as a whole trampled around the 1913 level. Only in the last years before the Second World War was there a certain upsurge in British industry, but this upsurge was associated with the revival of the military conjuncture, the preparation of the imperialist countries for a new war.

The state finances of capitalist England were also in an extremely difficult condition. The pound sterling has lost its stability on the international stock exchange forever. If in 1913 the British pound sterling was equal to almost 5 dollars, then in 1920 it was a little more than 3 dollars. The hardships of the war and the October Revolution in Russia led to the sweep of the mass workers' movement. A short-term economic recovery in England was replaced in the second half of 1920 by an economic crisis. Industrial production index fell, unemployment rose. Parliament passed the law on the introduction of a state of emergency in the country. To suppress the movement of workers, the government could use the forces of the police and the army. An attempt to preserve British influence in the Middle East by concluding a treaty with Iran also failed. The Greek-English invasion of Turkey was defeated. On October 19, 1922, the King of Great Britain for the first time entrusted the formation of a government to Labor leader Ramsey MacDonald. The Labor government had to carry out a number of measures in the interests of the working people. These included a plan to increase appropriations for housing. The system of insurance for the unemployed was somewhat improved, and pensions for old people with disabilities were increased. Taking into account the mood of the masses, the government of R. Macdonald on February 2, 1924 established diplomatic relations with the USSR.

