predpoly
Guess that the establishment, development and maintenance of
wearing depends on how the participants of these
relationships meet interpersonal needs
everyone in love, attachment and control over si
tuation (Schutz, 1966).
Need for love reflects the desire to
give and receive love. The people you know
probably, to varying degrees, are able to express any
bov. Some of them may avoid the trustee
relationships, rarely show strong feelings To
others and shun those who express or want
express strong passion. Others may be sloped
us to establish close relationships with everyone.
People of this type believe that everyone around -
their Good friends. They immediately imbued with confidence
eat to the people you met and want everyone
also considered them friends. Between these two
extremes are those who can express any
bov and it is easy to achieve it and who gets pleasure
effect from different relationships with others.
The need to join reflects desire
to be in the company of other people. Every person
there is some degree of need
participate in the social life of society. But here
there are also extremes. On the one hand, those
who prefer solitude. From time to time they
likes to be among people, but they do not require
often interact with people to feel
lead to satisfaction. On the other hand, there are those
who constantly need to communicate with people, and they
experience stress when they are alone. Two
ri in their house are always open - they are happy and waiting for everyone,
that others will be happy with them. Of course, most
of us fall into neither of these extremes.
As a rule, we sometimes like to be alone.
night, and sometimes interact with others.
expression
no desire to influence events and people who find
sit next to us. To this need, people also from
worn differently. Some, as can be seen from their
conduct, avoid any responsibility. Other
extreme - those who are always striving for home
over others and feel anxious when they
it fails. Again, most people
lay an intermediate position between these two
extremes, and sometimes they need to lead, and
sometimes it is enough that they subordinate
to someone more powerful.
How can our analysis help to understand the process of
scheniya and development of relations? Relations between
people arise and are interrupted partly because of the
capacity or incompatibility of interpersonal
needs. When you interact with others, you
you can decide for yourself whether they really need
ness in love, attachment and control agree
with yours. Suppose Emily and Dan regu
regularly see each other, and both believe that they have
close relations. They sit and watch together
levizor, and if Dan tries to put his hand on the ple
cho Emily, and Emily is a little tense, then
it can be assumed that Emily needs love
You are smaller than Dan. It must be emphasized that the need
nosti people really are different; besides, with
they change over time. If at any given time
moment of time the need of the person with whom we
communicate, is significantly different from ours and us
can't see it, then we might be wrong
interpret the reasons that our relatives
relationships with a person do not develop the way we would
I wanted to.
Schatz's Interpersonal Needs Theory
has a lot to say about the way we communicate
(Trenholm, 1991). In addition, the study of this
implementation in practice has generally confirmed its main
theoretical positions (Shaw, 1981). Theory between
personal needs, however, does not explain how
people adapt to each other in the process
relations. The next theory we are talking about
let's say, deepen the understanding of this issue.
Theory of interpersonal needs -
theory according to which the emergence
building and maintaining relationships depends on
how well each person is
satisfies the interpersonal needs of others
gogo.
Need for love- wish to express
reap and receive love.
The need to join- wish
to be in the company of other people.
The need for control over the situation -
desire to influence events and others
people.
exchange theory- the theory that
relationships between people can be
borrow in terms of exchange rewards
mi and the costs arising during mutual
interactions of people.
Rewards- desired result
value relationship tat
for a person.
Costs- unwanted results
relations.
exchange theory
Another way to understand our relationship is to
enjoy exchange theory. This theory was developed
thali John W. Thibaut & Harold H. Kelly (Thibaut &
Kelly, 1986). They believed that the relationship between
people can be understood in terms of the exchange of
barriers and costs arising in the
interaction process. Rewards - it's re
the result of a relationship that is evaluated positively by him
participants. These are good feelings, prestige, useful
information and satisfaction of emotional
needs who have great importance for the forehead
century. Costs are undesirable results from
carriers, such as time, energy, anxiety, and emotions
onal pain. So Sharon wants to talk to her
her friend Jan. She thinks that her friend will be able to
help her solve a difficult math problem. But
Sharon is unlikely to ask for help if she knows
that girlfriend will act too condescending
but towards her.
