Consider all the main types and genres of journalism. For each I will give a definition and, as a supplement, I will provide some interesting examples. The entire classification will be according to Tertychny.
genre- This is a type of works of art characterized by certain plot and stylistic features. Let's just say it's a signal conditioning convention. The signals given by the author.
If, for example, we see that there is a novel genre, then we understand that there will be a fairly large amount of work. There will most likely be some kind of adventure and a rich plot.
If we see that there is a family saga, then we understand that there will be a story about the life of a family. There will be many storylines. If this is a comedy, then we'll be ready for some funny twists and turns.
That is, the genre itself gives us some clue about what to expect from a given work.
Genre is also an instrument ( form of work). Moreover, they can mix. And in fact, they rarely exist in pure form. It is much more difficult to find a report or note in its pure form than a certain mixture ( hybrid).
But in order to mix the genre, we must master each of them in their purest form. Only then can you experiment.
In this sense, genres still make it possible to evaluate works not from the point of view of artistic and literary value, but objectively. That is, the presence of certain signs in it.
Thus, we develop a criterion for evaluating the work. After all, it is a very thankless task to evaluate literary work by the type of whether you like it or not.
Genre system or types of journalism
Below you can see the classic system of genres or the main types of journalism:
- Information journalism
- Analytical journalism
- Artistic journalism
Each of the species has its own specific genres. Below we will look at them.
Information genres of journalism
In the genres of information journalism, we only provide information. We do not make assessments and do not try to somehow comprehend this event. We're just talking about him.
- The note
- Reportage
- Interview
- Information report
- Blitz survey
- Question answer
- Obituary
The note
Is a small informational message that contains regular news. A genre consists of a title, lead, and text.
Example note The headline can contain the main point of the note. A lead is a subheading. It contains a short description of the main text of the note. We answer the questions: what, where and when. When creating the main text, we answer the same questions, but in detail.
Informational correspondence is an object, phenomenon, single event or action. It may include a factual description of the subject ( what where When). And also some elements of the author's assessment, prescription or forecast.
Its purpose is to inform some of the surface parameters of the displayed phenomenon.
In fact, correspondence is close to reportage, but it never is. After all, the author is never present at the scene. You can feel it in the text.
Reportage
The genre of reportage arises as a result of the extensive application of the observation method and careful recording in its results.
Reporting example The author of this genre always tries to create the effect of presence by describing some details, moods, surroundings, and so on. When we read a reportage, we get the impression that we are in the thick of things.
Information report
An informational report is distinguished by its dry presentation of information. Clericalism is often used. This genre always has a specific subject.
Information report Usually this is an event that takes place in the form of an exchange of information. For example, conferences, meetings, meetings or seminars.
If we see a dry description of a meeting or conference, then we immediately understand that this is an informational report.
Information interview
Formed in a question-and-answer style. In the material itself, there is always an informational reason. That is, because of what they are talking with this person.
Informational interview genre It can be seen that under the heading first there is an informational reason, then a question and an answer to it.
Blitz survey
In terms of the method of obtaining information, a blitz survey is a bit like an interview. The only difference is that in interviews many questions are asked to one person. And in a blitz survey, many people are asked the same question.
Such a survey is usually accompanied by photographs of those interviewed. The information is dedicated to a specific topic. The usual binding is also for informational purposes.
Blitz survey People of different genders, professions and ages are interviewed here. Actually, this is reported in the survey.
Obituary
The obituary indicates the death of a person, as well as brief information about him. But attention is also paid to the achievements of a person. What did he do, what value did he have in society, and so on.
An example of an obituary Analytical genres of journalism
- A comment
- Correspondence
- Article
- Journalistic investigation
- Analytical reports
- Analytical interview
- Analytical survey
- Conversation
- Sociological summary
- Application form
- Monitoring
- Rating
- Review
- Review
- Media Review
- Forecast
- Version
- Experiment
- Letter
- Confession
- Recommendation (advice)
- Analytical press release
Analytical interview
An analytical interview contains an analysis of the fact and answers the questions: why? how? what does it mean? etc.
Analytical interview The example first introduces a socially significant problem and then sets the tone for the analysis. Then comes the interview itself. It is devoted not so much to an informational issue as to the opinion of an expert in the stated problem.
Review
Contains critical reviews of works of fiction, science, art, and so on.
The goal is not just to highlight this information phenomenon. It is necessary to analyze its meaning or culture in the environment for which it came out. It can be a play, a movie, and so on.
Review The example states what will be analyzed and who will analyze. And then comes the analysis ( review).
Article
It is the main analytical genre. There is an in-depth analysis of actual, socially significant processes, situations, phenomena and the laws governing them.
Article The analytics of the subject is designed so that readers can continue to reflect on the questions of interest to them.
Types of article:
- General research- the author can talk about the directions of political and economic development of the country. Or he may reason about the levels of morality. Analysis is often based on major problems.
- Tactical and analytical- they are based on actual, practical problems. For example, industry, agriculture, entrepreneurship, and so on. That is, there are already minor problems.
- Polemic Is a response to an already published article. These can be some kind of political opponents, art critics who hold a different position.
Tactical and analytical article Analytical report
The subjects of use of the analytical report are various reports, conferences, meetings, and so on. It shows the interconnection of conclusions, assessments in the speeches of the speakers and an assessment of the performance of the participants in the event.
Analytical report This is a kind of report-explanation or assessment of the cause, problem or some kind of process.
A comment
With the help, you can express your attitude to various events, create problems and tasks related to it.
Commentary as a genre of journalism In this genre of journalism, there is always an analysis of some phenomenon, great attention is paid to the main facts, their assessment and forecast of the event are given. The output must be present.
Analytical correspondence clarifies the causes of an event or phenomenon. Determines their value, gives a forecast of development, and so on.
Analytical correspondence Journalistic investigation
Investigative journalism includes elements of article, correspondence and reportage. The subject is a socially significant topic.
Journalistic investigation The reasons and perpetrators of this event are determined. There is a search for a solution to the problem. The author is directly involved in the investigation. Thanks to this, his audience is also at the center of the story.
A comparison of the facts is revealed, evidence is studied, the perpetrators are being searched for, and so on.
Analytical survey
An analytical survey is very similar to an informational survey in the form of an answer to a question. The only thing in this genre there are elements of analytics. After all, the author also asks such questions as: what is the reason, how to explain it, why, and so on.