3. Military-political domination

After the conclusion of the Mudross Armistice, practically all the Middle East territories were under British control. Many problems of the post-war world order, which the Entente powers faced, postponed the adoption of practical decisions about the future of the Middle East territories for quite a long time. Nevertheless, in the minds of many British politicians, the Middle East was a region of paramount importance. Because of this, discussions around the Middle East problems in the early post-war years were an important component of the activities of D. Lloyd George's coalition cabinet, first formed at the end of 1916. During the war, the traditional system of relations between parliament and government in Great Britain underwent certain changes. In a wartime environment that required prompt decision-making, the Prime Minister and cabinet members were given considerable freedom in their actions. This fact did not exclude, however, the existence of coordinating mechanisms that ensured cooperation between the two branches of government and support for the government's actions by the parliamentary majority. Particularly important in this regard was the presence of constant interaction between the Prime Minister and the leader of the Conservative Party and the head of the parliamentary majority Bonar Low. Nevertheless, parliament's "intervention" in foreign policy was very limited during the war years. All the inter-union agreements on the Middle East of this period, in which Great Britain participated, were of a secret nature and their full content was not known not only to the general public, but also to many British parliamentarians. The end of the war caused lively discussions among British politicians about the future of the world order, and, in particular, the prospects for British policy in the Middle East. With regard to the Levant, the objects of discussion were the degree of possible concessions to the French side and the nature of the relationship with the "government" of Faisal. The main difficulty for British diplomacy was, in this case, the need to follow the obligations given during the war and were of a very contradictory nature. The absence of a clear political line caused the deterioration of relations between Great Britain and both the Hashemites and France, the main ally in the Entente. With regard to the Iraqi territories, the discussions were of a different nature. The British presence in this former part of the Ottoman Empire was practically not disputed, the subjects of discussion were only specific forms and mechanisms of the future government of Iraq. The situation was aggravated by the clash in the Middle East of the interests of several British departments. The Foreign Office provided general coordination of policy towards the Levant. Iraq was within the purview of the Anglo-Indian government, although the degree of its influence on the situation in the region, compared to the pre-war period, decreased. An important factor that influenced the mentality of many British politicians in the first post-war months was the state of victorious euphoria, as well as the desire to receive maximum dividends and compensate for the losses incurred. With regard to the Middle East, Great Britain sought to fully use the factor of its military and political dominance in the territories of Mesopotamia, Palestine and the Levant, as well as the moral and psychological argument for its decisive contribution to the defeat of the Ottoman Empire. Representatives of the British leadership, primarily those associated with the Anglo-Indian authorities, or who had experience of working in India, hoped to achieve the maximum possible guarantees of the security of Indian possessions. Discussions around Middle East problems took place against the backdrop of a number of difficulties faced by Great Britain after the end of World War I. The financial crisis, mass demobilization, the growth of the national liberation movement in many parts of the British Empire prompted D. Lloyd George's cabinet to look for more effective and economical methods of implementing its policy in various regions of the world, including the Middle East. The expansion of the British sphere of influence at the expense of the former Middle Eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire, as well as the reform of the system of government in India and Egypt, required significant financial costs. Many British politicians, due to the complexity of the internal political situation in the metropolis, criticized the government's Middle East course. Parliament has become the focus of this criticism. One of the important issues discussed by parliamentarians in late 1918 - early 1919 was the reduction in the scale of the British military presence in the Near and Middle East. Control over these vast territories was possible only under the conditions of universal conscription, introduced in Great Britain during the war years. Since 1916, the British Parliament actively discussed the volume and forms of reduction of the country's armed forces after the end of hostilities. At the same time, according to estimates made by the military department, control over the territories occupied during the war required the maintenance of the number of the British armed forces at the level of at least a million people. According to W. Churchill's recollections, even Bonar Lowe did not dare to discuss the issue of maintaining such a number of armed forces in parliament. An important factor that influenced the policy of the British cabinet in the issue of reducing the size of the army was the position of industry and trade unions, who were categorically opposed to the extension of the laws on military service adopted during the war. Many parliamentarians and ministers saw this as one of the main sources of budget cuts and improvements in the government's financial position. The economic difficulties faced by the metropolis after the end of World War I remained the fundamental factor that determined the evolution of the British Middle East course in 1919-1920. The problems of mass demobilization were combined with constantly increasing pressure from parliament to bring military spending in line with peacetime norms. Public opinion in Great Britain, after four years of military tension, negatively perceived the preservation of a rather high level of expenditures for the maintenance of the armed forces, due to the difficult situation in India, Egypt, Iraq and a number of other parts of the British Empire. The total number of British and Indian troops in the Middle East, Iraq and Transcaucasia