MOSCOW HUMANITARIAN AND ECONOMIC INSTITUTE
(IPEI)
Tver branch
Lectures
by discipline"B life safety "
For 1st year students of all specialties in the direction of the bachelor's degree
Prepared by L. V. Pyanova
Associate Professor of the Department of General Humanities, Candidate of Philosophical Sciences
Tver, 2013
Topic 1. Introduction to security. Basic concepts and definitions.
Plan
1. Characteristics of the "man - environment" system.
2. Human interaction with the environment.
3. The concepts of "danger", "safety".
4. Postindustrial society as a risk society.
5. The concept of risk society.
6. The place and role of security in the subject area and professional activity
From the first years of its formation, the subject of Belarusian Railways has been developing within the framework of the general theory of safety, which has many concepts and definitions. Life activity is a way of human existence, daily activity (study) and rest; human transformation of matter, energy, information in himself and in the environment.
Human life activity proceeds in constant contact with the environment, surrounding objects, people, forming a sufficiently understandable system, the components of which are: the individual himself and the environment in which he lives: biosphere, technosphere, sociosphere and infosphere.
1. Characteristics of the "man - environment" system.
Human life activity is carried out in the "human - habitat" system. The part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts can be called a natural habitat.
System- a set of functionally interconnected elements, the activity of which is aimed at fulfilling a common task. Despite the heterogeneity of the elements in terms of structure and principles of functioning, the system organization has much that is universal, which makes it possible to study it and establish general laws of activity. The system "man - environment" is characterized by the presence of certain dependencies.
Man and environment are inseparable and permanent.
The habitat is dynamic in its state, and its well-being is temporary, until the beginning of the manifestation of a dangerous factor.
The habitat always has factors that are dangerous to humans (the BJD axiom).
Human safety in the environment is largely determined by the state of the human body, the level of awareness and adequacy of behavior.
At first, man lived in harmony with nature, took from it as much as was necessary for life, but evolution did its job. Man put all new types of energy at his service and created mechanisms, machines that made his existence easier. Man-made factories, factories, transport systems and other technical objects appeared on Earth. Man, creating an artificial technical world, transformed the biosphere into a technosphere. This technical world is in clear contradiction with the laws of life on Earth.
Biosphere- the area of life on Earth, including the lower atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper lithosphere, which have not experienced anthropogenic impact.
Technosphere- in the past, a region of the biosphere, transformed by people with the help of direct or indirect influence of technical means in order to best meet their material and socio-economic needs; technosphere - a region of a city or industrial zone, an industrial or household environment.
Work environment- these are the conditions in industrial premises. It is composed of external influences (natural background, transport, etc.), shop conditions (general noise, dustiness, radiation, etc.), conditions created directly by the place of work (machine tool, tool, etc.). The most important are noise, vibration, and the chemical composition of indoor air. Equipment and technological processes are sources of hazardous and harmful production factors. The production environment is not limited to the listed characteristics. According to experts, it should be considered in conjunction with the socio-psychological environment in the team. In an unfavorable environment, an improvement in the climate leads to an increase in labor productivity and a decrease in morbidity.
Household environment- these are living conditions in residential premises. Includes physical, chemical and biological factors, including psychological. It consists of external influences (natural radiation, traffic noise, chemical background, atmospheric pollution, humidity and air composition, the influence of building structures and finishes, wall color, radioactivity of building materials, dust, etc.) and factors of everyday activities (apartment noise , smells, etc.). Social factors are included in the everyday environment: relations in the family, between neighbors, etc.
Deviations from the permissible conditions of activity are always accompanied by the impact of negative factors on a person and force him to endure the unfavorable influence of one or another environmental factor, which negatively affects labor productivity, worsens health, leads to injuries and diseases, and sometimes even death. Man and his environment harmoniously interact in conditions when the flows of energy, matter and information are within the limits, favorably perceived by man and the natural environment.
Human interaction with the environment.
A person and his environment constantly interact in the process of life. At the same time, “life can exist only in the process of movement through a living body of flows of matter, energy, information (Law of conservation of life, Yu. N. Kurazhkovsky.). WITH The habitat can have a different (beneficial or unfavorable) effect on a person's health, well-being, working capacity, and rest. In most cases, there are several levels of human exposure.
The following characteristic states of interaction in the "man-environment" system can be distinguished:
1. Comfortable (optimal), when the flows correspond to the optimal conditions of interaction: create optimal conditions for activity and rest; prerequisites for the manifestation of the highest efficiency and, as a consequence, the productivity of activities; guarantee the preservation of human health and the integrity of the components of the habitat.
2. Permissible, when flows, affecting humans and the environment, do not have a negative impact on human health, but lead to discomfort, reducing the effectiveness of human activities. Compliance with the conditions of permissible interaction guarantees the impossibility of the emergence and development of irreversible negative processes in humans and in the environment.
3. Dangerous when fluxes exceed permissible levels and have a negative impact on human health, causing, with prolonged exposure, disease and / or degradation of the natural environment.
4. Extremely hazardous, when high-level flows in a short period of time can cause injury, death, cause destruction in the natural environment.
The first two states of interaction of the "man - environment" system correspond to positive conditions of everyday life, and the second two are unacceptable for the processes of human life, conservation and development of the natural environment, that is, they are negative.