Analytical survey example Very often this genre is used in socio-political and business publications.
Conversation
A conversation is similar to an interview. The difference is that the author can not only ask questions, but also build the content of the future text himself. This genre is good to use when the topic is not immediately susceptible to interpretation.
Sample conversation Sociological summary
The sociological summary contains brief summaries of various social studies. The author can comment on these research data and publish them in different order.
Sociological summary Application form
The questionnaire is very good at helping journalists in collecting a variety of information. When questioning, many questions are asked for a wide range of people. The result is a kind of publication with certain features.
Application form Monitoring
Monitoring is tracking a phenomenon and measuring certain of its parameters. The subject is the specific characteristics of a given phenomenon.
Monitoring Rating
Example of a simple rating This genre is very often used in various fields of activity. This can be the rating of politicians, business companies, athletes, musicians, and so on.
Review
The review clearly highlights the thoughts of the observer and public events. The observer generates interest in his audience, tells her about various events.
In this genre, certain events are observed with their subsequent analysis.
Media Review
The media reviews study information and summarize the results of various literary publications, television and radio programs. Topics discussed by the press may be considered. The author can inform about what other publications are publishing.
Forecast
Forecast Version
The version consists of incomplete evidence. There are no specific conclusions here. Only the research method in the form of conjectures and inventions is observed.
Version Experiment
An experiment in journalism is carried out for any reason. Here we are talking about a substantive and practical situation specially organized by the journalist.
Experiment Letter
A letter to the media is a simpler form of publication. Sometimes publications publish readers' letters to diversify the material.
This creates different opinions about certain situations. In addition, it helps readers feel their contribution to the development of the publication itself.
Letter Readers' letters can be addressed to specific individuals, groups or people in the country.
Confession
The subject of confession is the inner world of the author. Here he explains some deed, shares his experience, gives examples for overcoming trouble.
Confession Recommendation ( advice) - this information, which contains ways to solve certain problems. Typically, this genre of journalism is published as a manual. Here the author explains why you need to do this and what it will give.
Example recommendation Analytical press release
An analytical press release tells about the merits of a company or specialist. The qualities and merits for a public audience are analyzed.
Sometimes there is various evidence that this company can successfully solve certain problems in society. Examples of successful activities are given as arguments.
Analytical press release Artistic and journalistic genres of journalism
In artistic and journalistic genres of journalism, texts differ in that they have more means of expression. We no longer seek only to provide information. We can put it in some pretty shape:
- Reflections
- Observations
- Nice description and so on
- Feature article
- Feuilleton
- Pamphlet
- Parody
- Satirical commentary
- Everyday history
- Legend
- Epitaph
- Speaker
Feature article
The essay is considered the king of artistic and journalistic genres. In terms of preparation and writing, this is the most difficult genre.
Journalism genre essay The essay is based on reportage (visual-figurative) and research (analytical) principles.
Moreover, the development of this reporting principle is perceived as the predominance of the artistic method. At that time, the author's emphasis on the analysis of the subject of the image, the identification of its interrelationships appears as the dominance of the research, theoretical method.
Portrait sketch
The subject of a portrait sketch is personality. Moreover, the character of the hero is given in some non-trivial situations. The trick is to show an ordinary person under unusual circumstances.
Portrait sketch In the example, the news item comes first. Then comes the description. It describes various situations where the personality traits of the hero are highlighted. Kindness, help, and so on.
This is the essence of the portrait sketch. Show how an ordinary person changes the fate of others.
Problematic essay
The subject of a problem essay is a problem situation. This also occurs in analytical genres. Therefore, such an essay is often confused with an article.
The development of a problem in an essay is never presented naked. That is, they do not show it through some kind of statistical data, expert comments, diagrams, reports, and so on.
The problematic situation in this essay is presented through a series of images that are interconnected. It can be a certain person in a problem situation. The development of this situation is shown through him. They are trying to find ways to solve this situation.
Travel sketch
Travel essay is close to travel journalism (travel). It is based on some kind of adventurous plot or unusual adventure. Here is a description of the trip, trip or business trip.
Essay
It is a controversial genre. After all, it is dominated by analytical and journalistic features. Therefore, it can be defined either to artistic and journalistic genres, or to analytical ones.
Example essay as a genre of journalism The example is creating a carefully crafted image.
Speaker
Many speakers do not belong to the genre. They think it's just a spot on the strip. Yes, this is a third of a page of vertically arranged material under one authorship. It is believed that any genre can be within this strip.
But some believe that this is still a separate genre. This place is usually posted by the same person. So he is this genre-forming feature.
Feuilleton
The feuilleton laughed at a certain evil. The genre is not very popular and very difficult. Many feuilletonists make mistakes here. You should try to write in a clear and understandable language for the reader. Otherwise, such publications will simply go unnoticed.
Feuilleton Pamphlet
The pamphlet is ridiculed of various human vices and the humiliation of the evil hero. As a rule, this is small information of a political nature. That is, they ridicule various politicians and officials.
Pamphlet Parody
A parody is an imitation or imitation of someone. For example, ridicule and imitation of the actions of a certain person. The creative manner of certain artists, the behavior of certain politicians, and so on may be ridiculed.
An example of parody in journalism Satirical commentary
In the satirical commentary, there is a ridicule of the phenomenon that attracted the author. Very often, various ridiculous actions of officials, politicians or stars are ridiculed. As a rule, their actions can cause a public outcry.
There may also be an informational occasion. For example, discussing what people say. First, the statement of some person is published, and then there is the author's comment about this information.
Satirical commentary Everyday history
The difference from a mini-story is that there is a completeness and richness of information. Various stories from people's lives are described here. For example, their actions or certain situations.
Everyday history Legend
The legend uses fiction. But it can also contain a real historical fact. A legend can be tied to a specific place, person, or event.
Legend example Epitaph
The epitaph tells about a deceased person. But the main focus is not on the death of a person, but on his dignity. Here comes a kind of assessment of the deceased person.
An example of an epitaph That's all!
Now you know what are the types and main genres in journalism. We also looked at their description and examples.
The theory of journalism, like any science, has its own laws and seeks to classify the material that it studies. If zoologists, for example, classify animals by classes, species and subspecies, and linguists sort out all the components of the language being studied, then experts in the theory of journalism analyze journalistic materials, combining them into groups by genre.