was, by August 1919, 225 thousand people. In addition, another 95,000 British troops were stationed in Egypt. ;. On the territory of Iraq, there was a 60 thousand contingent, the cost of maintaining which in the 1919-1920 financial year amounted to about 18 million pounds. Thus, a sharp contradiction arose between the potential tasks of Great Britain in the Middle East and its real financial and economic resources. In August 1919, the head of the military department W. Churchill, who was at the center of parliamentary and public criticism, was forced to cancel the military conscription from March 1920 and reduce the number of armed forces to 10% of the previous level. Having abandoned the principle of compulsory military service, the British government decided, as a result, to return to the principle of recruiting the Aria with volunteers who entered into long-term contracts. However, the prospect of such a rapid reduction in the size of the army caused a negative reaction from politicians and the military associated with the Middle East region and who advocated the need to maintain a long-term military presence in this strategically important region for Great Britain. All this prompted the government to constantly maneuver and search for compromise solutions. In January 1920, D. Lloyd George's cabinet was forced to approve a state budget with a deficit of £ 473 million. Based on the indicators approved by parliament, the weekly expenses for the maintenance of British troops stationed in the occupied territories of the Ottoman Empire should not exceed 750 thousand pounds sterling. at the same time, the military department had to complete the process of demobilization of four million people. Most of the interested British officials agreed on the desirability of organizing a system of government over the controlled Middle Eastern territories according to the Egyptian model, which assumed a fairly large degree of self-government of the local population. In this regard, T.E. Lawrence, who proposed the creation of three Arab monarchies on the territory of Syria, as well as South and Central Mesopotamia, headed by the sons of the Sheriff of Mecca - Faisal, Abdallah and Zeid. The controversy around the Middle East problems, in which high-ranking British politicians took part, was caused, first of all, by the global changes that took place in the world after the end of World War I, and the need to search for new guidelines for British foreign policy. A direct consequence of these changes was the growth of the national liberation struggle in a number of British colonies and protectorates. In the face of a serious aggravation of the political situation, the head of the Ministry of Indian Affairs E. Montagu and the Viceroy Lord Chelmsford developed a draft constitutional reform designed to soften anti-British sentiments among the upper strata of Indian society. The difficulties associated with its implementation prompted the Anglo-Indian government to be especially sensitive to the mood of the Muslim community. Despite the fact that the Muslims of India did not actively respond to the call for a "holy war," slogans in defense of the Turkish Sultan in 1918-1919. were an important part of their political demands. In this regard, advocating an early settlement of the Middle East problems and the conclusion of a peace treaty with Turkey, the Anglo-Indian authorities opposed the Middle East policy of the Foreign Office leadership, considering its geopolitical views obsolete. In early 1920, W. Churchill, in a polemic with the leadership of the Foreign Office, achieved a decision on the withdrawal of British troops from the territory of Iran and Transcaucasia. The emerging, in this regard, some stabilization of the position of Great Britain in the region, was, however, soon disrupted due to the uprising in Iraq, which clearly demonstrated the crisis of traditional imperial methods of government and the need to form new approaches to control the situation in the Middle Eastern possessions, taking into account new trends and historical specifics. region. The significant increase in financial costs has caused a new wave of criticism of the Cabinet's Middle East policy. A Times editorial of November 6, 1920 emphasized: "... if the Government ... believes that the policies in Mesopotamia during the last year have contributed to the prosperity of the Empire, it is the only one who thinks so." Earlier, the Times criticized the policy of "Indianization" pursued by the Wilson administration, and actively supported plans to create an Arab state and reduce the scale of the British presence in Mesopotamia. The parliamentary opposition to the cabinet’s Middle East policy was led by former Prime Minister H. Asquith. Speaking at a meeting of the House of Commons on June 23, he demanded that the government abandon the course, which "... brings on the UK overwhelming responsibilities." The debate over the situation in Mesopotamia reached its peak in December 1920, when W. Churchill, with great difficulty, managed to obtain parliamentary approval for the allocation of an additional 39 million 750 thousand pounds in the 1920-1921 fiscal year. to stabilize the situation in Iraq and Iran. On the eve of the discussion of this issue, D. Lloyd George made a special statement. Its essence boiled down to the fact that Great Britain is morally responsible for the future of Iraq and cannot at the moment leave the Iraqi people in a state of anarchy and chaos. Along with financial problems, the British leadership, obviously, faced the task of forming a new system of managing mandated possessions in the Middle East. On May 1, W. Churchill addressed the head of the cabinet with a memorandum "Budgetary Expenditures in Mesopotamia", which emphasized that significant progress in reducing the financial costs of Great Britain could be achieved only if the following provisions were implemented: "1. Transfer of Mesopotamia and possibly other mandated territories to the Ministry of Colonial Affairs. 2. A clear definition of the amount of financial costs through a separate agreement between the Treasury and the Department of Colonial Affairs. 3. The earliest possible transfer of functions to maintain order in Mesopotamia to the Air Force command. 