Questions of the final control of knowledge in the discipline
1. The essence of the interaction between man and the environment in the process of his life.
2. Elements and systems that make up the interaction between man and the environment.
3. The essence and reasons that form the danger. Axiom about potential danger.
4. Causes and factors of accidents and injuries.
5. Classification of hazards. What elements form physical, chemical, biological and psychophysiological hazards.
6. The characteristic properties that the hazards of complex systems possess.
7. Dangerous and harmful environmental factors.
8. The essence of the energy-entropic concept of danger.
9. Essence of hazard identification. In what sequence is it carried out.
10. The essence of chain structures of the "tree" type used in the analysis of hazards.
11. The essence of the process of analyzing the "tree of failures" and "tree of incidents".
12. Qualitative and quantitative assessment of hazards.
13. The essence of the reliability of technical systems during their operation.
14. Risk. For what purpose is it used in technical systems. Mathematical interpretation of the concept of "risk".
15. The essence of the methodology for studying risk. Types of risk.
16. Describe the essence of the risk management system.
17. Security. Safety system interconnections depending on the source of danger.
18. Types of security. Ways to ensure the safety of technical systems.
19. Organizational and managerial measures to ensure the safety of technical systems.
20. Human factor. Its role in the formation of hazards. Ways to reduce accidents due to the influence of the human factor.
21. Protection by time and distance and their role in ensuring the safety of technical systems.
22. The essence and the main reasons for security.
23. Means of collective protection. Their characteristics, methods and features of application.
24. Describe the typical schemes of physical protection from the impact of negative factors that form the basis of ecobioprotective technology.
25. Which of the typical physical protection schemes is the most (least) effective and why?
26. Describe the methods and means of containment and purification of ventilation and technological emissions.
27. Give a classification of devices for cleaning ventilation and technological emissions, their purpose and use.
28. Hydrosphere. What substances and impurities make water dangerous. Describe hazardous effluents from industrial plants.
29. Describe the ways to ensure the safety of the hydrosphere. What is the basis for ensuring the safety of the hydrosphere.
30. Mechanical wastewater treatment. Methods and apparatus for mechanical cleaning.
31. The essence of physical and chemical wastewater treatment. Methods and apparatus used for these purposes.
32. The essence of biological wastewater treatment. Methods and devices for biological wastewater treatment.
33. Lithosphere. Ways to ensure the safety of the lithosphere. Lithosphere protection means.
34. Fundamentals of placement, design and reclamation of solid waste landfills (MSW).
35. Describe the essence of the design of technological devices in buildings and structures. The composition and purpose of the construction organization project (PIC) and the work production project (PPR).
36. Describe the features of excavation and work at height. Determination of permanent hazardous areas for these types of work.
37. Means of ensuring safety in the production of earthworks.
38. Means of ensuring safety when working at height during the construction and repair of buildings and structures. Scaffolds used when working at height.
39. Describe the basic safety requirements when working with hand-held electrified tools.
40. What are the main causes of electrical injuries during the construction and repair of buildings and structures. What factors determine the danger of exposure to electric current on the human body.
41. Indicate the measures that must be provided to eliminate the dangers of electric shock to a person.
42. Ways and ways to ensure safety in electrical installations.
43. Impact of lightning on buildings and structures. Means and methods of eliminating the negative impact of lightning on buildings and structures.
44. Features of the operation of pressure vessels. The main causes of accidents involving pressure vessels.
45. List and describe the work for which additional (increased) safety requirements are imposed.
46. What is an attire - admission? What types of work related to the installation and repair of equipment should be carried out according to orders - permits?
47. Labor. Describe the main forms of human labor activity.
48. The severity and intensity of labor. How they are classified according to hygienic classification.
49. Human performance. Change in performance depending on time: during the day, week, year.
50. Describe the modes of work and rest. What caused the duration of the rest break.
51. Labor protection. Describe the issues discussed in the course "Labor Protection"
52. Organization of labor protection services at enterprises, incl. depending on the number of employees and the profile of the work.
53. Extraordinary events, conditions, situations. Classification of emergency situations.
54. Classification of the causes of emergencies during the construction and operation of TGVS.
55. Phases of development of emergency situations. Stability of work in emergency situations.
56. What features of building systems (buildings and structures) should be studied in the study of their life in an emergency?
57. Combustion. Necessary and sufficient conditions necessary to ensure combustion.
58. Fire. Classification of fires depending on the substances exposed to combustion.
59. Classification of buildings, structures and premises by fire hazard.
60. Fire resistance. Fire resistance limit. Methods and techniques used to determine them.
61. Fire extinguishing media used depending on the fire resistance of the material and structures exposed to combustion.
62. Fire extinguishing agents and compositions used in fire extinguishing, depending on the composition of the combustible substance and the type of production.
63. Automatic fire extinguishing systems and their essence and purpose.
64. Fire alarm. What are the elements of the fire alarm system.
65. The device and composition of primary manual fire extinguishing means. The types and number of fire extinguishers with which the premises are equipped, depending on the category of fire hazard.
THEORY
Human-habitat interaction. Danger. Energy entropy hazard concept
Human-Habitat Interaction
In the life cycle of a person, his interaction in the “Human-environment” system is multivariate.
The most characteristic subsystems in this interaction are:
· Man - natural environment (biosphere);
· Man - machine - environment of the working area (noxosphere);
· Man - urban environment (urbosphere);
· A person is a household environment.
Let us consider the relative share of negative impacts of various origins in the most common human habitats during the day (Fig. 2.1.).