Practical journalists actively use many different genres in their work. Open any newspaper: you will find chronicles, notes, reports, interviews, articles, reviews, essays, and so on. At the same time, a person who has nothing to do with journalism can call any material an article or a note - as he is used to. But professionals should clearly recognize the signs of a particular genre in publications and in no case call a sketch, for example, an article. In the meantime, if you are not sure that you can correctly classify this or that text, it is better to call your works the neutral word "material".
A strict division by genre exists only in theory and, to a certain extent, in information materials. In general, genres are characterized by interpenetration, and in practice the boundaries between them are often blurred (especially in the so-called "tabloid" editions). It is clear that there cannot be an exact standard for journalistic material, otherwise the entire newspaper or magazine could be made by a computer. Nevertheless, journalists, especially beginners, are obliged to know what are the genres of journalism, what are the features of each of them and what is their difference. Just as a musician must first learn to play scales, as an abstract artist must be able to paint a realistic picture, so a journalist, before going on a "free flight", must learn to write in any genre.
Newspaper genres differ from each other by the method of literary presentation, style of presentation, composition, and even just the number of lines. They can be conditionally divided into three large groups: informational, analytical and artistic and journalistic (see diagram). Beginning journalists, first of all, should "get their hands on" information genres (by the way, they occupy at least half of the newspaper's space), so we will focus on them.
The main purpose of the information material, be it newspaper, radio or television, - report a fact(in daily editions and issues, the "fresh" fact - news is put at the forefront). A fact is as important to journalism as a person is to anatomy. This is the basis of the foundations, journalism is unthinkable without facts.
Different ways of reporting facts and lead to the creation of different genres. Let's see how a fact is presented in specific information genres.
CHRONICLE - fact without details. Small (sometimes one or two phrases) messages that do not have a title. They are more often published in collections.
INFORMATION - short information, or the note. Contains the fact itself and some details. Consists of ten to thirty lines, has its own title. Published more often in the collection. Extended information suggests a broader and more detailed account of events. Possible: historical information, comparison, characterization of heroes, etc. Includes introduction and ending. Contains 40-150 lines, heading. Let's admit a subtitle.
INTERVIEW - a statement of fact on behalf of the interviewee. Assumes joint creativity: the journalist anticipates the readers' questions, carefully prepares for the interview, and certainly has control over the situation. It is necessary to indicate with whom the conversation is being conducted (last name, first name, patronymic, official or social status), the topic of the conversation, how the interview was received (in a personal conversation, by phone, by fax, etc.).
REPORT - on the instructions of the editorial office, the journalist talks about what he saw and heard. The size of the material depends on the significance of the event. General report contains a statement of facts in chronological order, thematic- covers 1-2 of the most important issues, report with comments- a presentation of the main events and the expression of your point of view.
SKETCHING - generalization of facts and description of the situation. A short, lively and imaginative story about his impressions.
OVERVIEW - the most important events in the life of the city, factory, school, etc. for a certain period (summaries, totals).
REPORT - a visual representation of a particular event through the direct perception of an eyewitness journalist or character. The reportage combines elements of all information genres (narration, direct speech, colorful digression, characterization of characters, historical digression, etc.). It is desirable to illustrate the reportage with photographs. Reporting happens: event, thematic, staged.
ANALYTICAL GENRE - this is a wide canvas of facts that are interpreted, generalized, serve as material for posing a specific problem and its comprehensive consideration and interpretation. Analytical genres include: correspondence, article, review review. Correspondence analyzes a group of facts. This is done by describing the facts, analyzing them and making appropriate conclusions. Examples, efficiency, specificity of the topic, and a clear address are very important here. Article Is a generalization and analysis of facts and phenomena. If in correspondence events are considered from the particular to the general, then in the article everything happens the other way around - from the general to the particular. The article takes facts on a global scale, analyzes them, raising them to scientifically based conclusions.
ARTISTIC AND PUBLIC GENRE - here a specific documentary fact fades into the background. The main thing becomes the author's impression of the fact, event, author's thought. The fact itself is typed. Its figurative interpretation is given.
In the sketch facts are refracted in the light of the personality of the author. It is not the fact itself that is important, but its perception and interpretation by the hero or the author. The fact is rethought into an image, close to small forms of fiction, concrete, built on factual material. The purpose of the essay is to give a figurative idea of people, to show them in action, to reveal the essence of the phenomenon. Essay happens plot (portrait, problem) and descriptive (event, travel).
Feuilleton- This is literary material, imbued with the spirit of acute topical criticism, with special methods of presentation. For a feuilleton, the following are obligatory: liveliness, lightness, imagery, humor, irony, mockery.
Pamphlet - a topical publicistic work, the purpose and pathos of which is a specific civil, mainly socio-political exposure.
GENRE JOURNALISM
Informational:
* Chronicle
* Information (short (note), extended)
* Sketch
* Interview (monologue, dialogue, collective, questionnaire)
* Report (general, thematic, with comments)
* Travel notes
* Review
* Reporting (event, thematic, staged)
2. Analytical:
* Correspondence
* Article (propaganda, problematic, generalizing, critical)
* Review (literary, cinema, theater)
Artistic and journalistic:
* Essay (plot, descriptive)
* Feuilleton
The classification of genres of journalism can be compared with. Back in the 4th century BC. NS. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in his works "Rhetoric" and "Poetics" divided literature into different types, based on the way in which reality is reflected (for example, in drama it is a dialogue, in poetry - a special type of lyrics, etc.). Following the traditions of art and literary criticism, the theory of journalism explores the genres and types of journalistic works. The basis of such a division is based on a huge number of types of human social activity, a great variety of surrounding reality and the creative potential of its reflection.
Any journalistic work is based on fact, i.e. at an accomplished event. Facts form the basis of information and have such properties as social significance, truthfulness, freshness, reliability and non-banality.