As Thibault and Kelly write, people tend to
when the ratio of rewards and costs
most beneficial for them. So, in our case,
Does Sharon ask Jan for help in problem solving,
depends on the following factors: 1) whether She considers
ron that the value of information obtained from a friend
gi, compensates for suffering from caustic remarks
Niy Jan; 2) whether, in terms of the best match
wearing rewards/expenses, Jan's help
more profitable than if Sharon gets the information
sion in another place, say, at the tutor.
This analysis extends not only to
efficient interaction, but also on relationships in
in general. If the share of rewards in some relationships
wearing higher than in others, then the person will be
to believe that these relationships are pleasant and satisfying
flying. However, if over time
net weight" of remuneration (remuneration minus
costs) in some respects becomes less,
unsatisfactory and unpleasant.
If a person has connections with several people
mi, relations with which are characterized by good
shim reward / cost ratio, then
the level of requirements for people this person has enough
is definitely high and he will probably not be satisfied with less
condoning relationships. On the contrary, people who
few positive interactions will be satisfied
relationships and interactions, not
attractive to people with more happiness
condoning relationships. For example, Devon mo
can continue dating Erica even if she
treats him very badly, because the difference
between costs and rewards
about the same as in other respects,
which he had. In life, some people
want to maintain relationships that others
would be offensive, because they believe that
There is no way for them to choose something better. Joan
lives with Charlie, despite the fact that he periodically
hits her. She believes that he is economic and loves
her when sober, and besides, "who else marries
45 summer woman with three children?
Thibault and Kelly's exchange theory is based on
the assumption that people consciously and
deliberately weigh rewards and costs
ci associated with any relationship or
interactions and compare them with alternatives
Part 2 Interpersonal Communication
opportunities. That is, people tend to
wearing, which may be beneficial to them, and avoid
have relationships that entail costs
(Trenholm, 1991). Might be useful to explore
your relationship in terms of rewards/
costs, especially if they go into a stagnation phase
nation. You begin to realize in what areas of
holding more rewards for you or for a friend
gogo man. In this case, you can probably
something to change in your relationship before
they are completely ruined.
Think about it
Similar information.
interpersonal communication
is the interaction of an individual with other individuals. Interpersonal communication is marked by the inevitability, as well as the pattern of occurrence in various real groups. Interpersonal subjective relations are a reflection of communication between members of the same group, which serve as the subject of study for social psychology.
The main purpose of the study of interpersonal interaction or interaction within a group is an in-depth study of various social factors, various interactions of individuals included in this group. If there is no contact between people, then the human community will not be able to carry out joint full-fledged activities, since proper mutual understanding will not be reached between them. For example, in order for a teacher to be able to teach students, he first needs to enter into communication.
Interpersonal relationships and communication
Communication is a multifaceted process of developing contacts between individuals, which are generated by the needs of joint activities. Consider communication in the system of interpersonal relations, as well as the interaction of individuals. Let us determine the place of communication in the structure of interpersonal interaction, as well as the interaction of individuals.
In interpersonal interaction, three main tasks are considered: first, interpersonal perception; second, the understanding of man; third, the formation of interpersonal relationships, as well as the provision psychological impact. The concept of "perception of man by man" is insufficient for the final knowledge of people. In the future, a concept is added to it, as “human understanding”, which includes connecting to the process of human perception and other cognitive processes. The effectiveness of perception is directly related to the property of the individual (socio-psychological observation), which will allow you to catch in the behavior of the individual subtle, but very important features for understanding.
Features of interpersonal communication are noted in the perception of speech and depend on the state of health, age, gender, nationality, attitudes, communication experience, personal and professional features. With age, a person differentiates emotional states, begins to perceive the world through the prism of a personal national way of life.
More effectively and successfully determine a variety of mental states, as well as interpersonal relationships, individuals with high level social, and the object of knowledge in this case is both the social and physical appearance of a person.
Initially, the perception of a person is fixed on the physical appearance, which includes functional, physiological, paralinguistic characteristics. Physiological characteristics include perspiration, respiration, blood circulation. TO functional features include posture, posture, gait, non-verbal features communication (facial expressions, body movements, gestures). Definitely emotions are easy to differentiate, and unexpressed and mixed mental states are much more difficult to recognize. Social appearance includes the social design of appearance (a person's clothing, shoes, accessories), paralinguistic, speech, proxemic and activity characteristics.