4. Immediate reduction of the occupied territory and concentration of efforts of British troops on the protection of railway communications. " According to W. Churchill, the management of Mesopotamia should be transferred "to that department that has real knowledge and experience in the administration and economic development of wild countries, which is capable of improvisation in search of the most acceptable methods of control, taking into account the available forces and means." The document noted that the Department of Colonial Affairs is known for its successful and highly economical management practices in East Africa. At the same time, as W. Churchill believed, the specificity of the Foreign Office's activities, which consisted in the implementation of relations with independent states, prevented it from managing the mandated territories just as effectively. On December 7, 1920, General P. Radcliffe, who was responsible for the leadership of military operations in Mesopotamia, presented to the cabinet a report on the situation in the country. According to him, in order to maintain stable control over the Iraqi territories, within the existing administrative system, it was necessary to maintain 17 thousand British and 85 thousand Indian troops. The annual expenditures for these needs were estimated by the rapporteur at £ 30 million, an increase of £ 6 million. exceeded the entire Iraqi budget. Based on this information, W. Churchill proposed in mid-December a project for a radical reduction in the scale of the British presence in Iraq, according to which Great Britain was to retain control only over the southern part of the country (i.e., the territory of the former Ottoman vilayet Basra - AS). Such a measure would allow the War Department to reduce its monthly spending in Iraq from £ 30 million to £ 8 million. On December 17, the cabinet instructed P. Cox on the preparation of a plan for the evacuation of British troops and personnel from Baghdad to Basra. Debates around the Iraqi problem, largely related to parliamentary criticism, in December 1920 brought the cabinet to the brink of a crisis. W. Churchill's proposal was criticized by E. Montagu and Lord Curzon, who believed that the Kemalists would not fail to take advantage of the political vacuum that would inevitably arise as a result of the withdrawal of British troops. The situation required immediate resolution. At a cabinet meeting held on December 31, with the direct participation of D. Lloyd George, policy decisions were made regarding Mesopotamia and the entire system of administration of mandated possessions in the Middle East. It was envisaged, in particular, the creation, within the Ministry of Colonial Affairs, a separate Eastern Department, coordinating the policy in relation to mandated possessions and having a separate budget. The choice in favor of this department was due to its rather effective and economical policy in the African colonies, which contrasted with the expensive shares of the Foreign Office in Transcaucasia, Persia and Egypt. In this regard, the proposal of Lord Curzon to transfer the created department to the Foreign Ministry was finally rejected. The leadership of the Ministry of Colonial Affairs, which was proposed to be renamed the "Ministry of Colonies and Mandatory Territories", was entrusted to W. Churchill, known for his consistent position on the need to reform the mechanism of Middle East policy. On January 11, 1921, following the cabinet decisions, an Interdepartmental Committee was created, including representatives of the Foreign Office, the Treasury, the Ministry of Indian Affairs and the War Department, headed by the Minister of Labor J.M. Smith, whose main task was to ensure a smooth transition the necessary powers to the new government body. On January 31, the committee presented a final report, which outlined the future structure and terms of reference of the created Eastern Department, which was to begin its activities on March 1, 1921. It was intended to exercise control over Iraq, Palestine (including territories east of the Jordan River) and Aden. Due to the absence of clearly fixed borders of the mandate possessions, the territory transferred under the control of the Ministry of Colonial Affairs was limited to: in the west - the Mediterranean Sea, in the south-west - the border of Egypt and the Red Sea, in the south and southeast - the Indian Ocean, in the north and in the northeast - the coast of the Persian Gulf. Within these limits, the Eastern Department of the Department of Colonial Affairs was authorized to carry out all the necessary completeness of management of the territories of the British mandate, to control the process of demarcation of their borders, to direct all British civilian services and military units, to coordinate relations with the Arabian state entities (with the exception of Hijaz - A.S. ). The staff of the Eastern Department was to be composed of officials from related departments. In addition, the report recommended the active involvement of representatives of the local Arab population in the field. The recommendations of the Interdepartmental Committee were considered at a cabinet meeting on February 14. W. Churchill, in spite of Lord Curzon's objections, managed to achieve the inclusion of most of the Arabian Peninsula in the jurisdiction of the Eastern Department. Justifying his position, he said: "The Arab problem is one, and any attempt to divide it will inevitably cause a return to the situation that existed during the previous two years ...". The Cabinet approved, in general, the recommendations of the Smith Committee, instructing the heads of the Department of Colonial Affairs and the Foreign Office to work out a final decision on the delineation of areas of competence in Arabia through a bilateral agreement. At the same time, the composition of the Eastern Department was approved, the staff of which included such well-known experts on Middle East problems as J. Schukgurg, R. Vernon, H. Young, R. Bullard, F. Adam, G. Clayton and Colonel Meinertzagen. T.E. was entrusted to head the new department. Lawrence. The transfer of all powers to manage the mandated possessions in the Middle East to a single structure was the logical result of the ongoing discussions for several years around the Middle East problems that brought the British cabinet to the brink of crisis in December 1920. Heading the Department of Colonial Affairs since March 1921, W. Churchill saw his most important goal, combined with maintaining overall control over the situation, to gradually reduce the level of Britain's military and administrative presence in the region and bring it in line with the financial capabilities of the mother country. The concrete implementation of this task required, first of all, in Iraq, the creation of an effective state system and the formation of a different model of relations between the mandated territories and the mandated power.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

