Society does not consist of separate individuals, but expresses the sum of those connections and relationships in which these individuals are with each other. The basis of these connections and relationships is the interaction of people.
Interaction- This is a process of direct or indirect influence of objects (subjects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditioning and connection.
It is causality that is the main feature of the interaction, when each of the interacting parties vys-. dulls as the cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side, which determines the development of objects and their structures. If a contradiction is revealed during interaction, then it acts as a source of self-movement and phenomena and processes.
Interaction in Russian social psychology usually means not only the influence of people on each other, but also the direct organization of their joint, which allows the group to realize the common activity for its members. The very same interaction in this case acts as a systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate response from other people.
A distinction is usually made between interpersonal and intergroup interactions.
Interpersonal interaction- accidental or deliberate, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and communications of two or more people, causing mutual changes in their relationship, etc.
The presence of an external goal in relation to interacting individuals, the achievement of which involves mutual efforts.
Explication (availability) for observation from the outside and registration by other people.
Situationality is a rather strict regulation by specific conditions of activity, norms, rules and intensity of relations, due to which interaction becomes a rather changeable phenomenon.
Reflexive polysemy is the dependence of perception on the conditions of implementation and the assessments of its participants.
Intergroup interaction- the process of direct or indirect influence of multiple subjects (objects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditionality and the peculiar nature of relations. Usually it takes place between entire groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society.
Currently, in Western science, there are many points of view explaining the reasons for the interaction of people.
The process of human interaction is divided into three main stages (levels).
At the first stage (initial level), interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people. Between them there is only a certain primary and very simplified mutual or unilateral influence on each other for the purpose of information exchange and communication. For specific reasons, it may not achieve its goal and not receive further development.
The success of initial contacts depends on the acceptance or rejection of the interaction partners of each other. Differences between individuals are one of the main conditions for the development of their interaction (communication, relationships, compatibility, working capacity), as well as themselves as individuals.
Any contact usually begins with a specific-sensory perception of the external appearance, features of the activity and behavior of other people. At this moment, as a rule, the emotional-behavioral reactions of individuals dominate. Acceptance-rejection relationships are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, posture, gaze, intonation, the desire to end or continue communication. They indicate whether people like each other or not. If not, then reciprocal or one-sided reactions (gestures) of rejection follow.
The contact is terminated.
And vice versa, people turn to those who smile, look directly and openly, turn in full face, respond with cheerful and cheerful intonation; to someone who is trustworthy and with whom further cooperation can be developed on the basis of joint efforts.
Of course, the acceptance or rejection of each other by interaction partners has deeper roots.
The first (lower) level is the ratio of individual (natural) and personal parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations) of people. Of particular importance in interpersonal interaction are age and sex differences between partners.
The second (upper) level of homogeneity - heterogeneity (degree of similarity - contrast of participants in interpersonal interaction) is the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions in the group, relations (including likes and dislikes) to oneself, partners or other people and to the objective world (in including joint activities). The second level is subdivided into sublevels: primary (or initial) and secondary (or effective). The primary sublevel is the initial ratio of opinions given before interpersonal interaction (about the world of objects and their own kind). The second sublevel is the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions and relationships as a result of interpersonal interaction, the exchange of thoughts and feelings between participants in joint activities.
The congruence effect plays an important role in the interaction at its initial stage, i.e. confirmation of mutual role expectations, a single resonant rhythm, consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact.
Congruence presupposes a minimum of mismatches in the key moments of the lines of behavior of the participants in the contact, the result of which is the release of tension, the emergence of trust and sympathy at the subconscious level.
Congruence is enhanced by the partner's feeling of participation, interest, mutual search activity based on his needs and life experience. Congruence may appear from the first minutes of contact between previously unknown partners, or it may not occur at all. The presence of a congruence indicates an increased likelihood that the interaction will continue. In this sense, one should strive to achieve congruence from the first minutes of contact.
The experience of belonging, which arises:
- when the goals of the subjects of interaction are interconnected;
- when there is a basis for interpersonal rapprochement;
- in the case of subjects belonging to one. Empathy (emotional empathy for the interlocutor) is realized:
- when establishing emotional contact;
- with the similarity of the behavioral and emotional reactions of partners;
- in the presence of the same feelings for some object;
- when attention is drawn to the feelings of partners (for example, they are simply described).
Identification (projection of one's views on the interlocutor), which is enhanced by:
- with a variety of behavioral manifestations of the interacting parties;
- when a person sees the traits of his character in another;
- when the partners seem to change places and are discussing from each other's positions;
- when referring to previous cases;
- with a commonality of thoughts, interests, social roles and positions.
As a result of congruence and effective initial contacts, feedback is established between people, which is a process of mutually directed response actions, which serves to maintain subsequent interaction, during which both intentional and unintentional communication to another person is carried out about how his behavior and actions (or their consequences ) are perceived or experienced.
Feedback is of different types, and each of its variants corresponds to one or another specificity of the interaction of people and the establishment of stable relations between them.
Feedback can be immediate and delayed in time. It can be bright, emotionally colored and transmitted as a kind of experience, or it can be with a minimal experience of emotions and response behavioral reactions (Solovyova O.V., 1992). Different types of joint activities are appropriate for their own types of feedback. The inability to use feedback makes it difficult for people to interact, reducing its effectiveness. Thanks to feedback in the course of interaction, people become like each other, bring their state, emotions, actions and actions in accordance with the unfolding process of relationships.
At the middle stage (level) of human interaction, which is called productive joint activity, the gradually developing active cooperation finds more and more expression in the effective solution of the problem of combining mutual efforts of partners.
Usually, three forms, or models, of organizing joint activities are distinguished:
- each participant does his part of the common work independently of the other;
- the common task is performed sequentially by each participant;
- there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others. Their real existence depends on the conditions of activity, its goals and content.
At the same time, common aspirations of people can lead to clashes in the process of coordinating positions. As a result, people enter into a "agree-disagree" relationship with each other. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. At the same time, the distribution of roles and functions between the participants in the interaction is carried out. These relations cause a special orientation of volitional efforts among the subjects of interaction, which is associated either with concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to display mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other volitional qualities of a person, based on intelligence and a high level of personality.
At the same time, at this time, the interaction of people is actively accompanied or mediated by the manifestation of complex socio-psychological phenomena, called compatibility - incompatibility (or synergy - non-response). As interpersonal relationships and communication are specific forms of interaction, so compatibility and workability are considered its special constituent elements (Obozov N.N., 1980). Interpersonal relationships in a group and compatibility (physiological and psychological) of its members give rise to another important socio-psychological phenomenon, which is commonly called the "psychological climate."
Psychophysiological compatibility is based on the interaction of the characteristics of temperament, the needs of individuals.
Psychological compatibility involves the interaction of characters, intellects, motives of behavior.
Socio-psychological compatibility provides for the coordination of social roles, interests, value orientations of the participants.
Socio-ideological compatibility is based on the commonality of ideological values, on the similarity of social attitudes (in intensity and direction) regarding possible facts of reality associated with the implementation of ethnic, class and confessional interests. There are no clear boundaries between these types of compatibility, while the extreme levels of compatibility, for example, physiological, socio-psychological and socio-ideological climate, have obvious differences (Obozov N.N., 1980).
In joint activities, control by the participants themselves is noticeably intensified (self-control, self-examination, mutual control, mutual verification), which affects the performing part of the activity, including the speed and accuracy of individual and joint actions.
At the same time, it should be remembered that the engine of interaction and joint activity is, first of all, the motivation of its participants. There are several types of social motives of interaction (i.e. the motives for which a person interacts with other people).
Cooperation - to maximize the total gain.
Individualism - maximizing your own gain.
Competition - maximizing the relative gain.
Altruism - maximizing the gain of another.
Aggression - minimizing the gain of another.
Equality-minimization of differences in payoffs (Bityanova M.R., 2001).
The mutual control over each other carried out by the participants in joint activities can lead to a revision of the individual motives of activity, if there are significant differences in their orientation and level, as a result of which individual people begin to coordinate.
In the course of this process, there is a constant coordination of thoughts, feelings, relationships of partners in joint life. It is clothed in various forms of people's influence on each other. Some of them encourage the partner to take action (order, request, proposal), others authorize the actions of partners (consent or refusal), and still others call for discussion (question, reasoning). The very same discussion can take the form of coverage, conversation, dispute, conference, seminar and a whole range of other types of interpersonal contacts.
However, the choice of forms of influence is often dictated by the functional-role relationships of partners in joint work. For example, the supervisory function of a leader encourages him to use orders, requests, and authorizing responses more often, while the pedagogical function of the same leader requires more frequent use of discussion forms of interaction. Thus, the process of mutual influence of interaction partners is realized. Through it, people "process" each other, seeking to change and transform mental states, attitudes and, ultimately, the behavior and psychological qualities of partners in joint activities.
Mutual influence as a change in opinions and assessments can be situational when circumstances require it. As a result of repeated changes in opinions and assessments, their stability is formed, the convergence of positions leads to the behavioral, emotional and cognitive unity of the participants in the interaction. This, in turn, leads to a convergence of interests and value orientations, intellectual and characterological characteristics of partners.
Under their influence, opinions and relations of interaction partners change. Regulators of mutual influence are formed on the basis of a deep property of the psyche - imitation. Unlike the latter, suggestion, conformity, and persuasion regulate interpersonal norms of thought and feeling.
Suggestion is such an influence on other people that they perceive unconsciously.
Conformity is a conscious change in opinions, assessments. Situationally and consciously, conformity allows us to maintain and harmonize ideas (norms) about the events taking place in the life and activities of people. Of course, events have varying degrees of significance for those who are forced to evaluate them.
Persuasion is a process of long-term influence on another person, during which he consciously learns the norms and rules of behavior of interaction partners.
The convergence or change in mutual points of view and opinions affects all areas and levels of interacting people. In the context of solving specific current tasks of life and activity, and especially communication, their convergence-divergence is a kind of regulator of interpersonal interaction. If the convergence of assessments and opinions forms a single "language", group norms of relations, behavior and activity, then their divergence acts as the driving force behind the development of interpersonal relationships and groups.
The final stage (highest level) of interaction is always an extremely effective joint activity of people, accompanied by mutual understanding. Mutual understanding of people is such a level of their interaction at which they are aware of the content and structure of the present and possible next action of the partner, and also mutually contribute to the achievement of a common goal. For mutual understanding, joint activities are not enough, mutual assistance is needed. It excludes its antipode - mutual opposition, with the appearance of which there is a misunderstanding, and then a misunderstanding of a person by a person. At the same time, mutual misunderstanding is one of the essential prerequisites for the disintegration of human interaction or the cause of a wide variety of interpersonal difficulties, etc.
An essential characteristic of mutual understanding is always its adequacy. It depends on a number of factors:
- the type of relationship between partners (relationships of acquaintance and friendship, friendship, love and marriage);
- comradely (essentially business relations);
- sign or valence of relations (likes, dislikes, indifferent relations);
- the degree of possible objectification, the manifestation of personality traits in the behavior and activities of people (sociability, for example, is most easily observed in the process of communication interaction).
In adequacy, as accuracy, depth and breadth of perception and interpretation, the opinion, assessment of other more or less significant people, groups, authority figures play an important role.
For a correct analysis of mutual understanding, two factors can be correlated - sociometric status and the degree of similarity based on it. In this case, it is necessary to take into account:
- Persons with different socio-psychological statuses in the team interact (make friends) with each other steadily;
- reject each other, i.e. experiencing interpersonal rejection, heifers who are similar in status and their status is not high enough.
Thus, interaction is a complex multi-stage and multifaceted process, during which communication, perception, relationships, mutual influence and mutual understanding of people are carried out.
Interaction, as already emphasized, is diverse. Its typology is also an indicator of this.
Usually there are several ways of interaction. The most common dichotomous division is cooperation and competition (agreement and conflict, adaptation and opposition). In this case, both the content of the interaction itself (cooperation or rivalry) and the severity of this interaction (successful or less successful cooperation) determine the nature of interpersonal relations between people.
Additional interaction - partners adequately perceive each other's position.