In all versions of the system "man - habitat" the constant subject is a man, and the habitat is his containing object, which positively or negatively affects the subject.
This environment by its genesis (origin) can be classified into production and non-production. (Fig. 2.2.)
The main elements of the habitat in Fig. 2.2. are natural subjects, technical (man-made) means and products of labor (WT), both targeted and by-products. They are expressed in the form of the resulting harmful and dangerous impurities to the air environment, etc., (PO) - industrial relations (organizational, economic, socio-psychological, legal work; relations associated with the culture of work, professional culture, aesthetic, etc. etc.).
Natural environment in the form of geographic landscape (G-L), geophysical (G), climatic (C) elements; natural disasters (SB), including fires from lightning and other natural sources; natural processes (PP) in the form of gas emissions from rocks, etc. can manifest itself both in the non-production sphere and in the production sphere, especially in such sectors of the national economy as construction, mining, geology, geodesy and others. The general culture of the subjects is made up of such elements as moral culture (NK), general education (OK), legal (PC), culture of communication (KO).
All the elements that make up the human habitat, in action, become factors influencing the life safety (BZhD). Therefore, when studying the habitat, the Belarusian Railways is obliged to consider the influence of these factors on a person, both individually and in aggregate. Only with such a systematic approach can the ultimate goal of the Belarusian Railways be realized in a complex unconventional manner.
Considering this systemic interaction, we simultaneously note that there exists, as it were, independently of a person, the system "production - natural environment", but here the role of a person does not disappear, since it is indirectly predetermined by a person at the stage of creating a technical system (Examples: pipeline in Ufa, Chernobyl, earthquake in Armenia, etc.). Thus, modern man lives in a world of various influences - natural, technogenic, anthropogenic (caused by human activity), environmental, social, etc. These types of influences interact with each other, significantly aggravating their consequences. When assessing the impact of negative consequences on a person, we must admit that they, as a result, do not add up, as a rule, but act according to more complex laws, significantly increasing the negative effect. If we consider the system of interaction, then it consists of two elements: a person and an environment, which have direct and feedback.
At the same time, interaction in the "person - environment" system is dual-purpose:
· The first goal is to achieve the desired effect;
· The second goal is the elimination of undesirable consequences;
Undesirable consequences will include:
· Damage to human health and life;
· Fires;
· Accidents;
Catastrophes, etc.
Danger
All phenomena, influences and other processes that cause undesirable consequences that are dangerous to humans. These phenomena, processes, objects capable of causing damage to man and nature and caused by the energy state of the environment and human actions are called danger, which is a negative property of the interacting system "man - environment".
Life practice shows that any activity is potentially dangerous - "the axiom of potential danger." At the same time, it must be admitted that level of danger can be controlled. The study of the circumstances of accidents and injuries in specific areas has shown that such situations are most often caused by such sources of danger as electric power equipment, storage facilities for compressed gases, toxic and flammable liquids, and mobile processing equipment. A common feature of almost all the incidents under consideration is that their occurrence required several prerequisites, which together form a causal chain.
The most typical causal chain of an incident turned out to be a sequence of events - prerequisites of the following type: human error, or technological equipment failure, or unacceptable external influence; accidental appearance of a hazardous factor in an arbitrary part of the space; malfunction (absence) of the provided means of protection or inaccurate actions of people in these conditions; the impact of hazardous factors on the protected items of equipment, humans or the environment.
The share of prerequisites caused by erroneous human actions is 50–80%, while technical prerequisites are 15–25%. Additional factors of accidents and injuries are: insufficient ergonomics and low reliability of technological equipment; imperfection of professional selection and training of workers for the operation of such equipment; poor organization of work; discomfort of technological processes for people and technology, etc. The prevailing role of the human factor in the formation of the primary prerequisites for accidents and injuries is already generally recognized; accidents are usually caused not by a single cause, but by a number of sometimes mutually determined prerequisites. Thus, the Chernobyl tragedy became possible due to the imposition of a number of prerequisites - unauthorized actions of NPP personnel, imperfection of the concept and design of the RBMK-1000 reactor, poor-quality procedure for conducting and monitoring tests of the turbine generator, etc.
After analyzing the foregoing, we note that the main patterns, causes and factors of accidents and injuries in the life system are:
· Accidents and injuries, as streams of random events, which are distributed in time according to Poisson's law;
· Specific incidents caused not by a single cause, but by the result of the emergence and development of a causal chain of prerequisites.
The constituent links of the causal chain of an accident are, as a rule, erroneous and unauthorized actions of people, malfunctions and failures of the equipment they use, as well as off-design effects of external factors of the environment on them. Erroneous and unauthorized actions of a person are caused by his lack of discipline and unpreparedness for work, potentially dangerous technology and constructive imperfection of the equipment he uses.
Failures and malfunctions of equipment are caused by its low reliability, as well as unauthorized or erroneous actions of people. Uncalculated (unexpected or exceeding permissible limits) external influences are associated with insufficient comfort of the working environment for a person, its harmful effects on technological equipment, equipment and humans.
Danger is a process, property or state of nature, society or technology that poses a threat to the life, health or well-being of people, objects of the economy.
All complex systems with energy, chemically or biologically active components, etc., store the danger.
This definition of hazard in the Belarusian Railways is the most general and includes concepts such as hazardous, harmful production factors, damaging factors, etc.