1. Great Britain: the era of reforms / Ed. A.A. Gromyko. - Moscow: Ves Mir Publishing House, 2007 Democracy in a Changing World. - N. Novgorod: Publishing house of the Volgo-Vyatka personnel center, 1995. - 150 p. S. I. Kodaneva

2. British Constitutional Reform: Regional Aspect. Analytical review / RAS. INION. Center for social scientific-inform. issled. Dept. jurisprudence. - M., 2005 .-- 112.

3. Constitutional law of foreign countries: Textbook for universities. - M .: Norma, 2005. Manning N. Public administration reform: international experience. - M .: Publishing house "Ves mir", 2003. - 496 pp. Pronkin S.V., Petrunina O.E. Public administration of foreign countries: Textbook. - M .: Aspect Press, 2001 .-- 416 p.

Lloyd George's Reform Activities.

From 1905 to 1922 - the last rise of the liberal party. This period was marked by the pursuit of a policy of liberal reformism, associated primarily with the name D. Lloyd George... Liberal reformism is becoming the main tool for combating the spread of radical sentiments and, at the same time, a way of modernizing society.

1) He initiated a fairly broad social legislation(to solve the "work question") - the most developed social insurance system at that time.

Insurance against unemployment, illness, disability - contributions on a parity basis), old age from 70 years (at the expense of the state)

8 hour working day for miners

Prohibition of night work for women

Occupational safety measures: constant monitoring of hazardous industries (11)

Free primary education, free of charge school meals for children from low-income families

2) measures to recreate a nearly extinct class smallholders(buying out land from landlords and transferring it to landless or land-poor peasants in small plots for life use)

3) " revolutionary budget»1909 (to cover the costs of social policy + on the army and navy): introduced income tax, tax on land property, on large inheritances.

Confrontation with the House of Lords. The result - the parliamentary reform of 1911: the House of Lords was removed from solving financial issues, non-financial laws could be rejected twice, but if the House of Commons passed for the third time, they came into force. As a result of this reform, the liberals were given more opportunity to pursue their course.

Outcome: At the beginning of the twentieth century. positions of England in world markets weakened, the country is forced to change, but gradually, through reforms.

England, in comparison with France, passed the test of the First World War. Despite the human losses, the US debt, the loss of the industrial and trade monopoly and the general weakening of its position in the world, it retained its position as a great world power:

1) England not only defended her colonies, but also expanded her colonial possessions;

2) the English navy remained the strongest in the world;

3) the deterioration of the financial situation was relative (England owes the States, Europe owes England)

4) the defeat of the main pre-war competitor - Germany, the high international prestige of the winner in the war.

England: 1) a new electoral law, in particular, women from the age of 30 received rights, 2) an allowance for demobilized soldiers, 3) universal compulsory primary free education, 3) a housing program for the poor, 4) a program to help the unemployed, benefits for military workers industry (due to conversion).

Until 1922, the coalition government, formed during the war years, remained until the conservatives decided to break off cooperation with the liberals.