Proxemic features include the state between the communicants, as well as their relative position. The extralinguistic features of speech include the originality of the voice, pitch, timbre. When perceiving an individual, social features in comparison with the physical appearance are the most informative. The process of cognition of an individual consists of mechanisms that distort ideas about the perceived person. Mechanisms that distort the image of the perceived limit the possibility for objective knowledge of people. Significant of them are the mechanisms of primacy or novelty, which boil down to the fact that the first impression of the perceived affects the next formation of the image of the object being known.
When perceiving an individual, as well as understanding him, the subject unconsciously chooses various mechanisms of interpersonal cognition. The main mechanism is the correlation (interpretation) of the personal experience of cognition of people with the perception of this individual.
Identification in interpersonal cognition appears as identification with another individual. The subject also uses the mechanism of causal attribution, when certain causes and motives are attributed to the perceived object, explaining its features and actions. The mechanism of reflection of another individual in interpersonal cognition is marked by the awareness of the subject as he is perceived by the object.
Interpersonal understanding and perception of an object is carried out with a fairly strict order of functioning of the mechanisms of interpersonal cognition, namely from simple to complex. In the process of interpersonal cognition, the subject takes into account all the information that comes to him, which indicates a change in the state of the partner during communication. The conditions of perception of an individual include time, situations, place of communication. Reducing the time at the moment of perception of an object reduces the ability of the perceiver to obtain sufficient information about it. With close and prolonged contact, evaluators show favoritism and condescension.
Interpersonal relationships act integral part interactions, as well as considered in its context.
The psychology of interpersonal relationships is experienced, realized in varying degrees relationships between individuals. They are based on various emotional states of interacting individuals, as well as their psychological features. Sometimes interpersonal relationships are called emotional, expressive. The development of interpersonal relationships is determined by age, gender, nationality and other factors. Women have a much smaller social circle than men. They need interpersonal communication for self-disclosure, for transferring personal information about themselves to others. Also, women complain more often about loneliness. For them, the most significant features that are noted in interpersonal relationships, and business qualities are important for men.
Interpersonal relations in dynamics develop according to the following scheme: they are born, consolidated, and also reach a certain maturity, then they are able to gradually weaken. The dynamics of the development of interpersonal relations consists of the following stages: acquaintance, friendly, friendly and friendly relations. The mechanism of development in interpersonal relations is, which is the response of one person to the experiences of another. Compared with countryside, in urban conditions, interpersonal contacts are the most numerous, quickly start up and are quickly interrupted.
Psychology of interpersonal communication
Communication is one of the central psychological science and stands along with such categories as "thinking", "behavior", "personality", "relationships".
Interpersonal communication in psychology is a process of interaction aimed at mutual establishment, cognition, development of relationships, and also involving mutual influence on the states, behavior, attitudes, and regulation of the joint activities of all participants in the process. In social psychology, over the past 25 years, the study of the problem of communication has received one of the central directions of study in psychological science.
Communication in psychology is understood as the reality of human relations, which implies various forms of joint activity of individuals. Communication is not only a subject psychological research, and one of the methodological principles for revealing this relationship is the idea of the unity of activity and communication. But the nature of this connection is understood differently. Sometimes communication and activity are considered as two sides of a person's social being; in other cases, communication is perceived as an element of various activities, and activity is considered as a condition for communication. Communication is also interpreted as special kind activities. In the process of communication, there is a mutual exchange of activities, ideas, feelings, ideas, the system of relations “subject-subject(s)” develops and manifests itself.
Interpersonal communication problems are often noted in motivational as well as operational difficulties, which correlate with two aspects of communication - interactive and communicative. Problems manifest themselves in affective, cognitive and behavioral areas. They are characterized by a lack of desire to understand the interlocutor, the characteristics of his personality, internal state, interests. Problems in interpersonal communication can be noted in the following: benefiting from the interlocutor with the use of flattery, intimidation, deceit, splurge, show of care and kindness.
Interpersonal communication in the youth environment
Adolescence and adolescence is a critical period in the process of interpersonal evolution. From the age of 14, interpersonal relationships are being formed, in which attitudes towards the subjects of reality play a different role: to the elderly, to parents, to classmates, to teachers, to friends, to oneself, to representatives of another religion and nationality, to patients and drug addicts.