There are several ways to classify hazards:
1. By the nature of origin:
· Natural;
· Technical;
· Anthropogenic;
· Ecological;
· Mixed.
2. By localization:
· Associated with the lithosphere;
· Related to the hydrosphere;
· Related to the atmosphere;
· Related to space.
3. According to the caused consequences:
Fatigue;
· Disease;
· Trauma;
Death, etc.
According to the official standard, hazards are divided into physical, chemical, biological and psychophysiological.
Physical hazards (Fig. 2.3) - moving machines and mechanisms, increased dust and gas content of the air in the working area, abnormal air temperature, increased noise, vibrations, sound vibrations, etc.
Chemical hazards - general toxic, irritant, carcinogenic, mutagenic, etc.
Biological hazards - pathogenic microorganisms (including viruses) and their metabolic products.
Psychophysiological hazards - physical and neuropsychic overload.
These classifications are of a private nature, since they carry out the classification only according to any one criterion. Therefore, a multifactorial classification seems to be more comprehensive, in which:
· Factors that directly affect the operator, the degree of influence of which can accumulate or relax over time - factors of incubation action;
· Factors of instant action, which are of a random nature, the impact of which extends to the operator or is localized by the noxosphere (hazard formation zone);
· Factors of environmental impact, as a rule, of an indirect action, manifesting themselves outside the operator, outside the given production, but which are a consequence of the implementation of a specific technological process in this production.
A more detailed consideration of physical hazards is due to the fact that they are most widely represented during the construction and operation of HGVS (see Fig. 2.3).
Such a classification is most convenient for analyzing a hazard in specific conditions, since it allows one to predict and quantify possible hazards even at the early stages of their inception, when a complex system begins to go out of balance. In this case, the stable state of the "person - environment" system is understood to mean the preservation of its structure and the ability to function productively both in time and in space.
Most often, undesirable consequences are caused by a combination of several dangers. Often, the same danger can be realized in undesirable consequences for different reasons.
The entire system of human interaction with the environment in a concentrated form is laid down in the axioms of the Belarusian Railways:
· Any objects, processes, phenomena are potentially dangerous to humans;
· Any activity is potentially dangerous to humans;
· Absolute safety cannot be achieved in any kind of activity;
· The safety of any system can be achieved with any degree of probability, however, not excluding the existence of an object.
The axiom of potential danger predetermines that all human actions and all components of the environment, primarily mental, in addition to positive properties and results, generate dangerous and harmful (negative) factors.
Thus, the danger to a person is caused by the presence of negative factors in the sphere of his life, which are subdivided into harmful and dangerous.
From birth, a person has inalienable rights to life, freedom and the pursuit of happiness. He exercises his rights to life, rest, health protection, favorable environment, work in conditions that meet the requirements of safety and hygiene in the process of life. They are guaranteed by the Constitution of the Russian Federation. livelihood environment labor
It is known that "life is a form of existence of matter." This allows us to assert that a person exists in the process of life, consisting of his continuous interaction with the environment in order to satisfy his needs. The concept of "vital activity" is broader than the concept of "activity", since it includes in consideration not only the labor process of a person, but also the conditions for his rest, life and migration in the environment.
The basic principle of the existence and development of all living things is the principle of obligatory external influence: "A living body develops and exists only in the presence of external influences on it." Self-development of a living body is impossible.
The implementation of this principle in nature is achieved by the interaction of a living body with its natural environment, and in other conditions, by the interaction of all living things with its environment.
From the end of the 19th century, significant changes began to occur in the human environment. The biosphere gradually lost its dominant importance and in the regions inhabited by people began to turn into a technosphere. By invading nature, the laws of which are still far from being cognized, creating new technologies, people form an artificial habitat - the technosphere. If we take into account that the moral and general cultural development of civilization lags behind the pace of scientific and technological progress, it becomes obvious that there is an increase in the risk to the health and life of a modern person. In the new technosphere conditions, biological interaction is increasingly being replaced by the processes of physical and chemical interaction, and the levels of physical and chemical factors of influence in the last century have been continuously increasing, often exerting a negative impact on humans and nature. Then the need arose in society to protect nature and man from the negative influence of the technosphere.
In the second half of the 20th century, anthropogenic, that is, caused by human activity, changes in the environment acquired such dimensions that a person, directly or indirectly, himself became their victim. Anthropogenic activity, which failed to create a technosphere of the required quality both in relation to man and in relation to nature, was the primary cause of many negative processes in nature and society.
Thus, the technosphere must be considered as a former region of the biosphere, transformed by people with the help of direct or indirect influence of technical means in order to best suit their material and socio-economic needs.
The human impact on the environment, according to the laws of physics, causes a response reaction of all its components. The human body painlessly tolerates certain influences as long as they do not exceed the limits of adaptation. Life expectancy is an integral indicator of life safety. In the early stages of anthropogenesis (for primitive man), it was approximately 25 years.
The development of civilization, which is understood as the progress of science, technology, economy, agriculture, the use of various types of energy, up to nuclear energy, the creation of machines, mechanisms, the use of various types of fertilizers and pest control agents, significantly increase the number of harmful factors that negatively affect person. Creating the technosphere, man strove to improve the comfort of his environment, to increase his sociability, to ensure protection from natural negative influences.
But developing the economy, the human population also created a socio-economic security system. As a result, despite the increase in the number of harmful effects, the level of human safety increased. All this had a beneficial effect on living conditions and, together with other factors (improved medical care, and the like), affected the life expectancy of people. Currently, the average life expectancy in the most developed countries is about 77 years.