After the war, the place of the liberals was gradually taken by the Laborites, whose influence increased markedly. The program, adopted in 1918, proclaimed the establishment of public ownership of the means of production as its goal, and the expansion of social legislation and the democratization of the political system as its immediate task. In 1924, the Laborites for the first time, having won the elections, formed a government - but not for long, only for a few months (they did not have a clear majority in the House of Commons, they could only act very carefully). From 1924 to 1929 the Conservatives were in power - the Stanley Baldwin government.

From 1924 to 1929 the conservative party was in power - "The Baldwin era"(Stanley Baldwin).

the main task- to raise the British economy (overcome the structural crisis) and return to England the role of the financial center of the world.

1) the process is amplified monopolization economy (creation of monopolies capable of successfully competing in world markets). For example, the Imperial Chemical Trust, the English Steel Corporation.

2) To increase the competitiveness of their products in world markets - rationalization of production, modernization of the technical and technological base of traditional industries. But the rationalization process was complicated by the presence of a huge number of old enterprises and old equipment, the replacement of which required large investments (coal, steel, textile, shipbuilding)

Therefore, in terms of the rate of development (and volume of production), the British economy lagged behind the economies of other countries - the United States and Germany, and its share in the world economy was falling.

Another problem- relations with trade unions. May 4, 1926 - the first general strike in the history of England (miners started, they were supported by railway workers, transport workers, printers, about 4 million striking in total). The reasons are a decrease in wages, refusal from a fixed minimum wage when concluding collective agreements. The government used not only the police but also the troops. On May 12, the General Council of Trade Unions announced the end of the strike, but the miners continued to strike for another 7 months, but eventually accepted the conditions of the entrepreneurs. Since then, the practice of settling labor disputes amicably has become the norm.

Outcome: the adoption in 1927 of the law on trade unions and industrial conflicts, according to which general strikes were declared illegal, control and restrictions on the activities of trade unions were established, including over the financial resources of trade unions.

Great Britain in the 1920s and 1930s

The period between World War I and World War II was the heyday of the British colonial empire and at the same time the beginning of Britain's long economic crisis.

Background

Great Britain, together with its allies, won a victory in the First World War and, as a winner, took an active part in the post-war structure of the world. She received control over part of the former possessions of Germany and the Ottoman Empire.

At the same time, the war placed a heavy burden on the British economy. Great Britain ended the war with a large external debt; in the first post-war years, a significant part of the state budget was spent on debt coverage.

Developments

1922 - Ireland is seceded from Great Britain. In the post-war period, the anti-colonial movement grew in the territory of the British Empire (primarily in India). Nevertheless, Great Britain managed to retain all of its possessions with the exception of Ireland.

1926 - General strike in Great Britain. About 5 million workers took part in it (about 3 million - only on the night of May 4), the demands of the strikers (maintaining the level of wages) were not met. In many ways, this strike was the reason for the severance of diplomatic relations with the USSR, which Britain accused of supporting the British strike movement.

1928 - near universal suffrage is introduced in Great Britain; Married women over 30 also have the right to vote.

1929-1933 - the world economic crisis (or the Great Depression), which affected the UK, causing a rapid rise in unemployment, depreciation of the pound and, as a result, a rise in prices. It is worth noting that its impact on the domestic economy was less noticeable than in the United States, for example.

Foreign policy

In the 1930s, the so-called appeasement policy (for more details: The Price of "appeasement"), which Great Britain pursued in relation to Nazi Germany, is largely due to the fact that in Germany the British authorities saw a counterbalance to the communist threat.

Conclusion

The insufficiently tough policy of Great Britain towards Germany allowed the latter to significantly strengthen, which contributed to its success in the early years of World War II. The Second World War will be a cruel test for Britain and hasten the decline of British colonialism.