The psychological world of a teenager is often turned to inner life, a young man is often thoughtful, fantasizes. The same period is marked by intolerance, irritability, a tendency to. By the age of 16, the stage of self-knowledge and self-affirmation begins, which is noted in increased observation. Gradually, in young people, the degree of unacceptable, as well as unacceptable, tends to increase. This comes from the fact that young people become very critical of reality.
The problems of interpersonal communication in the youth environment are manifested in the form of conflicts among students, which destabilize the emotional background in the team, in the group. Often conflicts, quarrels among young people occur due to inability or lack of compassion and unwillingness to respect others. Often, protests occur due to a lack of good manners, as well as a violation of the culture of behavior. Often the protest is targeted, i. directed against the culprit conflict situation. As soon as the conflict is resolved, the young man calms down.
In order to avoid similar situations adults are encouraged to maintain a calm, polite tone in communication. It is necessary to abandon categorical judgments about a teenager, especially when it comes to fashion and music issues.
Adults need to try to compromise, to yield in an argument, avoiding the red rag syndrome. It is especially painful if the scandal is watched by friends or peers. young man, therefore, adults should give in and not be sarcastic, because only good relations contribute to the establishment of relations.
Culture of interpersonal communication
The development of a culture of communication includes the development of skills and abilities to correctly perceive others, in general view be able to determine the nature of a person, his internal state and mood in a particular situation during interaction. And already from this to choose an adequate style, as well as the tone of communication. Since the same words, gestures, may be appropriate in a conversation with a calm and friendly person and can provoke an undesirable reaction from an excited interlocutor.
The culture of interpersonal communication involves the development of a culture of communication, which is based on the development of speech, mental properties, specific social attitudes, and especially thinking. There is a high need for deep emotional as well as meaningful communication. This need is satisfied when a person has empathy, which is understood as the ability to respond emotionally to the experiences of other people, as well as to understand their experiences, feelings, thoughts, to penetrate into them. inner world, empathize, and also sympathize with them.
The culture of interpersonal communication is based on openness, non-standard action plan, flexibility. It is very important to have a large vocabulary, figurativeness and correctness of speech, to accurately perceive spoken words, as well as to accurately convey the ideas of partners, to be able to correctly pose questions; accurately formulate answers to questions.
Interpersonal communication as a condition of human existence
Without interpersonal communication, it is impossible for a person to fully form a single mental function or mental process, not a single block of mental properties of a person as a whole. Communication is the interaction of people, and in it they always develop mutual understanding of each other, certain relationships are established, a certain mutual circulation takes place, i.e. behavior chosen by the participants in communication in relation to each other. Interpersonal communication should be considered as a process in the human-human system in the multidimensional dynamics of its functioning.
Participants in interpersonal communication, coming into contact, pursue in relation to each other goals that are more or less significant for them, which may coincide, or may differ in their content. These goals are a consequence of the action of specific motives that the participants in communication have; achieving them involves the use of a variety of behaviors. We can say that interpersonal communication in its main characteristics is a type of activity, the essence of which is the interaction of a person with a person. As a rule, interpersonal interaction of people in the form of communication almost always turns out to be woven into the activity and acts as a condition for its implementation. So, without communication there can be no collective labor, teaching, art, games, etc. At the same time, the type of activity that communication serves has a significant impact on the content, form, and course of the entire process of communication between the performers of this activity.
When comparing the nature of interpersonal communication in different communities of people, one can find similarities and differences. The similarity is that communication is a necessary condition for their existence, a factor that determines the successful solution of the tasks facing it, their movement forward. At the same time, each community is characterized by the type of activity that prevails in it. Yes, for study group such activity will be the acquisition of competencies, for a sports team - participation in competitions, designed to achieve the planned result, for a family - raising children, providing living conditions life, organization of leisure, etc. Therefore, in the community of each type, that type of interpersonal communication prevails, which provides the main activity for this community. At the same time, it is clear that the communication of members of a community is influenced not only by the main activity for this community, but also by what the community itself represents. For example, the daily goals of the family - the upbringing of children, the implementation of household chores, the organization of leisure, etc. - directedly program the interpersonal communication of family members with each other.