Researchers categorize journalistic genres in different ways. In the most common of them, genres are divided into fictional journalistic, analytical and informational. However, there are other ways: for example, the famous literary critic and teacher Lev Kroychik distinguishes the following types of journalistic texts:
- Research-like (these include essays and feuilletons)
- Research news (these include comments, correspondence, and reviews)
- Research (these include letters and articles)
- Operational research (these include interviews, reports and reports)
- Operational news (this includes any notes)
According to Kroichik, genre is a special organizational form of life material, endowed with various structural and compositional features. At the same time, the Soviet and Russian historian Semyon Gurevich views this issue somewhat differently. He considers the genre as such a number of stable features of content-thematic characteristics, the type of displayed reality, stylistics and composition. Based on this, his division of genres of journalism is also different. Gurevich highlights:
- Satirical genres
- Artistic and journalistic genres
- Epistolary genres
- Situational-analytical genres
- Dialogue genres
- News genres
But back to the most common division into genres. The most popular in journalism are artistic and journalistic, analytical and informational. Pamphlets, feuilletons, libels, essays, essays and sketches are artistic and journalistic. The analytical category includes reviews, memoirs, ratings, conversations, reviews, letters, articles, comments. And among the information we will note reports, obituaries, chronicles, reports, event interviews, notes and extended information on a particular topic.
Information genres convey objective information about phenomena, people and events to the public. The journalist here is a fixer of the course of events, a source of data that cannot be obtained by the audience first-hand, an intermediary transmitting information in real time. But the critical analysis and assessment of information in this case fade into the background, tk. analytical genres fulfill this task. Artistic and journalistic genres allow the journalist to fully demonstrate his creative thinking, present his picture of the world. It would not be wrong to add that the three genres mentioned above are associated with journalism by most people today. But this does not limit its versatility at all - the genres of journalism are closely intertwined with its typology, therefore, it also needs to be given some attention.
Typology of journalism
It is possible to differentiate journalism by type only conditionally, because it is supported by public objectively true knowledge that falls under the influence of value social norms. But even these norms in each specific society may differ. To conduct a full analysis of the typology of journalism, it is necessary to identify its historically formed sections, their mutual influence and periodization. Our course does not have such a task (if you wish, you can conduct your own research), so we will simply list the main types into which journalism is divided today.
Journalism happens:
- Religious
- The economic
- Civil (non-professional journalism)
- Multimedia
- Restaurant
- Scientific
- Sports
- Musical
- Boulevard ("yellow press")
- Corporate
- Business
- International
- The political
At the same time, they also distinguish journalistic investigations, travel and gonzo journalism, as well as Internet journalism.
Any of the types assumes the use of special methods. Taking into account the fact that the subject of journalism is public life in all its diversity, and the duty of a representative of the journalistic profession is to convey to people the truth and search for truth in controversial issues, help to achieve the set goals:
- Dialogues that discuss current and important issues
- allowing you to learn different points of view on the same issues and get closer to a true understanding of things
- Doubts that force you to look for arguments, reason soberly and seek the truth
- Criticism through which the inner nature of things is investigated and an objective interpretation of information is achieved
- Problematization, with the help of which specific problems are posed and solutions are sought
When it comes to journalism, it automatically implies the collection and creative processing of information received about social life, trends, news, etc. This information will subsequently be disseminated through the media. And already depending on what technical means will be used to disseminate data, the direction of journalism is determined.
Areas of journalism
In total, at the moment, five main areas can be distinguished:
- Photojournalism
- TV journalism
- Radio journalism
- Periodic printing
- Internet journalism
Let's consider the main differences between these areas.
Photojournalism
Photojournalism is a special area of journalism, where photographs are the main means of expression. Among the prerequisites for this direction are objectivity (photos should accurately reproduce events), chronology and sequence (photos should convey to the viewer the meaning of the events depicted on them).
TV journalism
Television journalism is recognized today as the most massive and most powerful way of disseminating information. It has the maximum impact on the public. It is distinguished by the possibility of parallel transmission of video sequences, musical accompaniment, author's comments, as well as the possibility of using audio and video effects. There are endless possibilities here for journalistic creativity.
Radio journalism
Radio journalism involves the use of broadcast media to disseminate information. The characteristic features of this direction are high efficiency and the specific nature of the emotional impact on the audience.
Periodic printing
Periodicals are considered the oldest branch of journalism. In this case, information will be disseminated through printed materials such as magazines, newspapers, specialized publications of any organizations, newsletters, etc. The task of any such publication is to inform (literary and artistic, scientific, socio-political, etc.) society. Also, periodicals form public opinion on the topic of a particular issue.
Internet journalism
Online journalism is the newest trend that began to spread about 20 years ago. Its specificity lies in the practically unlimited potential for any person who wants to test his strength in the field of a journalist, and the highest degree of efficiency.
The directions we have named can be both completely independent and complementary to each other, intertwined with each other. For example, photographs are often placed in periodicals, and television channels and radio stations, etc. are easily broadcast on Internet resources.
It is also important that each era is characterized by its own tendencies, which means that over time, some genres and areas of journalism begin to prevail over others. If, for example, in the 90s of the last century there was a boom in TV journalism with its high-profile scandals and investigations, now Internet journalism is gaining momentum. And in order not to go against the trends of our time, we want to devote a separate block of the lesson to her.
Internet journalism
Internet journalism, as we have already said, is a new direction of journalism. It appeared at the very end of the 1990s, which is associated with the rapid development and ubiquity of the Internet. Due to the specifics of the World Wide Web, systematic information broadcasting to the broad masses began to be organized, which did not require the deployment of a special technical base. This allowed almost anyone to be able to create media.
Online publications can be both official and unofficial. And an Internet journalist working for one of these publications, in most cases, does not encounter many attributes of traditional journalism, for example, printing, sound recording or television equipment, etc. However, the legal aspect is still important for an Internet journalist, since in fact, he is always responsible for what he publishes.
Closely related to online journalism is the individualization of journalism. The personality began to act as a producer and distributor of information, working outside of any external control. Thus, the blogosphere (the totality of all blogs as a community) became widespread, which is why even in the scientific community and the press the question began to be raised about whether blogs would replace traditional media.
At the moment, many people come to the conclusion that the blogosphere (which, by the way, can be called non-professional, civic or individual journalism) and professional journalism complement each other, since the disadvantages of one are more than compensated by the advantages of the other, and vice versa.
Internet journalism as a completely extraordinary and unusual phenomenon in the field of journalism in general can be regarded as a new stage in its evolution. This can be clearly seen in such features as the decentralization of the media, interactivity, rejection of a monologue and a transition to dialogue, etc. And if we continue to consider the development of journalism in this vein, another new direction, called Web 2.0, catches the eye. Actually, speaking of online journalism, it would be wrong not to mention it in principle.