Overlapping interaction - partners, on the one hand, demonstrate an inadequate understanding of the positions and actions of another participant in the interaction, and on the other, they clearly demonstrate their own intentions and actions.
Latent interaction - includes two levels at the same time: explicit, expressed verbally, and hidden, implied. It presupposes either a deep knowledge of the partner, or a great sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication - tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, since it is they that convey hidden content.
Interaction is always present in the form of two components:
Content - determines around what or about what this or that interaction unfolds.
Style - indicates how a person interacts with others.
You can talk about productive and unproductive interaction styles. A productive style is a fruitful way of contact between partners, contributing to the establishment and extension of relationships of mutual trust, the disclosure of personal potentials and the achievement of effective results in joint activities.
In other cases, having exhausted the resources of adaptation available to them, having achieved some balance and trust at the first stages of the development of interaction, people cannot maintain effective relationships. In both cases, they talk about an unproductive style of interaction - an unproductive way of contact between partners, blocking the realization of personal potentials and the achievement of optimal results of joint activities.
The unproductiveness of the interaction style is usually understood as a specific embodiment in a situation of interaction of an unfavorable state of the existing system of relations, which is perceived and realized as such by at least one of the participants in the interaction.
The nature of the activity in the position of partners:
- in a productive style - "next to a partner", ie active position of both partners as accomplices in the activity;
- in the unproductive - “above the partner”, that is. the active position of the leading partner and the complementary passive position of subordination of the follower.
The nature of the goals put forward:
- in a productive style - partners jointly develop both near and distant goals;
- in unproductive - the dominant partner puts forward only close goals, without discussing them with the partner.
Nature of responsibility:
- in a productive style, all participants in the interaction are responsible for the results of the activity;
- in unproductive - all responsibility is assigned to the dominant partner.
The nature of the relationship arising between partners:
- in a productive style - benevolence and trust;
- in the unproductive - aggression, resentment, irritation.
The nature of the functioning of the mechanism and isolation:
- in a productive style - optimal forms of identification and alienation;
- in unproductive - extreme forms of identification and alienation.
People are mysterious creatures. They do not come with an instruction manual, and there are much more problems with them than with a new version of Windows. You never know what to expect from them! If you have problems communicating with people, acquaintances and strangers, wikiHow will back you up. Start with Step 1 to get to a happy, hassle-free communication.
Steps
Part 1
Removing obstacles-
Practice. Like any other skill (social interaction is also a skill), you can improve it with practice. Practice your social skills as often as possible. You can start by talking with your family or even with strangers, such as salespeople or bank clerks.
Part 2
Starting a conversationPart 3
Take your chancePart 4
Effective interaction- "What is said three times is always true." You cannot show false emotions three times if you have not felt anything. Smile at people even if you're having a bad day. At first, the smile will seem taut, but very soon you will realize that you are feeling better. On the other hand, you shouldn't show anger or sadness if you don't feel these emotions. Stay away from feigned negative emotions. You will get a dose of empathy or intimidation, which is not worth it.
- By nature, people are quite good-natured creatures. You perceive the emotions of others through speech and posture. Everything that surrounds us affects our mood, and you, in turn, affect the mood of the people around us. Try to make smiling a habit. Get out of bed in a cheerful mood instead of shuffling and sighing. Enjoy your surroundings. Even if she is familiar to you painfully, there is always something that will surprise you and bring pleasure from contemplation.
Warnings
- Don't go overboard. Small snippets of positive communication and people's perception of your words are great. Suddenly trying to pull a stranger into a conversation can seem awkward, nervous, and awkward. The boundaries of what is permissible are laid down at the level of instincts - do not overstep them.
- Always be ready for elegant grooming. Even a conversation with the best intentions can be spoiled by the people around you.
Determine the reasons for your indecision. Why don't you find a common language with people? Maybe you are communicating with people, but you feel like you are doing it wrong? If you are able to identify the problem, being aware of it will help you deal with it. Until then, try the following tips.
Fight your fear of communication. For many people, communication is stressful. If you are afraid to talk to people, you need to deal with your anxiety first.
Believe in yourself. If you are afraid that your attempt to make friends will end in failure, or that you will only give people trouble, it will be difficult for you to communicate with others. Believe in yourself and you will see that communication becomes more and more simple for you.
Raise your self-esteem. If you take the time to think that no one wants to talk to you because everyone is so much better than you, you are missing out on the wonderful world of communication! Take the time to understand what a wonderful person, and you will see the world differently.
Rest assured. Lack of self-confidence makes it difficult to communicate with people, often because others notice your insecurity and become nervous. Develop self-confidence, or at least learn to pretend to be confident so that others will like you.
An enterprise as an independent subject of the economy can function successfully only in interaction with a large number of other socio-economic and natural objects. This is primarily due to the main purpose of the enterprise as a manufacturer of products to meet social needs, as well as the fact that the enterprise uses the means of labor, objects of labor and labor itself as resources, attracting them from outside.
Some of the objects interacting with the enterprise are located entirely outside the enterprise, some intersect with this enterprise, and some can be considered as being inside the enterprise. This should not be surprising or confusing to the idea of the enterprise. The fact is that the same objects can sometimes be viewed in different spaces. So, a citizen for whom this enterprise acts as the main place of work and who, on the one hand, must be considered as part of the enterprise, obey its internal regulations and traditions, is, on the other hand, an independent subject of society, has in this capacity his rights and responsibilities supported by general civil institutions.
What are the types of relationships between the enterprise and other objects, the composition of these objects and their role in the activities of the enterprise? The answer to this question determines the policy of the enterprise, the direction of enterprise reform and, ultimately, the choice of the desired institutional structure of the economy as a whole.
The various interactions of an enterprise with other objects can be divided into three groups:
¦ network interactions realized in the form of relatively stable flows in commodity and financial networks between specific economic entities or their companies;
- environmental - interactions with the socio-economic environment, i.e. indefinite and / or not constant set of addressees;
- social - the relationship between the enterprise and individual citizens or limited social groups.
Before moving on to the main subject of this chapter - the analysis of enterprise network interactions, let us dwell briefly on its environmental and social interactions.
Let's start with the interaction of the enterprise with the surrounding socio-economic environment. On the one hand, the activities of enterprises are influenced by the regulatory and, more broadly, the entire institutional environment of a given state. In addition, such factors of the macroeconomic environment as the prevailing trends of general economic growth (recession), the range of unemployment, the dynamics of the purchasing power of the ruble, the state of the natural environment, the business and investment climate, the propensity of the population to save and invest in corporate securities, society's attitude to work are significant. , the degree of conflict or goodwill in society, adherence to moral values, discipline, the level and degree of independence and maturity of thinking of individuals, their political involvement and engagement, other characteristics of public consciousness, etc. This influence is carried out both through people who are employees, buyers or investors of the enterprise, and through other factors of production (quality, delivery, compliance with contract discipline, etc.).
On the other hand, there is also an inverse influence of the enterprise (as an institution) on the macroeconomic characteristics of the environment. These characteristics are made up of indicators of macroeconomic condition, institutional structure and economic policy. It is clear, on the one hand, that many characteristics of macroeconomic processes, such as the volume of GDP, industrial production, prices, employment, etc., are direct functions (aggregates) of indicators of the state of micro-objects - enterprises. On the other hand, the macroeconomic policy of any more or less democratic state is determined by the public conscience of its citizens (depending on the degree of democratization of society - the leaders of the state or broader strata). In turn, this consciousness depends on the level of intellectual development of the population, its social responsibility, the ability to make a sustainable choice of goals of activity and purposeful actions to implement them, independence in the formation of political views, along with the willingness to constructive cooperation with differences in political views and other psychological factors.
Moving on to the social functions of the enterprise (we note that functions and interactions are concepts of the same order, since each function is a steady stream of relationships between this object and others), which have already been partially touched upon when considering the environmental influence of the enterprise, we note that in conditions of sharp social turns, social instability, an enterprise as an institution serves as a kind of "island of stability" in a changing world (it is no coincidence that one of the English terms for an enterprise "firm" also has the meaning of "solid", "stable"). In conditions of serious social upheaval, it is the enterprise that plays the role of a kind of “refuge” for the majority of people with a normal (not marginal) social status. It is not so much a matter of remuneration, which is associated with work at the enterprise, but rather a sense of belonging to the work collective. Having lost, together with the work of the collective, the environment, a person (especially brought up in the conditions of the pre-perestroika period) acutely feels alienation and loneliness. In fact, the possibility of self-realization in work, as well as self-esteem through respect from the team, express fundamental needs and human rights. The traditions and ideals of individualism, which help the unemployed to survive in the Western world, do not have sufficient strength in Russia. (Note in this regard that at this stage in the development of Russian society, unemployment should be opposed not only to the provision of any job or unemployment benefit, but to the inclusion of a person who has lost his job and an able-bodied individual in the team of a really operating enterprise, taking into account the fact that not every enterprise is suitable for any employee.)
In the pre-reform period, significant efforts of the society were directed at fostering respect for “working people”, in particular, for workers in the sphere of material production. Let's pay attention to the fact that it was about labor as a process. Recently, this assessment has given way to a different set of relations: admiration mixed with envy for "people of the result," that is, to people with money. As a result, true respect as the primary recognition of the objective social significance of a person has practically disappeared, which complicates the adoption and implementation of socially agreed decisions, leads to an unjustified confrontation of “all against all”. Now urgent measures are needed to increase the prestige of an industrial worker, to instill in society respect for production as an activity and for the people who carry it out. This should not be done by diminishing respect for other professions, but by rebalancing.
An important role in this process should be played by interactions between employers and employees of the enterprise, which represent a kind of model of relationships in society. In the Western literature on management, two alternative approaches to the relationship between the worker and the enterprise are distinguished. The first of them was called "philosophy of the contract", the second - "philosophy of fate." According to the first approach, the only link between the employee and the firm is the contract. What is beyond its (and, of course, general legislation) limits, is insignificant and not subject to implementation. According to the second approach, the employee and the company are connected not so much by a contract as by a common destiny. The future of the company depends on the actions of the employee, and the future of the employee depends on the prosperity of the company. The contract itself plays a subordinate role, establishing only the fact of hiring. American enterprises, with their clear instructions to staff and limited relationships with staff and management, are commonly seen as examples of the first approach. An example of the second approach is provided by Japanese enterprises, where the uncertainty of instructions to personnel is more than compensated for by horizontal mutual understanding (sometimes wordless), moral responsibility, and a sense of the team.
In our opinion, none of these forms of social relations at an enterprise is characteristic of a typical domestic enterprise. Belonging to a collective is not regarded as “destiny”, ie. a long-term and irresistible circumstance, and the contract (and by both parties - both the employer and the employee) is not considered as a mandatory guide to action. For the relationship between an employee and an enterprise in Russian conditions, the most characteristic is a kind of “guest philosophy”. Its essence consists in the following features of the relationship in the triangle "employee - team - director":
- belonging to a given collective is (unlike the first model) an important factor for this period, but a temporary (unlike the second model) factor;
- the employee's obligations in relation to both the team and the management are similar to the relationship of the participant of the feast to the audience and to the owner of the apartment: membership in a team does not impose unconditional obligations on the employee, but a respectful attitude should be shown on the part of the team; the manager is initially respected by the employee due to the status distribution of roles, but very quickly this distribution is erased, and the status ceases to be valid;
- in turn, the manager does not consider employees indispensable and allows actions that are contrary to the labor agreement (contract). However, in relation to the team as a whole, the director considers it inconvenient, without extreme need, to take actions that are clearly directed against the team.
However, neither the "guest philosophy" nor (to a large extent, the opposite) "host philosophy", which was talked about in enthusiastic tones at the beginning of perestroika, do not meet the requirements of modern production. In addition, they do not meet the norms of self-perception in the surrounding world inherent in a democratic and socially oriented society, and their reproduction through intra-firm relations makes it difficult to transition to a society of this type. The search for a concept of the relationship between an employee and an enterprise that best meets the peculiarities of the domestic mentality, national traditions and the urgent tasks facing Russian society should, in our opinion, be continued in a direction approaching the “philosophy of fate”. It seems that such an approach does not contradict the democratic foundations of society (we cannot talk about the administrative "attachment" of an employee to an enterprise), but strengthens the mutual responsibility of individuals and legal entities, contributes to the consolidation of society.