However, how communication turns out in reality depends on the composition of the family (full or incomplete, three-, two- or one-generation, etc.), on the moral and general cultural image of the spouses, their understanding of their parental responsibilities, age and condition health of children and other family members. In a family, as in any other community, the features of interpersonal communication are largely determined by how family members perceive and understand each other, what emotional response they evoke in each other and what style of behavior they support in relationships. The communities to which a person belongs form the standards of communication, and a person gets used to following these standards. Changes in the process of activity and the very community of people necessarily affect their interpersonal communication.
In interpersonal communication, each person simultaneously finds himself in the role of an object and a subject of communication. As a subject, he gets to know other participants in communication, shows interest in them, and maybe indifference or hostility, and influences
on them, solving a specific problem in relation to them. At the same time, he acts as an object of knowledge for everyone with whom he communicates; they address their feelings to him, they try to influence him, to influence him more or less strongly. In the position of the object or subject of communication, people differ greatly in the nature of the role they perform.
First, “performing” a role can be perceived by different people to different degrees. So, as an object, one person can show others his physical appearance, expressive behavior, his actions, without thinking about what kind of response he evokes from those with whom he communicates, and the other can try to assess what impression he makes on others. throughout the communication with them or at some particular moment and purposefully do everything in his power to form in others exactly the impression of himself that he would like.
Secondly, people differ in the degree of complexity of the personality structure that characterizes their individual identity, therefore they present unequal opportunities for successful interaction with them and at the same time have unequal abilities to penetrate into the identity of the partner’s personality, determine their attitude towards it, choose ways to influence this person that best meets the goals of communication.
A person's personality is formed in the process of communicating with people. In the initial period of life, a person is not free to choose for himself those who make up his immediate environment. V adulthood he can largely regulate the number and composition of the persons with whom he communicates. The immediate environment of a person is made up of those with whom he lives, studies, works, and rests together. With age, the reasons forcing a person to enter into direct communication with other people change significantly. Thus, in the time interval of life from 15 to 23 years, there is a significant increase in contacts, the basis of which is the need to satisfy a cognitive need, and then their number noticeably decreases. The most intensive period of expanding the circle of direct communication falls on the age of 23 to 30 years. After that, the circle of communication of a person is
5.3. Interpersonal communication as a condition of human existence
stings, i.e. the number of subjectively significant people included in the circle of direct communication is decreasing. Changes in the subjective significance of other people for this person, as a rule, are determined, on the one hand, by his position in relation to himself in the system of needs, and on the other hand, by the attitude towards him of the persons who make up his social circle.
Interpersonal communication is one of the strongest factors involved in the formation of personality. If moral standards, in accordance with which the communication of people is built in the main for them labor activity, do not coincide with the norms underlying their communication in other activities, then the development of their personality will be more or less contradictory, the formation of a whole personality will be difficult.
Serving objective activity and contributing to the formation of horizons, the ability to handle objects, intellect and the emotional-volitional sphere, communication is a prerequisite and a necessary prerequisite for the development of a set of qualities in a person that ensures his ability to live among people, coexist with them and rise to the realization in his behavior high moral principles.
The specific experience of communication develops in a person the ability to give a complete and correct assessment of other people, the psychological attitudes that manifest themselves in the perception of others and the manner of responding to their behavior. The formation of evaluative standards in a person is negatively affected by the limited personal impressions from meetings with people, which happens if he life path people met who were similar in virtues and shortcomings, or had to communicate day by day with a small number of people representing the same age, gender, professional and national-class groups of people. Own experience is only one of the ways in which a person develops the qualities he needs for successful communication with other people.
In addition, a person’s immunity to influences from a person communicating with him may indicate
Chapter 5
that the method of address used does not correspond to the personal characteristics of this person.
Psychological blindness and deafness are indicated by poverty and the monotony of the methods of influence that are resorted to when coming into contact with different people or with the same person in different situations, although other methods may be used. For example, some educators in all situations influence the pupils with the help of punishments and threats, which, as a rule, causes the opposite result - a defensive reaction in the pupils, requires them to spend a lot of energy to overcome fear and apprehension, and largely suppresses them intellectually. -volitional activity. However, the behavior of a person in communication, which weakens or even removes any self-control from other participants in communication, as a rule, negatively affects their behavior in the present and future.