Thus, the technosphere created by the hands and mind of man, designed to maximally satisfy his needs for comfort and safety, has largely failed to justify the hopes of people. The emerging industrial and urban habitats turned out to be far from the permissible requirements in terms of safety.
The main element of the production environment is labor, which in turn consists of interrelated and interconnecting elements that make up the structure of labor: subjects of labor, tools and objects of labor; labor processes, consisting of the actions of both subjects and machines, products of labor, both target and collateral in the form of harmful and dangerous impurities formed in the air, etc., industrial relations (organizational, economic, socio-psychological, legal work: relations associated with labor culture, professional culture, aesthetic, etc.) ). Elements of the non-production environment: the natural environment in the form of geographic-landscape, geophysical, climatic elements, natural disasters, including fires from lightning and other natural sources, natural processes in the form of gas emissions from rocks, etc. can manifest itself both in a non-production form (sphere), and
production, especially in such sectors of the national economy as construction, mining, geology, geodesy and others.
A person is in the closest connection with all elements of the environment in the process of his activity.
Man has always been interested in his environment. And this is understandable, since not only the well-being of the family, clan, tribe, but also its very existence depended on the quality of this environment.
The habitat surrounding modern man includes the natural environment, the man-made environment and the social environment.
Every day, living in the city, walking, working, studying, a person satisfies a wide range of needs. In the system of human needs (biological, psychological, ethnic, social, labor, economic), it is possible to identify the needs associated with the ecology of the environment. Among them are the comfort and safety of the natural environment, environmentally friendly housing, the provision of information sources (works of art, attractive landscapes) and others.
Natural or biological needs are a group of needs that provide the possibility of a person's physical existence in a comfortable environment - this is the need for space, good air, water, etc., the presence of a suitable, familiar environment for a person. Greening biological needs is associated with the need to create an environmentally friendly, clean urban environment and maintain a good state of natural and artificial nature in the city. But in modern big cities it is hardly possible to speak about the presence of a sufficient volume and quality of the environment necessary for every person.
As industrial production grew, more and more various products and goods were produced, and at the same time, environmental pollution increased sharply. The urban environment surrounding a person did not correspond to the historically developed sensory influences that a person needed: cities without any signs of beauty, slums, dirt, standard gray houses, polluted air, loud noise, etc.
But nevertheless, we can confidently state that as a result of industrialization and spontaneous urbanization, the human environment has gradually become "aggressive" for the senses, evolutionarily adapted for many millions of years to the natural environment. In fact, a person relatively recently found himself in an urban environment. Naturally, during this time, the main mechanisms of perception were unable to adapt to the changed visual environment and changes in air, water, soil. This did not pass without a trace: it is known that people living in polluted areas of the city are more prone to various diseases. The most common are cardiovascular and endocrine disorders, but there is a whole range of various diseases, the cause of which is a general decrease in immunity.
In connection with abrupt changes in the natural environment, a lot of studies have arisen aimed at studying the state of the environment and the state of health of residents in a particular country, city, region. But, as a rule, it is forgotten that a city dweller spends most of his time indoors (up to 90% of the time) and the quality of the environment inside various buildings and structures turns out to be more important for human health and well-being. Indoor concentrations of pollutants are often much higher than in outdoor air.
A resident of a modern city most of all sees flat surfaces - building facades, squares, streets and right angles - the intersections of these planes. In nature, planes connected by right angles are very rare. In apartments and offices, such landscapes continue, which cannot but affect the mood and well-being of people who are constantly there.
The habitat is inextricably linked with the concept of "biosphere". The biosphere is a natural area of the distribution of life on Earth, including the lower layer of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the upper layer of the lithosphere. The name of the Russian scientist V.I.Vernadsky is associated with the creation of the doctrine of the biosphere and its transition to the noosphere. The main thing in the theory of the noosphere is the unity of the biosphere and humanity. According to Vernadsky, in the era of the noosphere, a person can and should "think and act in a new aspect, not only in the aspect of an individual, family, state, but also in the planetary aspect."
In the life cycle, a person and the environment that surrounds him form a permanently operating system “person - environment”.
Habitat - the environment around a person, determined at a given moment by a combination of factors (physical, chemical, biological, social) that can have a direct or indirect, immediate or remote impact on human activities, his health and offspring.
Acting in this system, a person continuously solves at least two main tasks:
- - provides their needs for food, water and air;
- - creates and uses protection against negative influences, both from the habitat, and from their own kind.
Habitat is a part of nature that surrounds a living organism and with which it directly interacts. The constituent parts and properties of the environment are diverse and changeable. Any living creature lives in a complex and changing world, constantly adapting to it and regulating its life activity in accordance with its changes.
Adaptations of organisms to the environment are called adaptations. The ability to adapt is one of the basic properties of life in general, since it provides the very possibility of existence, the ability of organisms to survive and reproduce. Adaptations are manifested at different levels: from the biochemistry of cells and the behavior of individual organisms to the structure and functioning of communities and ecological systems. Adaptations arise and change during the evolution of species.
Individual properties or elements of the environment are called environmental factors. Environmental factors are diverse. They may be necessary or, conversely, harmful to living things, facilitate or hinder survival and reproduction. Environmental factors are of a different nature and specificity of action. Environmental factors are divided into abiotic (all properties of inanimate nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms) and biotic (these are forms of influence of living things on each other).