We now turn to the analysis of the network relationships of the enterprise with external objects. Enterprise network interactions can be classified depending on the nature of the network flow (material, financial, informational), the position of the object in the network (adjacent, connected through other objects) and "direction of traction" (supply and demand functions). Among the network addressees of enterprises are suppliers, buyers, enterprises - technological donors, enterprises - technological recipients, research and development organizations, authors of organizational and technological innovations, investors, financial institutions, tax authorities, etc. All these objects can be combined by the phrase “Persons interested in the activities of the enterprise”. In Western literature, this corresponds to the broader understanding of the term “stakeholders”.
From a network perspective, an enterprise can be viewed as one of the nodes of a multidimensional web that connects various institutional agents. These agents are linked by a variety of expectations, including expectations in relation to a given enterprise. These expectations sometimes take the form of proposals or demands; accordingly, the enterprise also expects from other entities the manifestation of demand for products or securities, supply of factors, etc. It is essential that all relationships between the enterprise and its stakeholders are mutual. Almost any enterprise, having barely appeared, finds itself in the focus of numerous expectations on the part of various economic actors (in relation to the Horns and Hooves enterprise, this phenomenon is vividly described in the Golden Calf by I. Ilf and E. Petrov). For structures of mutual expectations, the walls of the enterprise are not an obstacle: individual subsystems and employees of the enterprise also associate their expectations with external objects and act as addressees of their expectations. Sometimes these expectations are formulated explicitly (say, on the part of the employee when hiring), sometimes they are latent in nature (again, recall the true, but secret from the outside eye, the reason for the creation of "Horns and Hooves").
In the strategic plan, two configurations of expectations arise: one reflects the expectations of agents directed towards and within the enterprise, the other reflects the expectations of the enterprise from the relevant actors. At the same time, the degree of closeness of external and internal expectations largely determines the fate and success of the enterprise.
There is reason to believe that expectations themselves in relations between entities play a more significant role in the Russian economy than in the economies of many other countries. Exaggerated expectations are inherent in the psychological characteristics of a Russian person in general and an entrepreneur in particular (recall the concept of "maybe" - essentially overestimated expectations from nature, a successful combination of circumstances: the desired behavior of people; traditional "idealism" of Russian classical literature and its good characters; the famous "first get involved in a fight .... ", hopes for the" king-father ", etc.). If in Western theoretical literature the concept of “rational expectations” is viewed as a natural extrapolation of predictable tendential changes, then the Russian mentality is more likely to be characterized by unreasonably high “irrational expectations” addressed both to oneself and to external circumstances. The presence of unjustified expectations of support of the enterprise by the state, city administration, etc. was repeatedly noted in surveys of directors of enterprises; in some cases, the concept of expectations is used to explain the preservation of redundant staff of enterprises by directors.
What is the composition of the multitude of socio-economic agents most closely associated with this enterprise?
Among the external network objects of enterprise expectations are suppliers, buyers, enterprises - technological recipients and donors, research and development organizations, authors of organizational and technological innovations, investors, financial and credit institutions, tax authorities, etc. this list and "roofs" - criminal formations that provide the same criminal, and sometimes economic, security of enterprises). The subjects of expectations are the demand for the company's products, the supply of factors of production and services, new technologies, investments, etc. Table 2 lists the economic agents most closely related to the enterprise, as well as the expectations connecting the enterprise with these agents or their groups. The list of stakeholders includes conditionally the given enterprise itself, which also makes certain target requirements (expressed in the form of expectations) to the course and results of its activities. In general, they can be characterized as the presence at each moment of time of the potential that ensures the future functioning of the enterprise. At the same time, the concept of potential includes (with certain priorities) both the assets of the enterprise and the positive characteristics of its market position, accumulated experience, etc.
table 2
Mutual expectations of the enterprise and various economic actors
| Economic entities and their groups | Expectations of the entity (group of entities) towards the enterprise | Expectations experienced by the enterprise in relation to the subject (group of subjects) |
| 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Population and its separate groups (real, potential and former employees of the enterprise, members of their families, owners, innovators, owners of funds, other citizens, society as a whole) | Employment Livelihood Opportunity for self-realization in the labor process Opportunity for self-realization in a team Respect from the team Material and moral support in emergency situations Receiving income from funds invested in this enterprise Demand for organizational and technological innovations Taking into account the interests of society | Attracting labor force Demand for goods and services of the enterprise Supply of innovations Attraction of funds from the population through securities Employee dedication to corporate interests Recognition of the social value of the enterprise Emergency support |
| Other enterprises (real and potential partners, competitors, owners, owners of new technologies, free financial and other resources) | Demand for goods and services of another enterprise Attracting personnel who have gained experience in this enterprise Receiving income from funds invested in this enterprise Demand for new technologies from another enterprise | Demand for goods and services of this enterprise Attracting personnel who have gained experience in another enterprise Receiving income from funds invested in another enterprise Demand for new technologies of this enterprise |
| Banks | Banking demand | Deposit and settlement and credit services |
| Research and development organizations | R&D demand | R&D proposal |
| 2 | 3 | |
| Educational establishments | Demand for graduates | Offer specialists |
| Tax authorities | Timely payment of taxes | Providing tax incentives and deferrals |
| This enterprise | Creation and expansion of the socio-economic potential for the development of the enterprise Consolidation and improvement of technological skills, transfer of production experience | Creation and expansion of the socio-economic potential for the development of the enterprise Consolidation and improvement of technological skills, transfer of production experience |
| Federal and local executive and legislative authorities | Ensuring sufficient tax revenues for the formation of federal and local budgets | Budgetary financing of the enterprise Creation and maintenance of external conditions of the enterprise |
| Federal sectoral regulatory bodies | Implementation of the sectoral policy of the state | Information support Coordination with other industries |
We see that the company is in the focus of the expectations of numerous agents (the list of which goes far beyond the suppliers of resources and consumers of the company's products) and itself imposes significant expectations on these agents. At the same time, the network functions of enterprises generate not only flows of material and financial resources, but also flows of mutual obligations and responsibilities that enterprises generate and support, thereby ensuring the integrity of the country as an economic and social complex. These streams of obligations and responsibilities, transmitted through the management of enterprises to their labor collectives, are actively involved in the formation of civil society.
An example of this impact is the recent “non-payment crisis”. It is no coincidence that this phenomenon and the economic recession coexist in time. In this case, non-payments should not
interpreted as a result of a recession. On the contrary, non-payment is one of the powerful drivers of the economic downturn. The payments crisis itself is a manifestation of a decline in social responsibility and a deconsolidation of society. The “regressive chain” of cause and effect is as follows:
- the state disclaims responsibility for the economic condition of the country (“leaves the economy”);
- enterprises disclaim responsibility for fulfilling obligations to consumers and suppliers;
- a payments crisis is developing; there is a chain reaction of the spread of barter and other non-payment means of transactions;
- the opportunity to invest in reproduction processes is lost; there is a "consumption" of the production apparatus;
- long-term prerequisites for an economic recession are being created.
Table 2, the relationship of the enterprise with a number of the most closely related objects was presented. However, it should be borne in mind that these objects themselves are in a certain relationship with each other. To reflect this picture is more adequate than tab. 2, the scheme of “cross expectations” proposed below looks like. This model can be represented using the so-called inter-object "balance of expectations" - a square table of the "checkerboard" type, the set of rows and columns of which is the same and corresponds to the set of names of the enterprise's counterparties, including the enterprise itself (at number 1), its management and collective (in principle, it makes sense to include even every employee in such a scheme, but this would require significantly more space). In the off-diagonal cells of the table, the agent's expectations of the row corresponding to this cell are placed, presented to the agent of the column corresponding to this cell. In particular, in the cells of the first column, starting from the second, the expectations of each of the subjects for the enterprise are placed. In the cells of the first line, also starting from the second cell, the enterprise's expectations for the corresponding subject are placed. Since the relationship between socio-economic actors is usually asymmetric, the expectations of the subjects addressed to each other usually do not coincide, although they can be formulated using similar terms, the matrix is also not symmetrical. The content of the diagonal cells is “the subject's expectations of himself,” that is, in essence - the goals or attitudes towards the realization of which the subject seeks. Below is a fragment of the table, which reflects not so much the very expectations of economic entities relative to each other, but the main problems associated with the violation of mutual expectations of the enterprise and its counterparties. In our opinion, it is these problems that serve as the primary basis for the unfavorable state of intersubject exchanges, and, in essence, of the economy as a whole.
If we fix the composition of economic objects of various levels, then the set of real economic problems facing various economic entities can (to some extent conditionally) be divided into the following groups: internal problems of functioning (creation, liquidation) of a given entity, i.e. problems, the occurrence of which is mainly associated with the interaction of the internal parts and elements of the subject and the consideration of which requires priority consideration of the integrity of the given object; an example of an internal problem of an enterprise is effective management, taking into account the peculiarities of modern conditions; external problems of a binary type, i.e. problems, the essence of which is mainly related to the relationship between two economic or social actors; an example of such a problem is the violation of expectations related to the fulfillment of obligations assumed by the buyer or seller; external problems of the n-ary (multilateral) type (n gt; 2), i.e. problems of relationships between three or more subjects; for example, issues of education, management and sustainability of financial and industrial groups. \ "
Table 3 shows a fragment of an attempt at such a structuring in relation to the problems of the enterprise. The header and the side of the table represent (the same thing!) The set of social and economic objects that are most important in the context of the analysis of enterprise expectations, and at the intersection of the column and row, the problems that arise in the course of realizing these expectations are recorded. The list of stakeholders and their groups does not include a number of agents significant for the enterprise, both inside (the head of the enterprise, members of the board of directors, etc.) and outside the enterprise (banks, regional administration, federal bodies, etc. Not in the table and various intermediary elements important for the analysis of the institutional role of the enterprise, whose role in the economy is becoming more and more significant.
| N p / p | Economic subjects and subsystems | This company | Industry- consumer | Industry- postavayik | This branch | Participants stock market, shareholders | Team enterprises | Management enterprises |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
| 1 | This company | Goals, problems and strategy of the enterprise | Demand. Payment discipline Vertical integration Marketing. Awareness of the enterprise about the market | Contract discipline. Quality (raw materials, equipment) Prices. Payment terms | Horizon tal integration Competition | Liquidity shares enterprises. Investments. Participation of shareholders in management | Tseo production capacity labor. Labor discipline | Management Objectives Qualification management Discipline management |
| 2 | Industry- consumer | Contract discipline. Quality (of products). Manufacturer, intermediary prices | Intra-industry coordination problems. Commodity competition Price fixing | Interindustry flows Interindustry balance | Interindustry financial flows of goods. Industry vertical integration | Quotation shares | Solidar ness labor collectives | Corruption management enterprises |
| 3 | Industry - post-peak | Demand. Financial condition enterprises Payment GBV discipline Prices Investments, | Interindustry flows. Interindustry balance | G ^ jubilees sectoral coordinating tion. Sales competition. Pricing politics | Interindustry financial flows of goods. Industry vertical integration | Quotes shares, secondary emission | Solidar ness labor collectives | Corruption management enterprises |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
| capital construction | ||||||||
| 4 | This branch | Intra-industry coordination and competition issues | Interindustry flows. Interindustry balance. Cross-sectoral integration | Cross-sectoral flows Cross-sectoral balance Cross-sectoral integration | Problems of the functioning and development of this industry | Quotes shares, secondary emission | Sectoral trade union movement | Horizontal grouping of managers |
| 5 | Participants stock market, shareholders | Dividends Participation of shareholders in management | Demand Payment discipline | Contract discipline Quality (raw materials, equipment) Prices. Payment terms | Support quotes shares enterprises industries | Corporate stock market problems. Stock liquidity | Labor productivity Labor discipline Shareholder participation in management | Interests and goals management |
| 6 | Team enterprise tiya | Employment. Fair and timely payment | Demand Payment discipline. Vertical integration | Contract discipline Quality (raw materials, equipment). Tsans. Payment terms | Industry trade union traffic | Liquidity shares | Internal Problems collective | Accounting and protection interests collective Promotion cadres |
| 7 | Management enterprises | Payment system labor managers Perspectives growth | Demand Payment discipline Vertical integration | Contract discipline Quality (raw materials, equipment) Prices Terms of payment | Industry grouping managers | Liquidity shares enterprises Investments. Participation of shareholders in management | Manage bridge collective | Social status and provision of managers |
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The use of such a two-dimensional "chess" model (Table 3), in contrast to the one-dimensional model (Table 2), makes it possible to introduce and study the concepts of "direct", "indirect" and "complete" relationships, analogous to the corresponding concepts used in the analysis of the input-output balance or , in a more general form, in Leontiev's open input-output model. In projection on the "strategic" plane, the elements of Table. 3 form the basis of the so-called strategic configuration, the components of which must be taken into account when analyzing the strategic potential and strategy of the enterprise. Using the table. 3 also allows you to build an enterprise strategy based on a comprehensive coverage of possible reactions to strategic decisions and, in fact, to draw up "strategic routes" that determine the sequence of management of the main strategic factors.