Human creativity, aimed at enriching the ways of behavior in communication, should not be aimed at developing the ability to manipulate people or, conversely, impersonally adapt to their desires, found in their behavior during communication, but at mastering the ability to create psychological conditions favorable for communication with people. manifestation at the optimal level of their intellectual-volitional and moral potential. If the methods of communication correspond to the personal characteristics of a person who uses these methods in his communication with other people, trust will be born in communication, a mood for cooperation. Therefore, each person needs to form a communication style that accumulates his dignity and at the same time takes into account the personal characteristics of those with whom he mainly has to communicate.
Thus, the need for interpersonal communication is one of the basic human needs. Through its implementation, a person assimilates social norms, rules, values, mastery social experience, socialization and professionalization of the personality is carried out, its subjectivity is formed. Through interpersonal communication, a person learns to know other people and himself,
6.1. Communication as a factor of socialization
increases its communication potential, more successfully solves production and other vital tasks.
Not a single person is able to live in complete isolation, some form of interpersonal interaction will certainly be present. This need for close long-term interactions lives in each of us. It is explained by social and biological causes and is aimed at human survival.
Forms and types of interpersonal interaction
Psychology has long been interested in the issue of interpersonal interactions and considers them through the prism, since these phenomena complement each other, but these concepts should not be confused.
Communication will certainly happen as a means of communication (transfer of information) of two or more subjects, it can be personal or indirect (mail, Internet). But interaction does not always imply communication, which makes the latter a special case. various kinds contacts. In social psychology, the term "interpersonal interaction" refers to the contact of two or more subjects, leading to a change in their behavior or mood. The three main tasks of such contact are: the formation of interpersonal relationships, interpersonal perception and understanding of a person, and the provision of psychological impact. To solve these problems, two main types of interactions are used: cooperation - progress towards the goal of one of the partners contributes or does not interfere with the success of others, and rivalry - achievement by one of the partners excludes or hinders the successful completion of the others.
There is also a division of interpersonal interactions by type:
- Depending on the purpose - business, personal.
- Depending on the modality - positive, negative, ambivalent.
- Depending on the orientation - vertical, horizontal. An example of such relationships can be working contacts, in the case of communication with superiors or subordinates, the orientation will be vertical, while talking with colleagues - horizontal.
The complexity of the processes of interpersonal interaction gives rise to many classifications, some of which were given above, but the concept will not be fully disclosed without mentioning the forms of their manifestation, of which there are a great many. The main ones are: friendship, affection, love, care, pastime, play, social influence, competition, conflict and ritual interaction. 
The latter form is very common, differing special rules that govern the relationship. It helps to symbolize social status person in the group, this form is designed specifically to ensure that everyone can satisfy their need for recognition. Everyone uses such rituals - when communicating with parents and children, subordinates and superiors, civil servants and sellers in the store. Each of the forms of interaction performs one of three functions - assistance in adapting to a new environment, cognitive or satisfaction of a person's need for contact with other people. This once again confirms the importance of the phenomenon, as well as its complexity.
Psychology of interpersonal communication
Interpersonal relationships as a need for communication
Content
Introduction
Currently, there is a growing interest among practitioners in the study of interpersonal relations in various social groups, among which a special place is occupied by the study of interpersonal relations.
A characteristic feature of the development of modern society is the ever-increasing interest in the individuality of a person who, entering the new millennium, feels an urgent need not only to know himself, but also to understand others. The art of building relationships between people requires everyone to be able to look beyond the obvious and touch the deep mental processes on the basis of which interpersonal interaction is built.
Interpersonal relationships go through almost all spheres of a person’s life, who, even being alone, continues to rely in his actions and thoughts on ideas about the assessments of people who are significant to him. Relations between people, as the most important aspect of their joint life and activity, have always been comprehended by them in one way or another, first at the level of everyday, everyday consciousness, and then at a deeper theoretical level.
Many problems of the psychology of interpersonal interaction were fundamentally developed by domestic psychologists: B.G. Ananiev, G.M. Andreeva, V.M. Bekhterev, A.A. Bodalev, JI.C. Vygotsky, L.Ya. Gozman, E.I. Golovakha, I.N. Gorelov, V.V. Znakov, Ya.L. Kolominsky, I.S. Kon, E.A. Klimov, V.N. Kunitsyna, V.A. Labunskaya, V.P. Levkovich, A.A. Leontiev, A.N. Leontiev, A.E. Lichko, V.S. Merlin, V.I. Morosanova, V.N. Panferov, V.M. Pogolyp, A.A. Rean, C.JI. Rubinstein, E.T. Sokolova, V.I. Tyutyunnik, A.A. Ukhtomsky, K.D. Shafranskaya, D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Yustitsky and others.