Web 2.0
Web 2.0 refers to a methodology for designing systems that, by accounting for network interactions, become better the more people use them. An important nuance of Web 2.0 is the principle of attracting Internet users to filling and multiple verification of information material (information from the free encyclopedia "Wikipedia").
The presented phrase was first used in 2004 by the publishing house O "Reilly Media, which specializes in information technologies. questions of their objectivity and reliability are not raised.By and large, Web 2.0 means services and projects that are actively developed and improved by the users themselves, and these are the very blogs, social networks, wiki projects, etc.
In defining what Web 2.0 is all about, defining an integrated approach that enables you to organize, implement, and maintain web resources is well suited. We suggest you familiarize yourself with just a few successful projects where Web 2.0 has shown itself to be excellent (for sure you yourself encounter them almost every day):
- Wikipedia. Currently, it is a whole conglomerate of Internet resources, positioned, as a rule, as reference books and encyclopedias. This project is one of the largest databases on the Web, offering almost everyone the ability to edit the information posted on the site.
- Blogs. Another striking example of Web 2.0. The lion's share of content is not created by resource owners, but by the users themselves. For active and competent work, RSS and FOAF technologies are used, as well as tags that help to give structure to the content. FOAF gives users the ability to subscribe to friends' news and content, and today no Internet network functions without this technology. And RSS is a fairly simple but extremely powerful tool for copying hypertext. In addition to blogs, it will be used to form news feeds.
- Exchange services. As in the previous cases, users fill them in. Each person is given a place to store a wide variety of files. By the way, RSS and tags apply here as well.
- Resources that use documentation in parallel. Users are offered the opportunity to conduct simultaneous and joint workflow - files can be created, edited and deleted, and this does not require any additional software.
The Web 2.0 technique also interacts with web applications. Every day, many of these applications have analogues, and users are relieved of the need to install specialized software on their computers. Besides, using a web server is almost always cheaper than buying a similar program in the standard version.
Web 2.0 has a number of significant advantages. For example, traditional Internet services do not allow users to develop their activities. And Web 2.0 allows you to do this in relation to each specific resource. The interactivity of Web 2.0 resources gives people all the opportunities for self-realization.
However, like any other technology, Web 2.0 has its drawbacks. The main one is the "noise" of the Web, produced by an incredible number of non-professional sites. The navigation and quality of such projects are far from ideal, which is why the concept of Web 3.0 was developed - high quality services and content created by professional wizards based on Web 2.0. Despite this, the influence of Web 2.0 is expanding more and more, and traditional Internet resources are gradually fading into the background.
The specifics and capabilities of both Web 2.0 alone and Internet journalism in general open up new horizons for work and professional achievements, but nevertheless, online journalism remains journalism, and is designed to influence mass consciousness and shape public opinion. This suggests that even in our time of rapid technological and informational progress of the goals and objectives set for himself, a journalist can achieve, albeit with the help of the boundless expanses of the Internet space, but still through long-established techniques, such as writing well-known articles , reports, press releases, interviews, etc. And, of course, all this is impossible without finding information.
Almost all of the lessons that follow will be practical. The third lesson focuses specifically on finding information and writing articles and reports. We'll cover working with sources, the structure of articles and the steps for writing them, and how to create your own journalistic report.
Test your knowledge
If you want to test your knowledge of the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. In each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you have selected one of the options, the system automatically proceeds to the next question. The points you receive are influenced by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on passing. Please note that the questions are different each time, and the options are mixed.
Journalism, as any kind of activity, is characterized primarily by the results, or the content of the activity, which, in turn, directly depends on the desire and capabilities of journalists to adequately reflect life in its various manifestations. Meanwhile, any content always fits into a certain form. Philosophers interpret the category of form as an expression of the internal connection and the way of organization, the interaction of elements and processes both among themselves and with external conditions. It is from these positions that we will consider the most general, formalized signs of journalistic creativity.
We begin our classification with morphological (Greek morphe - form + logos - teaching) features. Aristotle in his fundamental works "Poetics" and "Rhetoric" (mid-1st century BC) substantiated the division of literature into genera depending on the way of reflecting reality (poetry is a special kind of lyrics, prose is an epic work, drama is a dialogue) ... Continuing the traditions of literary criticism and art history, the theory of journalism also studies the genera, types and genres of journalistic works. The reason for this division lies in the variety of types of social practice of man, the incredible variety of the world around us and the creative possibilities of its reflection.
From the second lecture of this course, we know that in the process of practical activity on the dissemination of social information, as this process becomes more massive, there have historically been ways of disseminating mass information - the press, radio and television. Indeed, each kind of journalism uses its own, specific way of reflecting life, creating journalistic works, each creates an individual, not like the others, path to the minds and hearts, eyes and ears of readers, listeners, viewers. The names of consumers of information say it all. Newspapers have one tool - the written word (printed in black letters on white paper). Employees of print media describe in words an event, fact, idea - the reader skims through the lines, puts letters into words, words into sentences, individual phrases into context and decodes (remember, we have already used this term) what they read, perceives it in that vein , in which the journalist intended it, or understands what is written differently - and this is not the fault of the reader, but of the author.
The radio journalist is armed with the spoken word, sounding in all the richness of intonations, semantic and logical stresses, pauses, supported by music and noises, which allows the audience to carry not only the text, but also the subtext, enriching the content of the radio material. The main organ of perception for the consumer of radio information is hearing.
Television operates with audiovisual images. Its strength lies in visibility, concreteness, the practical impossibility of interpreting what he saw in any other way. In a newspaper, you can write: “The audience greeted the name of the audience rising to the podium with an ovation” - and the reader is forced to believe the author, as they say, at his word. If in fact the speaker was greeted with liquid claps, then in the radio report - against the background of this half-applause - it is already more difficult to lie. On TV, where the viewer both hears discordant clapping and sees the sour faces of those sitting in the hall, it is impossible to hide the truth (it can only be hidden without showing the event itself; if it is a live broadcast, then the image actually does not lend itself to falsification).
So, each kind of journalism has a specific way of reflecting reality. And we have become accustomed to calling the press, radio and television mass media. There is no contradiction here: using different methods of creating journalistic works, each type of journalism uses different means of delivering these works to the information consumer. Newspapers publish periodicals. Radio and TV journalists broadcast, but the former broadcast only audio information, while the latter broadcast both sound and image.