As you can see from the table. 2 and 3, the system of mutual expectations (MSS), in principle, imposes requirements on almost every enterprise to take into account the interests and needs of a very significant number of entities, which makes the search and adoption of effective strategic decisions on internal and external management issues rather difficult. The structure of the distribution of power and management between the board of directors, the board of directors and the meeting of shareholders existing at Russian enterprises in the form of joint-stock companies does not meet the objectives of creating a balance of interests and in fact supports, as has been noted more than once, the power of a very limited circle of the executive directorate. If so, then management decisions have a corresponding imprint. Empirical analysis supports this conclusion.
So, as we have seen, almost every actor in the economy is in the focus of expectations from other actors and their groups, and he himself experiences expectations regarding their behavior, possible reactions to certain factors, including their own actions. It is the system of mutual expectations, together with the system of interests, and not the institution of "public institutions" in itself, that serve as the basis for the formation (and, accordingly, explanation) of the behavior of economic agents.
Considering the CBO in more detail, one can make sure that each element of this system is characterized by:
- subject of expectation, i.e. a person (by a fixed group or an indefinite set of persons) experiencing this type of expectation;
- waiting object, i.e. a person (a group, an indefinite set of persons or the state of the environment) from whom the subject expects certain actions or other changes in the state;
- subject of expectations, i.e. the expected state or actions of the waiting object;
- the degree of confidence of the subject of expectation in the realization of the object of hope; -
- probable time of fulfillment of expectations (waiting lag);
- the sensitivity of the target (that is, the subject of interest) behavior or state of the object of expectations in relation to certain factors, including the actions of the subject of expectations (elasticity of expectations with respect to factors).
Network and environment expectations differ depending on the type of object. If the object of expectations is a specific person or group of persons (they can be identified spatially or functionally), then we should talk about network expectations. If the object of expectations is natural, unpredictable or unknown phenomena related to changes in the environment of the subject's functioning, then such expectations refer to environmental ones.
Another very important characteristic of the subject of expectations between economic agents, on which it is necessary to dwell in more detail. It is about the degree of rationality of expectations.
In economic theory, two types of expectations are best known, depending on their formation: adaptive and rational (see, for example,). Adaptive is understood as expectations formed by the subject on the basis of previous expectations, taking into account their correction by the already known value of the error of the previous forecast. Rational expectations, on the contrary, are based on a comprehensive consideration of both past and future information, in particular, the policy of regulating that fragment of the economy, the state of which is or affects the subject of expectations. The "rationality" of expectations is expressed here in the fact that the subject does not a priori reject any source of information and takes it into account in accordance with its reliability and significance.
Later, it was proposed to consider irrational expectations, i.e. expectations formed on the basis of fundamentally incomplete information, more precisely, information from which a significant part of the decision-maker is deliberately excluded. For example, if you know many cases when a given company or bank did not fulfill its obligations to customers, then hopes that in the case when you plan to become a client, deception will not occur, should be attributed to irrational. “Closing one's eyes” to possible and unfavorable outcomes for a given subject means being in captivity of irrational expectations.
To form more operational definitions, it would be desirable to further clarify the concepts of rational and irrational expectations, linking them with the concepts of rational and irrational behavior of economic agents.
Recall that a subject's behavior is considered rational, in which, in each decision-making situation, he makes the best choice from the point of view of achieving a certain goal from his available opportunities. To what extent does the assumption about the rationality of the behavior of economic agents correspond to reality? Can the expectation that this or that subject will act rationally be considered rational? In our opinion, expectations of this sort cannot be classified as rational.
The fact is that in economic reality the rationality of the behavior of real subjects is often violated (according to some opinions, it rarely occurs in reality at all and should be considered exclusively as a scientific abstraction, see, for example,). The reasons are primarily rooted in the characteristics of the behavioral psychology of economic agents. At the same time, the point here is not only the incompleteness of the information available to the subject and the limited possibilities for its processing, as G. Simon believes. Even assuming the presence of complete and easily processed information by the subject, we can state at least five possible psychological factors that can disrupt the rationality of decision-making and behavior of the subject.
- Unwillingness and / or unwillingness to understand and formulate a target setting in a situation of choice (“aversion to goal-setting”).
- Unwillingness to make a choice or indecision in making a choice as an action whose consequences cannot be reversed ("aversion to irreversible choice").
- Unwillingness to remain within the known set of acceptable alternatives ("aversion to boundaries").
- Difficulty comparing alternatives (“aversion to rating activity”).
- Unwillingness to settle for the best option ("aversion to extremism").
All these psychological factors (to varying degrees inherent in various subjects, but in the aggregate covering by their action, apparently, the overwhelming majority of them) force us to think that expectations should be considered rational, assuming only the relative rationality of the behavior of partners.
Before introducing the corresponding concept more rigorously, let us recall the concept of bounded rationality of behavior. Limited rationality presupposes a choice, if not the best, which may be either unattainable due to insufficient informational support of the choice, or undesirable due to the need for too high transaction costs for analysis, selection of options and implementation of the choice, which is one of the "satisfactory" ones, i.e. close enough in one sense or another to the best of the options.
Note that both concepts - rationality and limited rationality of behavior - are, as is easy to see, static in nature. In other words, only the situation of choice itself is considered, while the preceding and subsequent situations are not included in the scope of consideration. It makes sense to introduce another version of the concept of rationality of behavior, directly related to the dynamic, evolutionary-institutional approach to economic phenomena and processes. Procedurally rational is understood as such behavior of the subject in which the choice is made in accordance with some easily memorized and applicable rules, learned and enshrined in the previous experience of the individual.
Procedural rationality, in principle, does not reject the possibility of choosing the best or even the worst option, but considers extreme - worst and best - options to be unlikely objects of choice. The point is that, as a rule, extreme options are unstable, are not self-sustaining and are not fixed during the formation of “routines” - long-term stable decision-making procedures. In biological terms, such choices do not produce “offspring” and are not reproduced with the further development of the system. This circumstance, intuitively felt by many, makes some middle options more natural, giving hope for sustainability. It should also be taken into account that the choice of extreme options is sometimes too expensive for the subject choosing them, since the implementation of such options requires a reorientation of the existing mechanism of functioning, efforts to coordinate agents, information costs, justification of the decision, etc. At the same time, "passionate", i.e. subjects endowed with increased energy, prone to extremist actions, sometimes demonstrate the choice and implementation of extreme options. Going beyond the natural choice occurs only when the formation of "evolutionary precedents" - decisions deliberately aimed at a sustainable change in the prevailing trends.
If we recognize the procedural rationality of the choice in the most realistic way of behavior, then the rational in relation to the partner should be considered those expectations that imply his procedural-rational behavior.
As already noted, not all expectations are covered by the rational framework. However, abandoning rational expectations can be costly for an economic agent. If we assume that all options for a partner's actions are equally possible (low expectations), then for full and effective protection against any negative consequences of his actions, very high costs are required (for collecting information, protecting, drafting and controlling the terms of contracts, etc.). Likewise, failure to take into account the possibilities of opportunistic behavior (overestimated expectations) may require high costs to eliminate negative consequences for a given subject. Thus, the rationality of expectations is, in a sense, the cheapest economic policy.
If we are talking about environmental expectations, then, since the change in the states of the environment has no target orientation, they can be compared only by the “degree of favorableness” for a given subject. Assessing the future state of the environment in conditions of uncertainty, he focuses on one or another degree of favorable outcomes. Simplifying the picture, we can talk about the minimum, average or maximum favorable state of the environment for a given subject. Under these conditions, the rationality of the subject of expectations is manifested in the fact that it presupposes a certain average (but not minimum and not maximum!) Level of favorableness of the future state of the environment.
Thus, rational expectations are associated with the hope for procedural-rational behavior of partners and the refusal to focus on the combination of uncertain factors that is best for the subject of expectations. On the contrary, expectations calculated a priori for extreme or irrational behavior of partners should be considered irrational.
As examples of subjects prone to irrational expectations, one can cite Manilov and Sobakevich - in some sense polar characters in the story "Dead Souls" by N.V. Gogol. If Manilov (in accordance with his name) demonstrates overestimated and overly optimistic expectations, Sobakevich, on the contrary, has an extremely negative attitude towards all the citizens of the city known to him, and his expectations are obviously underestimated.
The degree of an enterprise's confidence in the object's realization of the expectations addressed to it fluctuates depending on the counterparty from the minimum level to complete confidence (often such expectations turn out to be unjustified).
The lag of expectations in the activities of enterprises in relation to external objects usually does not exceed a year, in relation to internal ones - it is of a longer-term nature. (For the same reason that most of the external contracts of an enterprise are specific and short-term in nature, and the majority of internal contracts are poorly specified and long-term.)
Expectations are one of the most powerful factors in the formation (note - and functioning) of the modern market. However, according to L, Myasnikova, this factor acts as an equal with the information factor, and if the latter acts through the consciousness of the economic agent, then the first - through the subconscious. It seems to us that both of these factors act both on a conscious and subconscious level, and expectations determine the need for one or another information, while information, in turn, influences the formation and correction of expectations. The relationship between CBO and the information field is about the same as between knowledge and data. Expectations determine the channels for receiving data, and those, in turn, after going through a certain process and a period of accumulation, form new waiting channels.
Expectations form not a motive of behavior (this function is performed by interests), but only the context of the appearance of a particular motive, i.e. environment and restrictions on the formation of behavioral motives.
Speaking about the subject of expectations, which constitute the basis of SVO, it can be noted that for the most part the subject of expectations is not so much the reaction of this or that economic entity to certain factors, including the behavior of the expectant subject itself, as the boundaries, the limiting characteristics of such a reaction. ... The system of mutual expectations is violated if the behavior goes beyond the intended boundaries. It is important to understand that in this case, violation of the SVO within one binary connection can cause a chain reaction of violations (as an example, let us recall the chain reaction of disappointed expectations from the well-known poem by E. Yevtushenko "This is what is happening to me ..."). Therefore, in a normal environment, the NWO is supported by a powerful institutional apparatus that ensures its sustainability. In the conditions of the economic crisis, the NWO is undergoing severe tests.
Finally, it should be said that the system of mutual expectations should not at all be perceived as a kind of Procrustean bed of the economy, limiting the initiatives of economic agents. Rather, it can be compared to a network of roads that are built in difficult terrain and facilitate movement. You can get off the road, but then movement will slow down and become costly. V.M. Polterovich gives an example of the formation of an institutional norm, considering the behavior of a group of motorcyclists in uninhabited, but equipped with roads terrain. Some motorcyclists prefer left-hand traffic, some - right-hand traffic. After the initial chaos, a balance should be established on the basis of the formation of traffic rules (which ones exactly depends on the predominance of “left-” or “right-sided” motorcyclists or on a random confluence of factors that caused the next accident and / or determined its impact on motorcyclists). At the same time, each participant in the movement expects from others to follow this norm, and violation of these expectations by at least one motorist can be not only fatal for him and other participants in the movement, but also destructive for the entire considered SVO. Therefore, the usually inherent weak stability of the NWO is compensated by appropriate institutional measures: laws and regulators appear to monitor their observance.