Interpersonal communication plays an important role in organizing the life of individuals and groups, in the process of socialization, ensuring a favorable climate, compatibility and stability of teams. The well-being, mental health, productivity of educational and professional activities, the degree of self-realization of a person depend on the nature, features, and success of interpersonal interaction. Therefore, interpersonal relationships can be considered as a person's need for communication.
The need for people to communicate
The basis of interpersonal relations is communication - the need of a person as a social, rational being, as a carrier of consciousness.
Communication is a process of interpersonal interaction generated by the needs of interacting subjects and aimed at satisfying these needs 1 . The role and intensity of communication in modern society are constantly increasing, because with the increase in the volume of information, the processes of exchange of this information become more intense, the number technical means for such an exchange. In addition, the number of people whose professional activity is connected with communication, i.e., having professions of the “man-man” type, is increasing.
In psychology, important aspects of communication are distinguished: content, purpose and means.
The content of communication is information that is transmitted during communication from one living being to another. In humans, the content of communication is much broader than in animals. People exchange information with each other representing knowledge about the world, share their experience, skills and abilities. Human communication is multi-subject and diverse in content.
The purpose of communication is that for the sake of which a given type of activity arises in a living being. In animals, this may be, for example, a warning of danger. A person has much more goals of communication. And if in animals the goals of communication are usually associated with the satisfaction of biological needs, then in humans they are a means of satisfying many different needs: social, cultural, cognitive, creative, aesthetic, the needs of intellectual growth and moral development, etc.
Means of communication are ways of encoding, transmitting, processing and decoding information transmitted in the process of communication. Information can be conveyed through direct bodily contact, such as tactile hand contact; it can be transmitted and perceived at a distance through the senses, for example, by observing the movements of another person or listening to the sound signals produced by him. In addition to all these natural ways of transmitting information, a person has others invented by himself - this is language, writing (texts, drawings, diagrams, etc.), as well as all kinds of technical means of recording, transmitting and storing information.
Communication can be divided into several types (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Classification of types of communication
Communication between people can be verbal and non-verbal.
Non-verbal is communication without the use of linguistic means, i.e., with the help of facial expressions and gestures; its result is tactile, visual, auditory and olfactory images received from another individual.
Verbal communication occurs with the help of any language.
Most non-verbal forms of communication in humans are innate; with the help of them, a person achieves interaction on an emotional level, and not only with his own kind, but also with other living beings. Many of the higher animals (for example, monkeys, dogs, dolphins), just like humans, have the ability to communicate non-verbally with their own kind. Verbal communication is unique to humans. It has much wider possibilities than non-verbal.
There are three interrelated aspects in the structure of communication:
1) communicative - the exchange of information between communicating individuals;
2) interactive - interaction between communicating individuals;
3) perceptual - mutual perception of communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis.
When talking about communication in communication, then, first of all, they mean that in the process of communication people exchange different ideas, ideas, interests, feelings, etc. and active exchange of it. The main feature is that people in the process of exchanging information can influence each other.
The communicative process is born on the basis of some joint activity, and the exchange of knowledge, ideas, feelings, etc. suggests that such activity is organized. In psychology, two types of interaction are distinguished: cooperation (collaboration) and competition (conflict).
So, communication is a process of interaction between people, during which interpersonal relationships arise, manifest and form. Communication involves the exchange of thoughts, feelings, experiences. In the process of interpersonal communication, people consciously or unconsciously influence the mental state, feelings, thoughts and actions of each other. The functions of communication are very diverse, it is a decisive condition for the formation of each person as an individual, the implementation of personal goals and the satisfaction of a number of needs. Communication is the internal mechanism of joint activity of people and is the most important source of information for a person.
The specifics of interpersonal relationships
In the socio-psychological literature, various points of view are expressed on the question of where interpersonal relations are “located”, primarily with respect to the system public relations. The nature of interpersonal relations can be correctly understood if they are not placed on a par with social relations, but if they are seen as a special series of relations that arise within each type of social relations, not outside them.