Sometimes news agencies are considered a special kind of journalism. However, despite the complete similarity of the methods of work of agency employees with their colleagues in newspapers, television and radio, these departments are a kind of infrastructure of mass media, an auxiliary unit. Even less legitimate is the inclusion in this series of cinematography, book publishing, the release of gramophone records and CDs: having some resemblance to mass information, these activities are fundamentally different in the process of organizing the information flow.
Each of the types of mass information activities contains several types of messages: journalistic, artistic, scientific.
The scientific type of messages presupposes a special language and style: an unambiguous, non-controversial presentation of specific scientific information. It is used in purely scientific publications, partly in popular science, as well as in scientific articles in the mass press. Moreover, if in a scientific journal a complicated language is appropriate for describing concepts, experiments, natural phenomena, then in mass periodicals one should speak about these concepts and phenomena in an understandable and intelligible language. And this should always be remembered by the journalist involved in the preparation of the material, as well as his editor.
The artistic type of messages, in contrast to the scientific, is characterized by the imagery of the language, the polysemy of concepts, the ability to generalize a single fact, to typify the phenomenon. If in scientific publications it is, for the most part. about the world around a person, then in art - most likely, about the person himself, about his inner world, about the attitude to the external world and its perception by an individual.
Publicism (from Lat. Publicus - public) is a way of organizing and disseminating social information, a kind of works devoted to current problems and phenomena of current life. Publicism plays an important political, ideological role, influencing the activities of various social institutions and, in general, public consciousness.
Sometimes the concept of "journalism" is perceived as a synonym for the word "journalism". This is due to the fact that journalism, in essence, is also a generic concept, which includes works that highlight the current socio-political and other problems of our time in print, on radio and television, and in individual printed publications. Publicism exists in verbal (oral and written), graphic visual (poster, caricature), photo and cinematographic (photo essay, documentary), theatrical-dramatic and verbal-musical forms.
If we talk about the types of journalistic activity, then they distinguish information journalism, analytical journalism and artistic journalism. It is clear that works of every kind can be found in any kind of journalism. Here, the most essential and stable feature should be considered the measure of typification, the level of comprehension of a specific material of life. Recording information - states, analytical journalism - comprehends and generalizes, artistic creation - typifies.
In turn, each of the journalistic types is subdivided into subspecies, or genres. The species and genre division reflects the desire to comprehend the real world in all the diversity of reality.
The genre is rightly called the memory of art. What is the reason for the preservation of the old form in the new phenomenon? Why did the first cars look like horse carriages, and electric chandeliers like candle chandeliers? Of course, the reason lies in the generality of functions: the car is as much a means of transportation as a horse-drawn carriage, and the chandelier is a source of light, regardless of the energy used.
Any creative activity is diverse in means, techniques, forms of representation, just as the phenomena in question are diverse. This diversity finds concrete expression in the genre system.
Theoretical foundations for the definition of the genre, its features should be sought in art history and literary criticism, from where this concept came to the theory of journalism. For a better understanding, it is appropriate here to refer to the methodology of systems analysis.
If culture is considered as a set of objects and subjects of material and spiritual activity, or a kind of hypersystem, then, say, art as a form of spiritual mastery of reality and its transformation according to the laws of beauty is an independent and very extensive layer of human culture. This is a practically independent (autonomous) system within the hypersystem of the cultural activity of mankind. Within this system, there are subsystems (or systems of a smaller level), such as fine arts, literature, fictional cinematography, etc. In the same way, journalism, or the system of mass media, can be distinguished in the ideological system. Within the media system, as we know, there are subsystems of periodicals, television and radio (a kind of journalism). The constituent parts, or components of these subsystems, can be called informational, analytical and artistic journalism (types of journalism). Finally, the constituent parts or elements of these components are various genres, which, in fact, play the role of a kind of “building blocks” from which a full-fledged journalistic structure is built.
Let us agree that by genre we mean a historically defined type of display of reality, which has a number of relatively stable features. Which ones?
The genre division is based not only on the already mentioned measure of typification. It also takes into account the way of reflecting reality, thematic originality, functional features, technical conditions for creating journalistic works. With the help of these features, the entire variety of journalistic products can be classified according to a number of formal features. This makes it possible to single out a certain number of relevant genres, genre forms and modifications, which is important not so much for the theoretical understanding of the problems of modern journalism as for the practical activities of journalists.
In addition, the theory of genres, which is extremely complex, multidimensional, which is explained by the instability of the object of research, is also in a constant process of development, changing along with the living and changing journalistic practice.
It is important to remember that in their “pure” form, many genres are not so often found in newspaper strips, in television and radio programs. Every now and then we see how genres change, interpenetrate each other - this phenomenon is called diffusion. Complex life relationships, dramatic collisions of our time are sometimes more accurately reflected at the “junction” of genres.
But no matter how complex the “construction” of a journalistic work, one can always find simpler elements in its foundation - the main genre forms.
Some genres can be called general journalistic: using specific pictorial and expressive means, they are found in each of the genres of journalism. These are a note, an interview, a report, an essay. For other genre forms, the use of only one kind is characteristic: in print, for example, an editorial, on the radio - roll call, on TV - teleconferences.
Informational journalism is characterized by interest in a single fact, a specific event. Its method is, for the most part, a statement of what has happened. From a traditional point of view, information is designed to answer the questions: what? where? when? The object of analytical journalism is a group of causally related facts, current phenomena, trends in the life of society, and the method is research, analysis, interpretation, the author's assessment of these facts, phenomena and trends. Analytical journalism, revealing causal relationships between phenomena, giving them a socio-political assessment, thus, answers the questions: how? why? for what purpose? This means that in the first case, a fact, an event is not only an object, but also a goal; in the second, facts rather become a means of substantiating a journalist's position, arguments in the chain of evidence he builds.
In the genres of artistic journalism, the presence of the image is decisive, and the analysis and communication of facts play a subordinate role, are of secondary importance. The function of artistic journalism is to reveal the typical, the general, through the individual, the separate. Journalistic works of this kind are the result of the artistic organization of the factual documentary material.
Today it is customary to refer to the genres of informational journalism: a note, the text of which can be published in a newspaper, read on the radio, accompany an image on TV; interview (general journalistic genre); event reporting, which has specific features in each of the types of journalism.
The genres of analytical journalism include: a problem article in the press, a problem reportage, correspondence, conversation, commentary, review in the press, on radio and TV.
The genres of artistic journalism include: sketch, sketch, essay, feuilleton and other satirical genres.