The negative impacts inherent in the habitat have existed for as long as the World exists. Sources of natural negative impacts are natural phenomena in the biosphere: climate change, thunderstorms, earthquakes, and the like.
The constant struggle for their existence forced a person to find and improve means of protection from the natural negative effects of the environment. Unfortunately, the emergence of housing, fire and other means of protection, the improvement of methods of obtaining food - all this not only protected a person from natural negative influences, but also influenced the environment.
Over the course of many centuries, the human habitat has slowly changed its appearance and, as a result, the types and levels of negative impacts have changed little. So, it lasted until the middle of the 19th century - the beginning of an active growth of human impact on the environment. In the XX century, zones of increased pollution of the biosphere appeared on the Earth, which led to partial, and in a number of cases, to complete regional degradation. These changes were largely facilitated by:
ь high rates of population growth on Earth (demographic explosion) and its urbanization;
ь growth of consumption and concentration of energy resources;
ь intensive development of industrial and agricultural production;
ь massive use of means of transport;
l growth in military spending and a number of other processes.
Man and his environment (natural, industrial, urban, household and others) in the process of life constantly interact with each other. At the same time, life can exist only in the process of movement of flows of matter, energy and information through a living body. Man and his environment harmoniously interact and develop only in conditions when the flows of energy, matter and information are within the limits favorably perceived by man and the natural environment. Any excess of the usual flow levels is accompanied by negative impacts on humans and / or the natural environment. Under natural conditions, such impacts are observed during climate change and natural phenomena.
In the conditions of the technosphere, negative impacts are caused by its elements (machines, structures, etc.) and human actions. By changing the value of any flow from the minimum significant to the maximum possible, it is possible to go through a number of characteristic states of interaction in the "person - environment" system: comfortable (optimal), acceptable (leading to discomfort without negative impact on human health), dangerous (causing degradation of the natural environment) and extremely dangerous (lethal outcome and destruction of the natural environment).
Of the four characteristic states of human interaction with the environment, only the first two (comfortable and acceptable) correspond to the positive conditions of everyday life, and the other two (dangerous and extremely dangerous) are unacceptable for the processes of human life, preservation and development of the natural environment.
2. Human interaction with the environment.
A person and his environment constantly interact in the process of life. At the same time, “life can exist only in the process of movement through a living body of flows of matter, energy, information (Law of conservation of life, Yu. N. Kurazhkovsky.). WITH The habitat can have a different (beneficial or unfavorable) effect on a person's health, well-being, working capacity, and rest. In most cases, there are several levels of human exposure.
The following characteristic states of interaction in the "man-environment" system can be distinguished:
1. Comfortable (optimal), when the flows correspond to the optimal conditions of interaction: create optimal conditions for activity and rest; prerequisites for the manifestation of the highest efficiency and, as a consequence, the productivity of activities; guarantee the preservation of human health and the integrity of the components of the habitat.
2. Permissible, when flows, affecting humans and the environment, do not have a negative impact on human health, but lead to discomfort, reducing the effectiveness of human activities. Compliance with the conditions of permissible interaction guarantees the impossibility of the emergence and development of irreversible negative processes in humans and in the environment.
3. Dangerous when fluxes exceed permissible levels and have a negative impact on human health, causing, with prolonged exposure, disease and / or degradation of the natural environment.
4. Extremely hazardous, when high-level flows in a short period of time can cause injury, death, cause destruction in the natural environment.
The first two states of interaction of the "man - environment" system correspond to positive conditions of everyday life, and the second two are unacceptable for the processes of human life, conservation and development of the natural environment, that is, they are negative.
3. The concepts of "danger", "safety".
From the first years of its formation, the subject of Belarusian Railways has been developing within the framework of the general theory of safety, which has many concepts and definitions.
Regardless of the levels, all negative impacts in the "human - habitat" system are usually called hazards. This is one of the key concepts of security theory.
Danger is an opportunity, threat of action, catastrophe, something undesirable. Danger is the possibility of the occurrence of circumstances in which matter, field, information or their combination can thus affect a complex system, which will lead to the deterioration or impossibility of its functioning and development. Danger is a negative property of living and inanimate matter, information, fields, capable of causing damage, harm to matter itself.
The concept of "danger" is opposed to the concept of "safety".
In its most general form, safety is the absence of danger. The content of safety is explained when considering possible hazardous and harmful factors of vital activity, a real dangerous situation, specific extreme conditions, etc. To understand the meaningful content of the concept of "safety", it is important to pay attention to the words used to denote states and processes that are opposite to safety: "undesirable consequences", "negative impact", "losses", "damage", "harm", "trouble", etc. .d. It is necessary to distinguish between dangerous and harmful factors that lead to undesirable consequences, and the unwanted consequences themselves in the form of harm to humans and society. Sometimes different hazards can lead to the same damage. On the contrary, the same dangerous factor in different conditions often leads to different damage or does not lead to losses at all.
Both dangerous and harmful factors, as well as negative consequences in terms of their content, can be very different. Harm can be caused by phenomena of a wide variety in content, intensity and scale, highlighted in the Belarusian Railways course on various grounds: natural, man-made, social, etc.