Generally speaking, the following pattern takes place: the weaker the system of mutual expectations, the stronger must be the institutional structure required to maintain the stable development of society.
An essential part of the system of mutual expectations is, as mentioned above, the system of mutual trust (MTS). In essence, the trust of one economic entity in relation to another represents the expectation of the latter's conscientious (neo-opportunistic) behavior in a situation where the first entity voluntarily made the achievement of its interests dependent on the actions of the second entity (for example, transferred its funds to trust). There is no need to dwell in detail on the role of trust in the system of economic relations in a market economy. Investors' trust in recipient structures, citizens - to the heads of the state, employees of enterprises - to their directors and other aspects of the influence of the "trust factor" on the economy are discussed in detail in the work. In this work, B.Z. Milner rightly notes that "building trust between economic partners is a direct way to reduce aggregate social costs." At the same time, "it takes a lot of time and substantial evidence of sincerity of intentions, good faith of actions, the legality of the steps and decisions taken to gain trust," while "trust can quickly be replaced by distrust even with minor failures." Thus, the system of mutual trust as part of the system of mutual expectations (by the way, far beyond the subsystem of rational mutual expectations) is a very fragile and at the same time costly structure for society, so it should be handled with extreme caution. Unfortunately, in practice, social and economic policy at all levels of management - from the enterprise to the state as a whole - does not take into account the need to maintain and strengthen the system of mutual trust of market agents and the system of mutual expectations based on mutual trust.
Interaction - these are the actions of individuals directed towards each other. Such an action can be viewed as a set of methods used by a person to achieve certain goals - solving practical problems or realizing values.
There are two main levels of research on social interaction: the micro level and the macro level.
The interaction of people with each other, in pairs, in small groups or interpersonal interaction is studied in microlevel.
The macrolevel of social interactions includes large social structures, the main institutions of society: religion, family, economy.
Social life arises and develops due to the presence of dependencies between people, which creates the prerequisites for the interaction of people with each other. People interact because they depend on each other.Social connection- this is the dependence of people, realized through social action, carried out with an orientation towards other people, with the expectation of an appropriate response from the partner. In social connection, one can distinguish:
subjects of communication(two people or thousands of people);
subject of communication(about what the connection is being made);
relationship regulation mechanism.
Termination of communication can occur when the subject of communication is changed or lost, or when the participants in communication do not agree with the principles of its regulation. Social connection can act as social contact(the connection between people is superficial, fleeting, a contact partner can be easily replaced by another person) and in the form interactions(systematic, regular actions of partners, directed at each other, with the goal of causing a well-defined response from the partner, and the response generates a new response of the influencing person).
Social relationships is a stable system of interaction between partners, which has a self-renewing character.
Contact situation two or more people can take different forms: 1) simple co-presence; 2) exchange of information; 3) joint activities; 4) equal mutual or asymmetric activity, and the activity can be of different types: social influence, cooperation, rivalry, manipulation, conflict and dr.
Interpersonal relationships and interactions
People have the strongest the need to connect: to get in with other peoplev long-term closerelationships guaranteeingpositive experiences and results.
This need, due to biological and social reasons, contributes to human survival: v our ancestors were tied by mutual responsibility, which ensured group survival (both in the hunt and in the construction of dwellings, ten hands are better than one);
The social cohesion of children and the adults raising them mutually increases their vitality;
Having found a kindred spirit - a person who supports us and whom we can trust, we feel happy, protected, resilient;
Having lost a soul mate, adults feel jealousy, loneliness, despair, pain, anger, isolation v yourself, deprivation.
Man is in fact a social, social being, living in conditions of interaction and communication with people.
Various forms of interpersonal interaction can be distinguished: attachment, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, operation, play, social influence, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc.
Various forms of human interaction are characterized by specific positions.
Ritual interaction- one of the common forms of interaction, which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the statue of a person in a group and society. Victor Turner, considering rituals and ceremonies, understands them as prescribed formal behavior, as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association." Ritual actions
are important for the implementation of continuity between different generations in a particular organization, for the maintenance of traditions and the transfer of accumulated experience through symbols. Ritual interaction is both a kind of holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful means of maintaining stability, strength, continuity of social ties, a mechanism for bringing people together, increasing their solidarity. Rituals, ceremonies, customs are able to be imprinted on the subconscious level of people, providing a deep penetration of certain values into group and individual consciousness, into ancestral and personal memory.
Over the course of its history, mankind has developed a huge variety of rituals: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic receptions, military rituals, secular rituals, including holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous norms of behavior: receiving guests, greeting friends, addressing strangers, etc.
Competition- a form of social interaction in which there is a clearly defined goal that must be achieved, all actions of various people are correlated with each other, taking into account this goal in such a way that they do not come into conflict; at the same time, the person himself does not come into conflict with himself, adhering to the attitude of the other team player, but nevertheless, the person has a desire to achieve better results than other team members.
Care - quite common and natural shape interaction, but still more often people with problems in the field of interpersonal needs resort to it. If a person has no other forms of interaction other than leaving, then this is already a pathology-psychosis.
The next type of approved fixed interactions is pastime, providing at least a minimum of pleasant sensations, signs of attention, "stroking" between interacting people.
"Friendship is the strongest antidote to all misfortunes," Seneca said.
Factors that contribute to the formation of attraction (affection, sympathy) :
Frequency of mutual social contacts, proximity, geographic proximity
Physical attractiveness
The phenomenon of "equal" (people tend to choose their friends and especially to marry those who are equal to them not only in terms of their intellectual level, but also in terms of their attractiveness).
Fromm wrote: "Often love is nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the parties to the transaction get the most of what they can count on, taking into account their value in the personal market."
In couples where the attractiveness was different, usually the less attractive has a compensating quality. "" Men usually offer status and seek attractiveness, while women are more likely to do the opposite. "
- the more attractive a person is, the more likely it is to attribute positive personal qualities to him (this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful is good; people unconsciously believe that, all other things being equal, the more beautiful are happier, sexier, more sociable, smarter and more successful, although not more honest or more caring in relation to other people. More attractive people have more prestigious jobs, earn more);
The attraction can be negatively affected by the "contrast effect" - for example, men who have just looked at magazine beauties, ordinary women, v including own wives
- “Amplification effect” - when we find someone's traits that are similar to ours, it makes the person more attractive to us; the more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find each other
The similarity of social origin, the similarity of interests, views are important for the establishment of relations (“we love those who are similar to us and do the same as we do,” - pointed out Aristotle);
And for their continuation, complementarity, competence in a field close to our interests is necessary; we like those who like us;
If a person's self-esteem has been hurt by some previous situation, then he will more significantly like a new acquaintance who kindly pays attention to him.
Rewarding attractiveness theory: the theory that we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate events that are beneficial to us;
The principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: what you and your partner receive from your relationship should be proportional to what each of you invests in it.
If two or more people are connected by many things, a factor of intimacy is formed, if their ties improve, they do something pleasant for each other - sympathy is formed ; if they see dignity in each other, recognize the right for themselves and others to be as they are, - respect is formed .
friendship and love, satisfy people's need for acceptance. Friendship and love are outwardly similar to a pastime, however, there is always a clearly fixed partner in relation to whom sympathy is felt.
Friendship = sympathy + respect.
Love = sexual attraction + sympathy + respect;
Falling in love= sexual attraction + sympathy.
People can discuss any problems they want, even at a very adult and serious level, nevertheless, in every word and gesture they will see: "I like you." Some traits are characteristic of all friendship and love affections: mutual understanding, dedication, pleasure from being with a loved one, care, responsibility, intimate trust, self-disclosure (discovery of innermost thoughts and experiences in front of another person).
“What is a friend? This is the person with whom you dare to be yourself ”- F. Crane.
In connection with the problem of social influence, one should distinguish between conformity and suggestibility.
Conformity- a person's susceptibility to group pressure, a change in his behavior under the influence of other persons, a person's conscious compliance with the opinion of the majority of the group in order to avoid conflict with it.
Suggestibility, or suggestion,- involuntary compliance of a person with the opinion of other persons or a group (a person himself did not notice how his views and behavior have changed, this happens by itself, sincerely).
Distinguish:
a) internal personal conformity (assimilated conformal reaction) - the person's opinion really changes under the influence of the group, the person agrees that the group is right, and changes his initial opinion in accordance with the opinion of the group, subsequently showing the learned group opinion, behavior even in the absence of the group;
b) demonstrative agreement with the group for various reasons (most often, to avoid conflicts, troubles for oneself or loved ones, while maintaining one's own opinion in the depths of the soul - (external, public conformity).
If a person wants, seeks acceptance of himself by the group, he often yields to the group, and vice versa, if he does not value his group, then more boldly resists group pressure. Individuals with a higher status in the group (leaders) are able to quite strongly resist the opinion of the group, because leadership is associated with some deviations from group patterns. The most susceptible to group pressure are individuals with average status, people of the polar categories are more able to resist group pressure.
What is the reason for conformity? From the point of view of the informational approach (Festinger), a modern person cannot verify all the information that comes to him, and therefore relies on the opinion of other people, when it is shared by many. A person succumbs to group pressure because he wants to have a more accurate image of reality (most cannot be wrong). From the point of view of the hypothesis of "normative influence", a person succumbs to group pressure because he wants to have some of the advantages given by membership in a group, wants to avoid conflicts, avoid sanctions when deviating from the accepted norm, wants to support his further interaction with the group.
Excessively expressed conformism is a psychologically pernicious phenomenon: a person, like a "weathervane", follows a group opinion, having no views of his own, acting as a puppet in the hands of others; or a person realizes himself as a hypocritical opportunist, capable of repeatedly changing behavior and outwardly expressed beliefs in accordance with “from where the wind is blowing” at the moment, in order to please “the powers that be”. According to Western psychologists, many Soviet people are formed in the direction of such heightened conformism. The positive meaning of conformism lies in the fact that it acts: 1) as a mechanism for the rallying of human groups, human society; 2) the mechanism for the transfer of social inheritance, culture, traditions, social patterns of behavior, social attitudes.
Non-conformism acts as a refutation of the opinion of the majority by a person, as a protest of obedience, as an apparent independence of the individual from the opinion of the group, although in fact, here, the point of view of the majority is the basis for human behavior. Conformism and nonconformism are related personality traits, these are properties of positive or negative subordination to the group's influences on the personality, but subordination. Therefore, the behavior of the nonconformist is as easy to control as the behavior of the conformist.
Social interactions act as sociocultural: three processes occur simultaneously: interaction of norms, values, standards contained in the minds of a person and a group;interaction of specific people and groups; interaction of materialized values of social life.
Depending on the unifying values, one can distinguish:
"One-sided" groups based on one set of basic values (biosocial groups: racial, gender, age; sociocultural groups: genus, language group, religious group, trade union, political or scientific union);
"Multilateral" groups built around a combination of several series of values: family, community, nation, social class.
Merton defines a group as a set of people who interact with each other in a certain way, realize their belonging to this group and are perceived by its members from the point of view of other people. The group has its own identity from the point of view of outsiders.
Primarygroup consist of a small number of people, between whom stable emotional relationships are established, personal relationships based on their individual characteristics. Secondarygroup are formed from people between whom there are almost no emotional relationships, their interaction is due to the desire to achieve certain goals, their social roles, business relationships and communication methods are clearly defined. In critical and emergency situations
tions people give preference to the primary group, show loyalty to the members of the primary group.
People join groups for a number of reasons:
The group acts as a means of biological survival;
As a means of socialization and formation of the human psyche;
As a way of performing a certain work that cannot be done by one person (instrumental function of the group);
As a means of satisfying a person's need for communication, for an affectionate and benevolent attitude towards oneself, for gaining social approval, respect, recognition, trust (expressive function of the group);
As a means of weakening unpleasant feelings of fear, anxiety;
As a means of information, material and other exchange.
There are several varieties of groups: 1) conditional and real; 2) permanent and temporary; 3) large and small.
Conditionalgroup people are united on a certain basis (gender, age, profession, etc.).