Each of the genres has a considerable number of forms. For example, a widespread type of interview is a press conference. A protocol report from an official event is called a report. Sometimes the works of investigative (from the English investigate - to investigate) journalism are singled out as a separate genre, it is called that - investigation. Talk shows on television were born out of ordinary conversation, but have evolved into an independent genre that has features of both analytical and fictional journalism. Numerous TV games, many entertainment programs on radio and TV, undoubtedly belong to fictional journalism.
In the classroom in creative workshops, you will study and master each journalistic genre in detail. In addition, you will need to understand how complex composite forms are created: in a newspaper - a selection, a thematic page, a spread, a thematic issue, in the electronic press - a radio and television magazine, program, program, channel. If genres, figuratively speaking, are “bricks”, the building material of composite journalistic constructions, then an news release, television magazine, video channel or radio program is a slender finished building, a complex “organism” created and living according to its own laws, some of which we will get to know in the next lectures.
If we are talking about a profession, we mean journalism. If about a specialty, then we mean newspapermen, television journalists, radio journalists, employees of news agencies, journalists of online media, etc.
Within the framework of specialties, specializations can be distinguished by types of activity within the genre: reporter, commentator, interviewer, investigator, etc. In addition, journalists usually specialize in a specific topic. This division is called profiling: a journalist writing on political, economic, sports topics, specializing in culture, family, crime, social life. Each of these types and types of journalists has its own specific features, is characterized by a stable system of knowledge, skills, labor operations Svitich, L.G. Profession: journalist: textbook / L.G. Switich. - M .: Aspect Press, 2003 .-- 25 p ..
The reporter.
A reporter is a media employee, both full-time and freelancer, who works onscreen (TV) or air (radio) and behind the scenes - in print or online publications. In journalism, it all begins with the reporter's work: editors can only do their part of the work after the reporters have found the facts.
Reporters are required to recognize information that is interesting and useful to readers, to see the facts from which potential material can be formed, to grasp the connections between at first glance scattered data, which are in fact parts of a whole Mallet, Malcolm F. A Handbook for Journalists in Central and Eastern Europe: reference book / Ed.-comp. Malcolm F. Mallet; Per. from English I. Osadchy. ? M .: Human Rights, 1998.? 4 sec.
Efficiency is key in this profession. The reporter not only introduces the news to the viewer, but reports from the scene, witnessing what is happening and impartially informing about what is happening. Unlike columnists and commentators, reporters avoid evaluating what is happening and indicating a position, this is not their prerogative.
Akram Hazam, head of the Moscow bureau of the Al-Jazeera TV channel, claims that the profession of a reporter? be on time everywhere.
Pyotr Lyubimov, host of the TV Center TV channel, characterizes the modern reporter as an unemotional, highly professional person from the point of view of television skill. This is a person who can impartially look at the events taking place, not be afraid of emergencies, show restraint in harsh situations.
Commentator.
Is the commentator commenting on a particular area of events? for example, public, political, sports.
The post of commentator is usually given to a professional journalist for whom the relevant field is an area of specialization. Frequently, freelance experts from their respective fields of activity are invited to comment.
The work of a sports commentator is close to a reporter, tk. the leading genre here? sports reportage. The essence of a sports reportage is a description of what is happening on the spot. However, a sports commentator must be able to supplement his story with other information Zwick, V.L. Journalist with a microphone: tutorial / V.L. Zwick. - M .: Publishing house MNEPU, 2000. - 40 p ..
During a reportage, a sports commentator has no right to show his own likes and dislikes. He must remember that among the listeners there are adherents of both teams, and those and other athletes. Even if you have to talk about international competitions, when almost the entire audience worries about their national team, about domestic athletes, one should maintain objectivity in evaluating the performances.
Commentary makes it easier for the audience to form their own opinion on current events or issues. It cannot be absolutely objective, as it conveys the author's judgments. The commentator must convince the reader, viewer or listener, and this can be done not only thanks to the iron logic of the arguments, but also due to the evidential manner of conversation, the special intonations of the narrator, if the commentator is a TV and radio journalist Zwik, V.L. Journalist with a microphone: tutorial / V.L. Zwick. - M .: Publishing house of MNEPU, 2000 .-- 47 p ..
Reviewer.
A journalist-observer is engaged in analysis in a certain field of activity, is able to draw conclusions and predict processes.
A defining feature of the genre of review? unity of visual coverage of public events and the thoughts of the observer, deeply penetrating into the essence of the process, situation. What is the difference between this genre and other genres of journalism, what is its originality? This becomes clear in the course of defining the function and subject matter. Overlook? means to observe and reflect on what was noticed (but not at all to admire it). The review clearly shows the position of the journalist.
The browser should:
· Arouse the interest of the audience, tell her about events, processes taking place in public life;
· Defend progressive points of view and contribute to the improvement of the "personal strategy" of citizens;
· To reveal their essence in phenomena, to show contradictions of reality;
· To comprehend the course of social development through clarification of essential connections, determination of the line of development of phenomena, forecast;
· To contribute to the practical solution of the problems of society Tertychny, A.A. Genres of periodicals: textbook / A.A. Tertychny. ? 2nd ed., Rev. and add. ? M .: Aspect Press, 2002.? 312 s ..
Editor.
The editor in the media performs a very important function: the editorial office and all journalists are directly subordinate to him.
He selects and places information of various kinds in his media, striving to achieve maximum information content and popularity of his publication. Also, the editor is engaged in editing texts, stylistic or substantive. In his power? determination of information policy, formation of the appearance of a publication or program, development of directions of activity, selection of employees and management of the creative team, arrangement of issues and issues. Editors of specific media departments? for example, sports or economic? are engaged in coordinating the work of journalists in their division, editing materials.
2.5 Interviewer Tertychny, A.A. Genres of periodicals: textbook / A.A. Tertychny. ? 2nd ed., Rev. and add. ? M .: Aspect Press, 2002.? 312 s.
In the role of an interviewer, a journalist can only pose questions, and the interviewee answers them, who forms the main content of the publication or program, its nature. The interviewer can only give direction to the interviewee's thinking.
The interlocutor journalist is equal, along with his partner in the communicative act, the creator of the content of the future text. Therefore, the question-and-answer form of the exchange of thoughts, inherent in interviews, in the conversation will correspond to the exchange of "equal", equivalent remarks.