Damage in dangerous situations can be physical, mental or material. Damage is caused to phenomena and processes that are significant for a person and are fixed in his consciousness as a value. And the higher in the consciousness of a person the value to which the damage is caused, the greater the harm that this person sees in this damage. The values, the damage of which poses a danger to a person and society, include not only physical (vital), moral (moral) and material (economic) values, but also ethical, religious, national, political, ideological, scientific, environmental values, etc. etc. This trend is reflected in the specific content of the Belarusian Railways course, which reveals various risk factors and various means of protection in the economic, political, cultural spheres, in family, industrial relations, in military, educational collectives, etc.
In general terms, harmful and dangerous factors are understood as circumstances that have an adverse effect on humans and society.
Harmful factors are circumstances that negatively affect a person and society, causing harm during the entire period of interaction with a person, a group of people. Harmful factors are characterized by a gradual, long-term influence on people and society, for example, tobacco smoke in a room (damage is caused to physical health), an unfavorable moral and psychological climate in a team (moral and psychological damage is caused), etc.
O hazardous factors - circumstances that can cause misfortune, harm a person, damage (economic, physical, moral, etc.). For example, it is dangerous to enter a room filled with tobacco smoke, as it can harm your health.
Harmful and dangerous factors can lead to the occurrence of various situations, are their causes. By situations it is advisable to understand the natural segments of social life, which are characterized by place, time, subjects, the content of their activities, and the social context. Situations vary. From the point of view of the subject of the Belarusian Railways, the most interesting are dangerous (having dangerous factors, that is, it is possible to cause damage to a person, society), extreme (the danger is so great that to overcome it you need to act at the limit of possibilities) and extraordinary (when the danger has already manifested itself, up to direct damage to people and the environment) of the situation.
The term "risk" has several meanings. Terms differ in content. Risk in insurance terminology is used to denote the subject of insurance of an industrial enterprise or company, an insured event of a flood, fire, explosion, the sum insured of a hazard in monetary terms, or a collective term to denote unwanted and uncertain events. Economists and statisticians who are confronted with these questions understand risk as a measure of the possible consequences that will manifest themselves at some point in the future. In the psychological dictionary, risk is an action aimed at an attractive goal, the achievement of which is associated with elements of danger, the threat of loss, a situational characteristic of an activity consisting of uncertainty and adverse consequences, determined by a combination of the probability and magnitude of adverse consequences. Several definitions of the term describe risk as the occurrence of an accident. Accidents: danger, accident, disaster. Accidents occur under certain conditions of production or the atmospheric environment surrounding a person. Definitions as the meaning of the active activity of the subject, the objective properties of the environment. The general in all the above concepts includes an event. There will be an unwanted event or there will be no unwanted event. Usually, a probabilistic measure of man-made occurrences and natural phenomena accompanied by the emergence, formation and action of hazards caused by this social economic and technological harm. Risk, usually, is a probabilistic measure of the occurrence of man-made or natural phenomena, accompanied by the emergence, formation and action of hazards, caused in this case by social, economic, environmental types of damage and harm ... Risk is understood as the expected purity or probability of occurrence of hazards of a certain category, the amount of damage, harm from an undesirable event, some combination of values.
Risk is actually a measure of danger. Use the concept of the degree of risk.
The concept of the degree of risk (Level of risk) - does not differ from the concept of risk.
The degree of risk is a measurable quantity.
The term risk is currently used in hazard analysis and safety management (process risk) and production.
The formation of dangerous and emergency situations is the result of a certain set of risk factors generated by the corresponding sources.
With regard to life safety, such an event can be the death of a person, an accident or disaster of a technical system or device, pollution or deterioration of the ecological system, the death of a group of people, an increase in the death rate of the population, an increase in safety costs.
Each undesirable event can occur in relation to a certain victim - an object of risk.
Distinguish between individual, technical, environmental, social and economic risks.
Technical. Technical systems and facilities. Violation of the rules of operation and technical systems and facilities. Accident, explosion, disaster, fire. Anthropogenic environmental disasters, technical disasters.
Ecological. Ecological systems. Anthropogenic interference with the natural environment, man-made emergencies. Anthropogenic, ecological disasters, natural disasters.
Social. Social groups. Emergency. Decreased quality of life. Group injuries. Diseases. Death of people. Increase in mortality.
Economic. Material resources. Increased production hazard. Increased hazard to the natural environment. Increased security costs. Insufficient security damage.
Individual. Human. Human living conditions. Diseases. Injury. Disability. Death.
Individual risk is due to the likelihood of potential hazards realizing in the event of hazardous situations.
Sources of individual risk are: 1. The internal environment of the human body: aging, social ecology, poor-quality air, water, food, viral infections, household injuries, fires, professional activities. Dangerous and harmful production factors: transport communications, accidents and disasters of vehicles, collisions with a person of transport. accident, disaster, non-professional activity, sports. Social environment: armed conflict, murder. Natural environment: earthquake, volcanic eruption, flood, landslides, hurricane and other natural disasters.
Technical risk. Errors in determining operational loads. Wrong choice of construction materials. Insufficient safety margin. Lack of technical security equipment in projects. Poor finishing of structures. Technologies. Safety Criteria Documentation. Serial production of unsafe equipment. Deviation from a given chemical material. Insufficient accuracy of structural dimensions. Violation of the modes of thermal and chemical - thermal treatment of parts. Violation of regulations for assembly and mantage of structures and machines. Violation of the rules for the safe operation of technical systems.