The nature of interpersonal relations differs significantly from the nature of social relations: their most important specific feature is the emotional basis. Therefore, interpersonal relationships can be considered as a factor in the psychological "climate" of the group. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships means that they arise and develop on the basis of certain feelings that people have in relation to each other. In the domestic school of psychology, there are three types, or levels of emotional manifestations of the personality: affects, emotions and feelings. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships includes all kinds of these emotional manifestations.
Relations between people do not develop only on the basis of direct emotional contacts. The activity itself defines another series of relations mediated by it. That is why it is an extremely important and difficult task of social psychology to simultaneously analyze two series of relations in a group: both interpersonal and mediated by joint activity, i.e. ultimately the social relations behind them.
All this raises a very acute question about the methodological means of such an analysis. Traditional social psychology focused primarily on interpersonal relationships, therefore, regarding their study, an arsenal of methodological tools was developed much earlier and more fully. The main of these means is the method of sociometry, widely known in social psychology, proposed by the American researcher J. Moreno, for which it is an application to his special theoretical position. Although the failure of this concept has long been criticized, the methodology developed within the framework of this theoretical scheme has proved to be very popular 1 .
Thus, we can say that interpersonal relationships are considered as a factor in the psychological "climate" of the group. But sociometric technique is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them.
The psychological nature of interpersonal relationships
Interpersonal relationships are a set of connections that develop between people in the form of feelings, judgments and appeals to each other.
Interpersonal relationships include:
1) people's perception and understanding of each other;
2) interpersonal attractiveness (attraction and liking);
3) interaction and behavior (in particular, role-playing).
Components of interpersonal relationships:
1) cognitive component - includes all cognitive mental processes: sensations, perception, representation, memory, thinking, imagination. Thanks to this component, there is a knowledge of the individual psychological characteristics of partners in joint activities and mutual understanding between people. The characteristics of mutual understanding are:
a) adequacy - the accuracy of the mental reflection of the perceived personality;
b) identification - identification by an individual of his personality with the personality of another individual;
2) emotional component - includes positive or negative experiences that arise in a person during interpersonal communication with other people:
a) likes or dislikes;
b) satisfaction with oneself, partner, work, etc.;
c) empathy - an emotional response to the experiences of another person, which can manifest itself in the form of empathy (experiencing those feelings experienced by another), sympathy (personal attitude to the experiences of another) and complicity (empathy accompanied by assistance);
3) behavioral component - includes facial expressions, gestures, pantomime, speech and actions that express the relationship of a given person to other people, to the group as a whole. He plays a leading role in regulating relationships. The effectiveness of interpersonal relationships is assessed by the state of satisfaction - dissatisfaction of the group and its members.
Types of interpersonal relationships:
1) industrial relations - are formed between employees of organizations in solving industrial, educational, economic, domestic and other problems and imply fixed rules of behavior for employees in relation to each other. They are divided into relationships:
a) vertically - between managers and subordinates;
b) horizontally - relations between employees who have the same status;
c) diagonally - the relationship between the leaders of one production unit with ordinary employees of another;
2) domestic relationships - are formed outside of work activities on vacation and at home;
3) formal (official) relations - normatively stipulated relations fixed in official documents;
4) informal (informal) relationships - relationships that actually develop in relationships between people and are manifested in preferences, likes or dislikes, mutual assessments, authority, etc.
The nature of interpersonal relationships is influenced by such personal characteristics as gender, nationality, age, temperament, state of health, profession, experience of communicating with people, self-esteem, need for communication, etc. Stages of development of interpersonal relationships:
1) the stage of acquaintance - the first stage - the emergence of mutual contact, mutual perception and evaluation of each other by people, which largely determines the nature of the relationship between them;
2) the stage of friendly relations - the emergence of interpersonal relationships, the formation of an internal relationship of people to each other on the rational (realization by interacting people of the advantages and disadvantages of each other) and emotional levels (the emergence of appropriate experiences, emotional response, etc.);
3) companionship - rapprochement of views and support to each other; characterized by trust 1 .
Thus, interpersonal relationships are relationships with close people; it is the relationship between parents and children, husband and wife, brother and sister, friends, colleagues.
A common factor in these relationships is various kinds of feelings of affection, love and betrayal.
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