Does a real serious interviewer come up with new questions every time? based on who you have to talk to and in what situation. Good question? one-time thing Kuznetsov, G.V. This is how TV journalists work: textbook / G.V. Kuznetsov. ? M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 2004.? 400 s ..
Working as an interviewer requires patience and goodwill. Basic qualities: activity, sociability, sociability, the ability to win over the interlocutor.
Investigative journalist.
The genre of investigative journalism itself presupposes a comprehensive and detailed study of some poorly studied, closed or carefully hidden topic, in the process of working on which one has to overcome the reluctance of certain structures to provide information of interest. Investigations often involve abuse of power and corruption. But a talented journalist will be able to make brilliant material outside this framework, trying, for example, to find out why the beavers left the nearest lake.
The main difference between investigative journalism as a genre lies, perhaps, in the fact that the author does not limit himself to posing a problem and investigating it independently. He, as a rule, offers some options for answers to the questions that have arisen, conclusions that follow from the work he has done. Sometimes he may not even do this in plain text, but the collected facts and comments to them will themselves push the reader or viewer to the correct conclusion.
Investigative journalism? the task is extremely difficult and sometimes dangerous for an unprepared person. Even a luminary from criminal journalism, she is not always on the shoulder if you have to act alone. On the other hand, the results can exceed all expectations if the whole team gets down to business. It is then that a full-scale collection of information, its competent processing and verification becomes possible. Shum, Yu.A. Journalistic investigation: textbook / Yu.A. Noise. ? SPb: Publishing house of SPbSU, 2008.? 288 s ..
TV and radio presenter.
Discussions, round tables.
Discussion (from the Latin discussio - research, discussion, consideration) assumes that the process of developing thoughts around the subject under discussion takes place in front of TV viewers and radio listeners and, thereby, activates the intellectual activity of the audience, including it in the process of seeking truth.
The preliminary work of a journalist in preparing a program of this genre may be insignificant, but the importance of such qualities as the ability to regulate a conversation, to give an opportunity to speak out and stop participants in time, to direct the general course of the discussion increases sharply. It is important that the conversation does not go into some narrow professional niche, but remains at a level that is interesting to the audience. In this case, the journalist plays the role of a mediator between the interests of the audience and the specialists in the studio on a particular topic. An important place here is occupied by the journalist's ability to improvise, since the course of the discussion cannot always be predictable Knyazev, A.A. Fundamentals of TV journalism and television reporting: textbook / A.A. Knyazev. ? Bishkek: Publishing house of KRSU, 2001.? 160 s.
The most important principle: the leader of the discussion is not a participant in it, does not take the side of any of the interlocutors. Of course, he has the right to express doubt or question someone's opinion - all this is a necessary arsenal for broadcasting. The personality of the host is often judged by how he deals with high-ranking guests. Negative reaction of the audience is caused by both bad manners and rudeness, and flattering ingratiation. Of paramount importance is the speed of the leader's reaction, wit, friendliness, contact Kuznetsov, G.V. Television journalism: textbook / G.V. Kuznetsov, V.L. Zwick, A. Ya. Yurovsky. ? M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 2005.? 368 s. ...
Round tables? a variety of programs on which a phenomenon or problem is discussed. The collision of different points of view in a conversation often leads to the evolution of the genre: the conversation develops into a discussion.
A journalist's task? not to "lose the topic", not to let the participants get away from the subject of the dispute, which can be outlined in the preliminary conversation, before the broadcast. There is always another danger - to lose ardor and spontaneity, that is, exactly what is a feature of the transmission of Kuznetsov, G.V. Television journalism: textbook / G.V. Kuznetsov, V.L. Zwick, A. Ya. Yurovsky. ? M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 2005.? 368 s ..
Talk show.
The word “show” reminds us that conversation becomes a spectacle. The topic of the "talk show" can be a discussion of preparing a large city for winter or a competition of architectural projects, but more often scandalous topics that have agitated society are discussed.
It is not enough to have journalistic experience to work on talk shows. "To keep" a large group, forming a single spectacle out of human characters, temperaments, addictions,? a special profession. This is a top-class "mass entertainer". Perhaps this job requires more acting than journalistic skills.
The work of a talented showman amazes with the breadth of the presenter's capabilities: his erudition, tact, benevolence, combined with a strong will and a clear understanding of the goal, should lead to a search for truth through dialogues and, thereby, have a huge spiritual impact on viewers. In such programs, one can only guess how carefully the journalist prepared for these conversations, how he calculated the possible answers to his questions and his line of behavior in the spontaneously arising contradictory dialogues. A talented showman does not perform in front of his audience, he works within it. This is "aerobatics" available to only a few Kuznetsov, G.V. Television journalism: textbook / G.V. Kuznetsov, V.L. Zwick, A. Ya. Yurovsky. ? M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 2005.? 368 s.
Information program.
A television journalist who started out as a reporter in a news program may eventually take the highest position in the hierarchy of prestige as the host of such a program. Prestige is ensured by daily screening of the most important news of the day.
Basically, the news anchor does the same thing as the announcer: he reads the lines running through the teleprompter. Improvisation in such cases is not encouraged, since sooner or later an annoying slip of the tongue can lead to very sad consequences.
Strict scientific terminology is unusual for the presenter's speech. Everyone understands that it was not the presenter himself who got the news, but his duty is to present it skillfully and tactfully. He is confidence itself, but not self-confidence, has clear diction and expressive intonations.
The leader should be the personification of calmness and stability. His television talent, intelligence and erudition should allow him not only to "keep face" in any eventual political situations, no matter how complex and ambiguous they may be, but also to give viewers confidence that they are getting the most objective, truthful, freshest , the most necessary information Kuznetsov, G.V. Television journalism: textbook / G.V. Kuznetsov, V.L. Zwick, A. Ya. Yurovsky. ? M .: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 2005.? 368 s ..
Author's programs occupy a special place on television: it is a kind of product that cannot always find its consumer, despite the fact that each product has its own buyer. That is why work on such projects sometimes takes more than one year. You need to think over everything to the smallest detail before the program goes on the air. Any incomplete part can be a weak link. Work on the authoring program takes place in a team.
In order for a TV show to be successful, a certain "flavor" is needed, a feature that favorably distinguishes the program from others. It is necessary to achieve the location of the viewer, then the program will have a future, and, accordingly, a certain circle of permanent viewers.