Real persons included in such a group do not have direct interpersonal relationships, they may not know anything about each other, even never meet each other.
Real groups people who actually exist as communities in a certain space and time, are characterized by the fact that its members are linked by objective relationships. Real human groups differ in size, external and internal organization, purpose and social significance. The contact group brings together people who have common goals and interests in a particular area of life and activity.
Small group- this is a fairly stable association of people connected by mutual contacts.
A small group is a small group of people (from 3 to 15 people) who are united by common social activities, are in direct communication, contribute to the emergence of emotional relationships, the development of group norms and the development of group processes.
When there are more people, the group is usually divided into subgroups. Features mafirst group: spatial and temporal co-presence of people. This co-presence of people enables contacts that include interactive, informational, perceptual aspects of communication and interaction. Perceptual aspects allow a person perceive the individuality of all other people in a group; and only in this case can we speak of a small group.
I - Interaction - the activity of everyone, it is both a stimulus and a reaction to everyone else.
II- Availability constant goal joint activities.
III. Group presence organizing principle... It can be personified in one of the members of the group (in the leader, leader), or maybe not, but this does not mean that there is no organizing principle. Just v In this case, the leadership function is distributed among the members of the group and leadership is situationally specific (in a certain situation, a person who is more advanced in this area than others takes on the functions of a leader).
IV... Separation and differentiation of personal roles(division and cooperation of labor, power division, that is, the activity of group members is not homogeneous, they make their own, different contributions to joint activities, play different roles).
V. Emotional relationships between group members that affect group activity, can lead to the division of the group into subgroups, form the internal structure of interpersonal relations in the group.
Vi. Production specific group culture- norms, rules, standards of life, behavior that determine the expectations of group members in relation to each other and conditioning group dynamics.
These norms are the most important sign of group integrity.
Deviation from group standards, norms, as a rule, is allowed only to the leader.
The group has the following psychological characteristics: group interests, group needs, group opinions, group values, group norms, group goals.
The group has the following general patterns: 1) the group will inevitably be structured; 2) the group is developing (progress or regression, but dynamic processes occur in the group); 3) fluctuation, a change in the place of a person in a group can occur repeatedly.
According to psychological characteristics, there are: 1) groups membership; 2) reference group(reference), the norms and rules of which serve as a model for the individual.
Reference groups can be real or imagined, positive or negative, they may or may not coincide with membership, but they perform the functions of: 1) social comparison, since the reference group is a source of positive and negative patterns; 2) a normative function, since the reference group is a source of norms, rules, to which a person seeks to join.
By the nature and forms of organization of activities, the following levels of development of contact groups are distinguished.
Unorganized (nominal groups, conglomerates) or randomly organized groups (moviegoers, random members of excursion groups, etc.) are characterized by a voluntary temporary association of people on the basis of a similarity of interests or a community of space.
Association- a group in which relationships are mediated only by personally meaningful goals (a group of friends, acquaintances).
Cooperation- a group with a real operating organizational structure; interpersonal relationships are of a business nature, subordinate to the achievement of the required result in the performance of a specific task in a specific type of activity.
Corporation is a group united only by internal goals that do not go beyond its framework, striving to achieve its group goals at any cost, including at the expense of other groups. Sometimes the corporate spirit can take place in work or study groups, when the group takes on the characteristics of group selfishness.
Team- a time-stable organizational group of interacting people with specific management bodies, united by the goals of joint socially useful activities and the complex dynamics of formal (business) and informal relationships between group members.
The team leader (manager) needs to be familiar with these roles. These are: 1) a coordinator who is respected and knows how to work with people;
2) idea's generator, striving to get to the bottom of the truth, he is most often unable to translate his ideas into practice;
3) enthusiast, taking on a new business and inspiring others;
4) analyst controller, able to soberly evaluate the idea put forward. He is executive, but more often he shuns people;
5) profit seeker, interested in the outside of the matter. Performing and can be a good mediator between people, since he is usually the most popular member of the collective;
6) performer, who knows how to bring an idea to life, is capable of painstaking work, but often "drowns" in trifles;
7) hard worker, not seeking to take anyone's place;
8) grinder- it is necessary so as not to cross the last line.
Dynamic processes take place in the groups:
Pressure on group members to promote conformity and suggestibility;
Formation of social roles, distribution of group roles;
Change in activity of members: possible phenomena Facilitation- strengthening a person's energy in the presence of other people; phenomena inhibition- inhibition of behavior and activities under the influence of other people, deterioration of well-being and the results of a person's activity in a situation when other people are watching him;
Changing opinions, assessments, norms of behavior of group members: the phenomenon "Group normalization "- the formation of an averaged group standard-norm;
Phenomenon "Group polarization", "extrusion"- approximation of the general group opinion to some pole of the continuum of all group opinions, often a "shift to risk", when a group decision is more risky than a decision taken individually;
Competition as a kind of social interaction- a vivid example of social facilitation, improving the performance of people in the presence and comparison with each other. But social facilitation manifests itself when the personal efforts of each person can be assessed individually.
The strength of any team is its cohesion.
Largelythe cohesion of the team depends on the stage of its development, from the stage of maturity. Psychologists distinguish five such stages.
The first stage is called “lapping”. At this stage, people still look at each other, decide whether they are on the way with others, try to show their "I". Interaction takes place in the usual forms in the absence of collective creativity. The leader plays a decisive role in the cohesion of the group at this stage.
Second stage team development - "Conflict" - characterized by the fact that within its framework, clans and groupings are openly formed, disagreements are openly expressed, the strengths and weaknesses of individuals come out, personal relationships take on significance. A forceful struggle for leadership begins and the search for compromises between the warring parties begins. At this stage, opposition may arise between the leader and individual subordinates.
In the third stage - experimental stage - the potential of the team increases, but it often works in spurts, so there is a desire and interest to work better, using other methods and means.
At the fourth stage, the team gains experience of successful problem solving, to which they approach, with on the one hand, realistically, and on the other, creatively. Depending on the situation, the functions of a leader in such a team are transferred from one member to another, each of whom is proud of his belonging to it.
At the last - fifth - stages within the team formedstrong ties, people are accepted and appreciated, and personal differences between them are quickly resolved. Relationships are mostly informal, which allows them to demonstrate high performance and standards of behavior. Not all collectives reach the highest (4, 5) levels.
From the point of view of psychology interaction is a process of direct or indirect influence of people on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditioning and connection. It is causality that is the main feature of interaction, when each of the interacting parties acts as the cause of the other and as a consequence of the simultaneous reverse influence of the opposite side, which determines the development of objects and their structures. If a contradiction is found during interaction, then it acts as a source of self-movement and self-development of phenomena and processes.
In addition, interaction in psychology usually means not only the influence of people on each other, but also the direct organization of their joint actions,
Content Style
Productive Unproductive
relationships and communication.
establish contacts, connections, influence each other, carry out joint actions and experience mutual experiences.
In interaction, a person's attitude to another person is realized as to a subject who has his own world. The interaction of a person with a person in society is also the interaction of their inner worlds: the exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, influence on goals and needs, influence on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state. 1
Interpersonal interaction- these are accidental or deliberate, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections between two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes.
The main features
allowing the group to carry out activities common to its members.
Interaction is always present in the form of two components: content and style. Content interaction determines around what or about what this or that interaction unfolds. Style interaction indicates how a person interacts with others.
You can talk about productive and unproductive interaction styles. Productive style is a fruitful way of contact between partners, contributing to the establishment and extension of relationships of mutual trust, the disclosure of personal potentials and the achievement of effective results in joint activities. Unproductive style of interaction is an unproductive way of contact between partners, blocking the realization of personal potentials and the achievement of optimal results of joint activities.
Usually, there are five main criteria that allow you to correctly understand the style of interaction.
1. The nature of activity in the position of partners (in a productive style - "next to a partner", in an unproductive style - "above a partner").
2. The nature of the goals put forward (in a productive style - partners jointly develop both near and distant goals; in an unproductive one - the dominant partner puts forward only close goals without discussing them with a partner).
3. The nature of responsibility (in a productive style, all participants in the interaction are responsible for the results of activities; in a non-productive style, all responsibility is assigned to the dominant partner).
4. The nature of the relationship that arises between partners (in a productive style - benevolence and trust; in an unproductive style - aggression, resentment, irritation).
5. The nature of the functioning of the identification-isolation mechanism between partners.
The psyche of people is cognized and manifested in their relationships and communication. Relationships and communication are the most important forms of human existence. In their process, people
establish contacts, connections, influence each other, carry out joint actions and experience mutual experiences.
In interaction, a person's attitude to another person is realized as to a subject who has his own world. The interaction of a person with a person in society is also the interaction of their inner worlds: the exchange of thoughts, ideas, images, influence on goals and needs, influence on the assessments of another individual, his emotional state. ,
Interaction, moreover, can be thought of as a systematic, constant implementation of actions with the aim of eliciting an appropriate response from other people. Joint life and activity, in contrast to the individual, has at the same time more severe restrictions on any manifestations of the activity-passivity of individuals. This forces people to build and coordinate the images "I - he", "we - they", to coordinate efforts between them. In the course of real interaction, a person's adequate ideas about himself, other people, and their groups are also formed. The interaction of people is a leading factor in the regulation of their self-assessments and behavior in society.
Interaction is interpersonal and intergroup.
Interpersonal interaction - these are accidental or deliberate, private or public, long-term or short-term, verbal or non-verbal contacts and connections between two or more people, causing mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships and attitudes.
The main features of such interaction are:
The presence of a goal (object) external to the interacting individuals, the achievement of which involves mutual efforts;
Explication (availability) for outside observation and registration by other people;
Reflexive polysemy is the dependence of its perception on the conditions of implementation and the assessments of its participants.
Intergroup interaction - the process of direct or indirect influence of multiple subjects (objects) on each other, giving rise to their mutual conditionality and the peculiar nature of relations. Usually it takes place between entire groups (as well as their parts) and acts as an integrating (or destabilizing) factor in the development of society.
In addition to species, several types of interaction are usually distinguished. The most common is their division according to the productive focus: cooperation and competition. Cooperation - it is such an interaction in which its subjects reach a mutual agreement on the pursued goals and strive not to violate it while their interests coincide.
Competition- This is an interaction characterized by the achievement of individual or group goals and interests in a confrontation between people.
In both cases, both the type of interaction (cooperation or rivalry) and the severity of this interaction (successful or less successful cooperation) determine the nature of interpersonal relations between people.
In the process of implementing these types of interaction, as a rule, the following are manifested leading strategies behavior in interaction.
1. Cooperation aimed at the complete satisfaction of the participants in the interaction of their needs (the motive of either cooperation or competition is realized).
2. Counteraction, presupposing an orientation towards one's own goals without taking into account the goals of communication partners (individualism).
3. Compromise, realized in the private achievement of the goals of partners for the sake of conditional equality.
4. Compliance, which involves the sacrifice of one's own interests to achieve the goals of a partner (altruism).
5. Avoidance, which is withdrawal from contact, the loss of one's own goals in order to exclude the gain of the other.
The division into types can also be based on intentions and actions of people, which reflect their understanding of the communication situation. Then there are three types of interactions: additional, intersecting and hidden.
» Additional is called such an interaction in which partners adequately perceive each other's position. Intersecting - it is such an interaction in the process of which partners, on the one hand, demonstrate an inadequate understanding of the positions and actions of another participant in the interaction, and on the other hand, they clearly demonstrate their own intentions and actions. Hidden interaction includes simultaneously two levels: explicit, expressed verbally, and hidden, implied. It presupposes either a deep knowledge of the partner, or a great sensitivity to non-verbal means of communication - tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, since it is they that convey hidden content.
In its development, interaction goes through several stages (levels).
At its initial (lowest) level, interaction is the simplest primary contacts of people, when between them there is only a primary and very simplified - mutual or one-sided "physical" influence on each other in order to exchange information and communication, which, for specific reasons, can and not to achieve their goal, and therefore not to receive all-round development.