Abstract

Having emerged victorious from the World War, Great Britain began to play a significant role in the political life of Europe and the world. The internal political line of the government was entirely aimed at restoring the domestic economy, burdened by the world war. Compared to other victorious countries, Great Britain could not get ahead in terms of its economic development, but only restored its pre-war level. At the same time, as in other countries of Western Europe, the living standard of the so-called. middle class.

Rice. 1. Representatives of the middle class ()

The capitalist model of the UK economy allowed industry to quickly free itself from the military-state tutelage and expand significantly. Like other Western countries, the UK saw an increase in business and trade. The development of the commercial and industrial base made it possible to "draw" large strata of English society into the orbit of entrepreneurship. The "economic boom", accelerated rates of development and, as it seemed to many, the era of prosperity ended abruptly with the arrival of The world economic crisis of 1929-1933. A sharp collapse in prices, the closure and bankruptcy of companies and, as a result of all this - unemployment, led to massive protests, which were often suppressed by force.

Rice. 2. Consequences of the World Economic Crisis ()

Only after the end of the crisis Great Britain began to recover and come to its senses, but the collapse of the industry that occurred during the years of the crisis, she could not overcome to the end. Gradually, this country from the first player in Europe, began to retreat to the second and third plans. This retreat took shape after the Second World War, when Great Britain was included in the orbit of the most powerful country - the United States.

In the 1920s-1930s. began to play a large role in the life of English society unions... These organizations, defending the rights of workers, during this period of time became a fairly powerful force of influence in the UK. In 1925, when the government cut government funding for the coal industry, mine owners began to cut miners' wages, close unprofitable (inefficient, unprofitable) mines and fire miners en masse. In response, the UK trade unions declared a general strike in May 1926. The government's forceful measures against the workers almost led to a social explosion and revolution. In fact, only concession from the trade unions did not lead English society into protracted conflict. Some of the workers went on strike until 1927, without obtaining any concessions from the capitalists.

Despite this, the ruling Conservative Party was defeated in the 1929 parliamentary elections. Society supported Labor Party, acting from the standpoint of social democracy, so popular in the lower strata of English society. The outbreak of the economic crisis was not conducive to the success of Labor. In the next election, they lost 1st place to the Conservatives, who were the leading party until the 1945 election.

Rice. 3. Army trucks move to suppress workers' strike ()

The foreign policy of Great Britain was aimed at the inadmissibility of a repetition of the horrors of the First World War. At the same time, while remaining the leading colonial power, it was in the 1930s. ruthlessly suppressed national liberation movements and uprisings in their colonies - in India, Burma, on the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and a number of others.

In European politics, Great Britain, together with its ally, France, throughout the 1920s. tried to dominate in Europe and set itself the goal of fighting Bolshevism, being the most consistent in this. The Anglo-Soviet crisis of 1927, associated with the alleged support of the strike movement through the International, almost led to a war between Great Britain and the USSR. The parties broke off diplomatic relations and were in an extremely tense state with each other until 1939.

Another side in British politics was the so-called. appeasement policy, that is, "flirting" with Hitler's Germany. The British government, seeking to unfold Germany's predatory plans from West to East, did everything possible to help Hitler. It turned a blind eye to open non-compliance with the clauses of the Versailles Treaty and to an increase in military spending. All this led to the next redistribution of Europe, and then a new conflict - the Second World War of 1939-1945.

Bibliography

1. A. V. Shubin General history. Recent history. 9th grade: textbook. for general education. institutions. - M .: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
2. Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, grade 9. - M .: Education, 2010.
3. Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9. M .: - Education, 2011.

Homework

1. Read §5 of the textbook by A.V. Shubin. pp. 45-49 and 51-52 and answer question 1 on p. 57.
2. What were the causes of the World Economic Crisis?
3. Why do you think the UK trade unions have gone to curtail the protest movement?

1. Academician ().
2. Ukrainian textbooks ().
3. Student Scientific Forum ().