The main thing in the success of initial contacts is the acceptance or non-acceptance of each other by the interaction partners. Moreover, they do not constitute a simple sum of individuals, but are some completely new and specific formation of connections and relationships, which is regulated by real or imaginary (imagined) difference - similarity, similarity - the contrast of people involved in joint activity (practical or mental). Any contact usually begins with a specific-sensory perception of the external appearance, features of the activity and behavior of other people.
The congruence effect also plays an important role in the interaction at its initial stage. Congruence - confirmation of mutual role expectations, complete mutual understanding, a single resonant rhythm, consonance of the experiences of the participants in the contact. Congruence presupposes a minimum of mismatches in the key moments of the lines of behavior of the participants in the contact, the result of which is the release of tension, the emergence of trust and sympathy at the subconscious level.
At its average level of development, the process of human interaction is called productive joint activity. Here, the gradually developing active cooperation between them finds more and more expression in the effective solution of the problem of combining mutual efforts of partners.
Usually, three forms or models of organizing joint activities are distinguished:
1) each participant does his part of the common work independently of the other;
2) the general task is performed sequentially by each participant;
3) there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others.
At the same time, common aspirations of people can lead to clashes in the process of coordinating positions. As a result, people enter into a “agree-disagree” relationship with each other. In case of agreement, partners are involved in joint activities. In this case, there is a distribution of roles and functions between the participants in the interaction. These relations cause a special orientation of volitional efforts among the subjects of interaction. It is associated either with a concession or with the conquest of certain positions. Therefore, partners are required to display mutual tolerance, composure, perseverance, psychological mobility and other volitional qualities of the individual, based on intelligence and a high level of consciousness and self-awareness of the individual.
At this time, there is a constant coordination of thoughts, feelings, relations of partners in a joint life
activity. It is clothed in various forms of people's influence on each other. The mechanisms of suggestion, conformity and persuasion are the regulators of mutual influences, when, under the influence of the opinions and relations of one partner, the opinions and relations of the other partner change.
The highest level of interaction is always an extremely effective joint activity of people, accompanied by mutual understanding.
Mutual understanding of people is such a level of their interaction at which they are aware of the content and structure of the present and possible next action of the partner, and also mutually contribute to the achievement of a common goal. An essential characteristic of mutual understanding is always its adequacy. It depends on a number of factors: on the type of relationship between partners (relationships of acquaintance and friendship, friendship, love and marital relations), comradeship (essentially business relationships), on the sign or valence of the relationship (likes, dislikes, indifferent relationships); on the degree of possible objectification, the manifestation of personality traits in the behavior and activities of people (sociability, for example, is most easily observed in the process of interaction, communication).
For mutual understanding, joint activities are not enough, mutual assistance is needed. It excludes its antipode - mutual opposition, with the appearance of which there is a misunderstanding, and then a misunderstanding of a person by a person.
The phenomenon of social perception. In the course of interaction, people always initially perceive and evaluate each other. Social perception(social perception) - the process of perception and assessment of each other by people.
The features of social perception are:
The activity of the subject of social perception, which means that he (an individual, a group, etc.) is not passive and not indifferent to the perceived, as is the case with the perception of inanimate objects. Both the object and the subject of social perception of the
act on each other, strive to transform ideas about themselves in a favorable direction;
The integrity of the perceived, showing that the attention of the subject of social perception is focused primarily not on the moments of the generation of the image as a result of the reflection of the perceived reality, but on the semantic and evaluative interpretations of the object of perception;
The motivation of the subject of social perception, which indicates that the perception of social objects is characterized by a great fusion of his cognitive interests with emotional relations to the perceived, the obvious dependence of social perception on the motivational and semantic orientation of the perceiver.
Social perception usually manifests itself as:
Perception of members of the group of each other, members of another group;
A person's perception of himself, his group, an alien group;
Perception of a group of their person, members of another group;
A group's perception of another group (or groups).
Social Perception Process represents the activity of its subject (observer) to assess the external appearance, psychological characteristics, actions and deeds of the observed person or object, as a result of which the subject of social perception develops a specific attitude towards the observed and forms certain ideas about the possible behavior of specific people and groups.
Depending on these ideas, the subject of social perception predicts his own attitudes and behavior in various situations of interaction and communication with other people.
The most significant factors in how people perceive each other are:
Psychological sensitivity, which is an increased susceptibility to psychological
kim manifestations of the inner world of other people, attention to it, a steady desire and desire to understand it; ,
Knowledge of the possibilities, difficulties of perception of another person and ways of preventing the most probabilistic errors of perception, which is based on the personal qualities of interaction partners, their experience of relationships;
The skills and abilities of perception and observation, allowing people to quickly adapt to their conditions, make it possible to avoid difficulties in joint activities, prevent possible conflicts in interaction and communication.
The quality of perception is also due to such an important factor as conditions (situation), in which social perception is carried out. Among them: the distance that separates the communicators; the time during which the contacts last; the size of the room, illumination, air temperature in it, as well as the social background of communication (the presence or absence of other persons in addition to actively interacting partners). Group conditions also have an effect. A person belonging to a certain group, small or large, perceives other people under the influence of the characteristics of his group.
There are certain functions of social perception. These include: self-knowledge, knowledge of interaction partners, the function of establishing emotional relationships, organizing joint activities. They are usually realized through the mechanisms of stereotyping, identification, empathy, attraction, reflection and causal attribution.
The perception of other people is greatly influenced by the process of stereotyping. Under social stereotype is understood as a stable image or idea about any phenomena or people, characteristic of representatives of a particular social group. For a person who has mastered the stereotypes of his group, they perform the function of simplifying and reducing the process of perception of another person.
Stereotypes are a "rough adjustment" tool that allows a person to "save" psychological resources. They have their own "permitted" sphere of social application. For example, stereotypes are actively used in assessing a person's group national or professional affiliation.
Identification - it is a socio-psychological process of cognition by a person or a group of other people in the course of direct or indirect contacts with them, in which a comparison or comparison of the internal states or position of partners, as well as role models with their psychological and other characteristics, is carried out.
Identification, as opposed to narcissism, plays a huge role in a person's behavior and spiritual life. Its psychological meaning lies in expanding the range of experiences, in enriching the inner experience. It is known as the earliest appearance of emotional attachment to another person. On the other hand, identification often acts as an element of the psychological protection of people from objects and situations that cause fear, giving rise to anxiety and stress.
Empathy is emotional empathy for another person. Through emotional response, people learn about the inner state of others. Empathy is based on the ability to correctly imagine what is happening inside another person, what he is experiencing, how he evaluates the world around him. It is almost always interpreted not only as an active assessment by the subject of the experiences and feelings of a cognizing person, but also certainly as a positive attitude towards a partner.
Attraction is a form of cognition of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling towards him. In this case, the understanding of the interaction partner arises due to the appearance of attachment to him, a friendly or deeper intimate-personal relationship.
All other things being equal, people more easily accept the position of the person towards whom they experience an emotionally positive attitude.
Reflection - it is a mechanism of self-knowledge in the process of interaction, which is based on the ability of a person to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner. This is not just knowing or understanding a partner, but knowing how a partner understands me, a kind of doubled process of mirroring relationships with each other.
Causal attribution - mechanism of HHTepnpef ation of actions and feelings of another person (causal attribution - the desire to clarify the reasons for the behavior of the subject).
Research shows that each person has their own "favorite" schemes of causality, that is, the usual explanations for someone else's behavior:
People with personal attribution in any situation tend to find the culprit of what happened, attribute the cause of what happened to a specific person;
In the case of addiction to adverbial attribution, people tend to blame the circumstances first of all, without bothering to find a specific culprit;
With incentive attribution, a person sees the cause of what happened in the object to which the action was directed (the vase fell because it was not standing well) or in the victim himself (it is his own fault that he was hit by a car).
When studying the process of causal attribution, various patterns have been identified. For example, people most often attribute the cause of success to themselves, and failure to the circumstances. The nature of the attribution also depends on the degree of participation of a person in the event under discussion. The score will be different in cases if he was a participant (accomplice) or an observer. The general pattern is that as the significance of what happened, the subjects are inclined to move from adverbial and stimulus attribution to personal (that is, to look for the cause of what happened in the conscious actions of the individual).
General characteristics of human relationships
In the process of production and consumption of material goods, people enter into various kinds of relationships, which, as already mentioned, are based on their interaction with each other. In the course of such interaction, social relations arise. The nature and content of the latter are largely determined by the specifics and circumstances of the interaction itself, the goals pursued by specific people, as well as the place and role they occupy in society.
Public relations can be classified based on different criteria:
According to the form of manifestation, social relations are divided into economic (production), legal, ideological, political, moral, religious, aesthetic, etc .;
From the point of view of belonging to different subjects, they distinguish between national (interethnic), class and confessional, etc. relations;
Based on the analysis of the functioning of connections between people in society, we can talk about vertical and horizontal relations;
By the nature of the regulation, public relations are official and unofficial.
All types of social relations, in turn, permeate the psychological relations of people (relationships), that is, subjective connections that arise as a result of their actual interaction and are already accompanied by various emotional and other experiences (likes and dislikes) of the individuals participating in them. Psychological relationships are the living human fabric of any social relationship.
The difference between social and psychological relations is that the former by their nature, if I may say so, are "material", are the consequence of a certain property, social and other
the distribution of roles in society, and in most cases is taken for granted, are, in a sense, impersonal. In social relations, first of all, the essential features of social ties between the spheres of human activity, types of labor and communities are revealed.
Psychological relationships are the result of direct contacts between specific people endowed with certain characteristics, capable of expressing their likes and dislikes, realizing and experiencing them. They are saturated with emotions and feelings, that is, the experience and expression by individuals or groups of their attitude towards interaction with other specific people and groups.
Psychological relationships are completely personified, as they are purely personal in nature. Their content and specificity are filled, determined and depend on the specific people between whom they arise.
Attitude, thus, it is a socialized connection between the internal and external content of the human psyche, its connection with the surrounding reality and consciousness.
The subject-object and subject-subject relationships are not identical. So, common to one and the other connection is, for example, the activity (or severity) of the relationship, modality (positive, negative, neutral), breadth, stability, etc.
At the same time, a significant difference in relations within the framework of subject-object and subject-subject communication is the one-directionality and reciprocity of relations. Only if there is a reciprocity of relations is it possible to form a "aggregate fund" of general and new intersubjective education (thoughts, feelings, actions). When it is difficult to say where is ours and where is alien, both become ours.
Subject-subject relations are characterized by both constant reciprocity and variability, which is due to
V- G. Krysko
is caught by the activity of not only one of the parties, as is the case with subject-object relations, where stability depends more on the subject than on the object.
Subject-subject relations, moreover, include not only the relationship of a person with another person, but also the relationship to oneself, that is, self-relationship. In turn, subject-object relations are all relations of a person to reality, excluding relations between people and self-attitude.
The general criterion for dividing interpersonal relations (relationships) into types is attractiveness. The constituent elements of mutual attractiveness-unattractiveness include: likes-dislikes and attraction-repulsion.
Sympathy-antipathy represents the experienced satisfaction-dissatisfaction from real or mental contact with another person.
Attraction-repulsion there is a practical component to these experiences. Attraction-repulsion is mainly related to the person's need to be together, close. Attraction-repulsion is often, but not always, associated with the experience of likes and dislikes (the emotional component of interpersonal relationships). Such a contradiction arises in the case of the popularity of any person: "For some reason, she is drawn to her, without visible satisfaction to be together and close."
You can also talk about the following types of interpersonal relationships: relationships of acquaintance, friendship, companionship, friendship, love, spousal kinship, destructive relationships. This classification is based on several criteria: the depth of the relationship, the selectivity in the choice of partners, the function of the relationship.
The main criterion is measure, the depth of the involvement of the individual in the relationship. Different types of interpersonal relationships involve the inclusion in communication of certain levels of personality characteristics. The greatest inclusion of personality, right down to individual characteristics, occurs in friendly, marital relations. Relationship
I, acquaintances and friendships are limited to the inclusion in "■ interaction of predominantly species and socio-cultural personality traits."
The second criterion is the degree of selectivity in the choice of "partners for the relationship. Selectivity can be defined as the number of features that are significant for the establishment AND reproduction of a relationship. Relationships of friendship, marriage, love show the greatest selectivity, and acquaintance relationships are the least selective.
The third criterion is the difference in the functions of relations. Functions are understood as a range of tasks, issues that are solved in interpersonal relationships. The functions of relationships are manifested in the difference in their content, psychological meaning for partners.
In addition, each interpersonal relationship is characterized by a certain distance between partners, it presupposes one or another measure of participation of role cliches. The general pattern is as follows: as the relationship deepens (for example, friendship, marriage versus acquaintance), the distance decreases, the frequency of contacts increases, and role cliches are eliminated.
There is a certain dynamic in the development of relationships between people. Having begun to form and develop correctly, they largely depend on a number of factors: on the individuals themselves, on the conditions of the surrounding reality and social system, on the subsequent formation of contacts and the results of joint activities.
Initially tied contacts between people, representing the initial stage of the implementation of social ties between them, the primary act of social interaction. How they occur depends on the perception and assessment of each other by people. Based on primary contacts, perception and evaluation people to each other is a direct prerequisite for the emergence of communication and the development of relationships between them. In turn communication is the exchange of information and is the basis for the development of relationships between people. It allows you to achieve mutual understanding between individuals or negates the latter.
This is how the birth takes place relationship content between people, which consolidates socialized ties between them, contributes to the development of their productive joint activities. The efficiency of joint activities and mutual understanding depend on how this process takes place. In the final result, on this basis, stable relationship between people - the highest form of their social interaction. They give stability to social life in society, contribute to its development, facilitate the joint activity of individuals, give it stability and productivity,
Communication conceptv psychology
Communication - a complex multidimensional process of establishing and developing contacts and connections between people, generated by the needs of joint activities and including the exchange of information and the development of a unified strategy of interaction. Communication is usually included in the practical interaction of people (joint work, learning, team play, etc.) and provides planning, implementation and control of their activities.
If the relationship is defined through the concept of "communication", then communication is understood as a process of human-human interaction, carried out using the means of speech and non-speech influence and pursuing the goal of achieving changes in the cognitive, motivational, emotional and behavioral spheres of persons involved in communication. In the course of communication, its participants exchange not only their physical actions or products, the results of labor, but also thoughts, intentions, ideas, experiences, etc.
In everyday life, a person learns to communicate from childhood and masters its different types depending on the environment in which he lives, on the people with whom he interacts, and this happens spontaneously, on the basis of everyday experience. In most cases, this experience is not enough, for example, for mastering special professions (teacher,
and kter, announcer, investigator), and sometimes just for productive and civilized communication. For this reason, it is necessary to improve in the knowledge of its laws, the accumulation of skills and abilities, their accounting and use.
Each community of people has its own means of influence, which are used in various forms of collective life. They concentrate the socio-psychological content of the way of life. All this manifests itself in customs, traditions, rituals, rituals, holidays, dances, songs, legends, myths, in the visual, theatrical and musical arts, in fiction, cinema, radio and television. These peculiar mass forms of communication have a powerful potential for mutual influence of people. In the history of mankind, they have always served as a means of education, the inclusion of a person through communication in the spiritual atmosphere of life.
The human problem is the focus of all aspects of communication. Passion for only the instrumental side of communication can neutralize its spiritual (human) essence and lead to a simplified interpretation of communication as information and communication activity. With the inevitable scientific and analytical division of communication into its constituent elements, it is important not to lose a person in them as a spiritual and active force that transforms oneself and others in this process.
Communication usually manifests itself in the unity of its five sides: interpersonal, cognitive, communicative-informational, emotive and conative.
The interpersonal side communication reflects the interaction of a person with the immediate environment: with other people and those communities with which he is associated with his life.
The cognitive side communication allows you to answer questions about who the interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what you can expect from him, and many others related to the personality of the partner.
Communication and informational side is an exchange between people of different ideas,
ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc.
The emotive side communication is associated with the functioning of emotions and feelings, mood in personal contacts of partners.
Conative (behavioral) side communication serves the purpose of reconciling internal and external contradictions in the positions of partners.
Communication has certain functions.
1. The pragmatic function of communication reflects its need-motivational reasons and is implemented in the interaction of people in the process of joint activities. At the same time, communication itself is very often the most important need.
2. Formation and development function reflects the ability of communication to influence partners, developing and improving them in all respects. Communicating with other people, a person assimilates common human experience, historically established social norms, values, knowledge and methods of activity, and is also formed as a person. In general, communication can be defined as a universal reality in which mental processes, states and human behavior arise, exist and manifest themselves throughout life.
3. Confirmation function provides people with the opportunity to know, validate and validate themselves.
4. The function of uniting-separating people, on the one hand, through the establishment of contacts between them, it contributes to the transfer of the necessary information to each other and adjusts them to the implementation of common goals, intentions, tasks, thereby uniting them into a single Whole, and on the other hand, it can be the cause of differentiation and isolation of individuals as a result communication.
5. The function of organizing and maintaining interpersonal relationships serves the interests of establishing and maintaining sufficiently stable and productive ties, contacts and relationships between people in the interests of their joint activities.
6. Intrapersonal function communication is realized in a person's communication with himself (through internal or external speech, built according to the type of dialogue).
Communication is extremely versatile. It can be presented in its variety of species.
Distinguish between interpersonal and mass communication. Interpersonal communication associated with direct contacts of people in groups or pairs, constant in the composition of the participants. Mass communication- this is a set of direct contacts of strangers, as well as communication mediated by various types of media.
There are also interpersonal and role-based communication. In the first case, the participants in communication are specific individuals with specific individual qualities that are revealed in the course of communication and the organization of joint actions. In the case of role-based communication, its participants act as carriers of certain roles (buyer-seller, teacher-student, boss-subordinate). In role-based communication, a person loses a certain spontaneity of his behavior, since certain of his steps, actions are dictated by the role played. In the process of such communication, a person manifests himself not as an individuality, but as a certain social unit [performing certain functions.
Communication can also be confidential and conflicting. The first is distinguished by the fact that especially significant information is transmitted during its course. Trust is an essential feature of all types of communication, without which it is impossible to carry out negotiations, resolve intimate issues. Conflict communication is characterized by mutual opposition of people, expressions of displeasure and distrust.
Communication can be personal or business. Personal communication is an exchange of unofficial information. Business conversation - the process of interaction between people performing joint duties or involved in the same activity.
Finally, communication is direct and mediated. Direct (direct) communication is historically the first
a new form of communication between people. On its basis, in the later periods of the development of civilization, various types of mediated communication arise. Mediated communication - this interaction with the help of additional means (letters, audio and video equipment).
Communication is possible only with the help of sign systems. Distinguish between verbal means of communication (when oral and written speech is used as sign systems) and non-verbal means of communication, when non-verbal means of communication are used.
V verbal In communication, two types of speech are usually used: oral and written. Written speech is one that is taught in school and which is used to consider a sign of a person's education. Oral speech, which in a number of parameters differs from written speech, is not an illiterate written speech, but an independent speech with its own rules and even grammar.
Non-verbal means of communication are needed in order to regulate the course of the communication process, to create psychological contact between partners; to enrich the meanings conveyed by words, to guide the interpretation of the verbal text; express emotions and reflect the interpretation of the situation. These include the following means of communication.
1. Visual:
Kinesika - movement of arms, legs, head, torso;
Direction of sight and eye contact;
Eye expression;
Facial expression;
Pose (in particular, localization, changing poses relative to the verbal text;
Skin reactions (redness, sweating);
Distance (distance to the interlocutor, angle of rotation to him, personal space);
Aids to communication, including physique features (gender, age) and means of their transformation (clothing, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoo, mustache, beard, cigarette, etc.).
2. Acoustic (sound):
Paralinguistic, i.e. associated with speech (intonation, volume, timbre, tone, rhythm, pitch, speech pauses and their localization in the text);
Extra-linguistic, that is, not associated with speech (laughing, crying, coughing, sighing, gnashing of teeth, sniffing, etc.).
3. Tactile-kinesthetic (related to touch):
Physical impact (leading a blind person by the hand, contact dance, etc.);
Takeshika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).
4. Olfactory:
Pleasant and unpleasant smells of the environment;
Natural and artificial odors of a person, etc. Communication has its own structure and includes motives
vational-target, communication, interactive and perceptual components.
Motivational target component of communication. It is a system of motives and goals of communication. The motives of communication between members can be: a) the needs, interests of one person who takes the initiative in communication; b) the needs and interests of both communication partners, prompting them to get involved in communication; c) needs arising from jointly solved tasks. The ratio of communication motives ranges from complete coincidence to conflict. Accordingly, communication can be friendly or conflicting.
The main goals of communication can be: receiving or transmitting useful information, activating partners, relieving tension and managing joint actions, helping and influencing other people. The goals of the participants in communication may coincide or contradict, exclude each other. The nature of communication also depends on this.
Communication component of communication. In the narrow sense of the word, it is an exchange of information between communicating individuals. In the course of joint activities, as noted above, they exchange various opinions, interests, feelings, etc.
sets up a process of information exchange, which has the following features:
If information is only transmitted in cybernetic devices, then in the conditions of human communication it is not only transmitted, but also formed, refined, and developed;
In contrast to the simple "exchange of information" between two devices in human communication, it is combined with the relationship to each other;
The nature of the exchange of information between people is determined by the fact that through the system signs used in this case, partners can influence each other, influence the behavior of a partner;
Communicative influence as a result of information exchange is possible only when the person sending the information (communicator) and the person receiving it (recipient) have a single or similar system of codification or decodification. In ordinary language, this means that people "speak the same language."
Interactive communication component. It consists in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also influences, mutual motives, actions. Interaction can take the form of cooperation or competition, agreement or conflict, adaptation or opposition, association or dissociation.
The perceptual component of communication. It manifests itself in the perception of each other by communication partners, mutual study and assessment of each other. This is due to the perception of the external appearance, actions, actions of a person and their interpretation. Mutual social perception during communication is very subjective, which is also manifested in the not always correct understanding of the goals of the communication partner, his motives, relationships, attitudes towards interaction, etc.
An important role in communication is played by its communicative component, on which it is necessary to dwell especially. Communication - it is a connection during which it carries out
Xia exchange of information between people in the course of interpersonal relationships. It has a number of specific features.
1. Cash relationship between two individuals, each of whom is an active subject. At the same time, their mutual informing presupposes the establishment of joint activities. The specificity of human exchange of information lies in the special role for each participant in the communication of this or that information, its significance.
2. Possibility of mutual influence of partners on each other through a system of signs.
3. Communicative influence only in the presence of a single or similar system of codification and decodification of the communicator and the recipient.
4. Possibility of communication barriers. In this case, the connection that exists between communication and attitude clearly stands out.
Information as such can be of two types: incentive and ascertaining. Incentive information manifests itself in the form of an order, advice or request. It is designed to stimulate some kind of action. Stimulation, in turn, is subdivided into activation (motivation to act in a given direction), interdict (prohibition of unwanted activities) and destabilization (mismatch or violation of certain autonomous forms of behavior or activity). Establishing information manifests itself in the form of a message and does not imply an immediate change in behavior.
The dissemination of information in society passes through a kind of filter of trust-distrust. Such a filter acts in such a way that true information may not be received, and false information may be received. In addition, there are means to facilitate the acceptance of information. and attenuating filters. The combination of these means is called fascination ^ An example of fascination can be musical, spatial or color accompaniment of speech.
The model of the communicative process usually includes five elements: communicator - message (text) - channel - audience (recipient) - feedback.
the main goal information exchange in communication - the development of a common meaning, a unified point of view and agreement about various situations or problems. It is characterized by feedback mechanism. The content of this mechanism is that in interpersonal communication the process of information exchange doubles as it were and, in addition to the content aspects, the information coming from the recipient to the communicator contains information about how the recipient perceives and evaluates the behavior of the communicator.
In the process of communication, the participants in communication are faced with the task of not only exchanging information, but also achieving its adequate understanding by partners. That is, in interpersonal communication, the interpretation of the message coming from the communicator to the recipient is highlighted as a special problem. Barriers can arise during communication. Communication barrier - it is a psychological obstacle to the adequate transfer of information between communication partners.