Use of equipment for other purposes. Violation of passport design modes, operation. Untimely preventive examinations and repairs. Violations of the requirements for transportation and storage. Staff errors. Weak skills of action in a difficult situation. Inability to evaluate information about the state of the process. Poor knowledge of the essence of the ongoing process. Lack of composure under stress. Indiscipline.
Environmental risk. Environmental risk expresses the likelihood of an environmental disaster, catastrophe, disruption of the further normal functioning and existence of ecological systems and objects as a result of anthropogenic interference in the natural environment or natural disaster.
Sources and factors of social risk. Urbanization of ecologically unstable territories. Settlement of people in areas of possible formation of increased seismicity. Industrial technologies and objects of danger. Accidents at nuclear power plants, thermal power plants, chemical plants, overpasses. Technogenic pollution of the environment. Social and military conflicts. Combat action. The use of weapons of mass destruction. Epidemics. The spread of viral infections. Unsatisfactory living conditions.
Economic risk is determined by the ratio of benefits and harms received by society from the considered type of activity.
A dangerous situation is a combination of dangerous factors that can cause damage to humans and the environment.
An extreme situation is a situation in a certain territory in which the danger to humans and the environment is so great that tremendous efforts are required to eliminate it.
An emergency situation is a situation in a certain situation resulting from an accident, a dangerous natural phenomenon, a catastrophe, natural or other disaster that may or did entail human casualties, damage to human health or the environment, significant material losses and disruption of the living conditions of people ...
In the process of life, a person finds himself in situations of various types and types. Depending on the role of the person himself in the occurrence of danger and on how real the harm is caused, situations can be safe when they do not contain prerequisites for causing harm to humans; potentially dangerous (subjectively or objectively); really dangerous, etc.
Life safety science axioms. Analysis of real situations, events and experience allows us to formulate a number of axioms of the science of life safety in the technosphere:
1. Any activity is potentially dangerous and in one type of activity it is impossible to achieve absolute safety, the main task is to minimize risks.
2. Technogenic hazards exist if the flows of matter, energy and information in the technosphere exceed the threshold values. Compliance with the maximum permissible values of these flows preserves safe conditions for human life and reduces the negative impact of the technosphere on the natural environment.
3. All elements of the technosphere are sources of technogenic hazards. Dangers arise in the presence of defects and other malfunctions in technical systems, with improper use of technical systems, as well as due to errors of the operating personnel, the presence of waste accompanying the operation of technical systems.
4. Man-made hazards operate in space and time. They exist everywhere and always when using any technical systems, including the simplest (knife, matches, hammer, door, etc.).
5. Technogenic hazards simultaneously have a negative impact on humans, society, the natural environment and elements of the technosphere. Man and the surrounding nature, society and technosphere, being in continuous material, energy and information exchange, form a constantly operating spatial system "man - society - technosphere - natural environment".
6. Man-made hazards worsen people's health, lead to injuries, material losses, degradation of the natural environment, and social problems. The impact of harmful factors, as a rule, is long-term; it has a negative impact on the health of people, leads to occupational or regional diseases. Acting on the natural environment, harmful factors lead to the change and destruction of flora and fauna. Traumatic effects occur during accidents and disasters, during explosions, destruction of buildings and structures. The zones of such negative impacts, as a rule, are limited, although their spread over large areas is possible (for example, the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant).
7. Protection against technogenic hazards is achieved by improving technical facilities that are sources of danger; increasing the distance between sources of danger and the object of protection, the use of protective measures.
8. Competence of people, knowledge of dangers and methods of protection against them - a necessary condition for achieving life safety. The growth of man-made hazards, the absence of natural mechanisms of protection against them require the acquisition of skills by a person to detect and neutralize hazards, and the use of protective equipment. This is achievable only as a result of learning and gaining experience at all stages of education and practical activity of a person. The initial stage of teaching life safety issues should coincide with the period of preschool education, and the final stage with the period of advanced training and retraining of personnel in all spheres of the economy.
9. Reducing the size of risks and hazardous areas is beneficial. The greatest difficulties in limiting the size of the zones of exposure to hazardous factors occur during the operation of systems with increased energy intensity (hydrocarbon storage facilities, chemical plants, nuclear power plants, etc.). In case of accidents at such facilities, the hazardous zones cover, as a rule, not only the production zones, but also the zones of the population. The main directions of reducing the danger of such objects are:
Improvement of security systems of facilities;
Reducing the size of dangerous objects;
Distant industrial and residential areas;
Active use of protective systems and devices;
Continuous monitoring of sources of danger;
Achievement of high professionalism of operators of technical systems;
Mass education of the population in the basics of life safety, solving urgent social and domestic needs.
Sometimes, when considering the problem of preparing students for dangerous situations, the authors of textbooks do not explain which situations (potential or real) they mean. Meanwhile, readiness for active, adequate actions in a real dangerous situation (in case of fire, flood, bully attack, etc.) does not always mean readiness to take correct actions in a potentially dangerous situation. In other words, a poorly prepared person, by his actions in a potentially dangerous situation, is capable of causing real damage to himself and those around him.
Summarizing the above, we can conclude the following:
The concept of "safety" serves as a criterion (measure of assessment) of the protection of a person and society from hazards (harm, damage, losses, undesirable consequences);
Security as an objective reality manifests itself in the absence or minimal (low enough to be acceptable for a specific person in a specific situation) level of risk of damage to human interests (health, material well-being, etc.)
There is no doubt that life safety depends both on the external environment and on the person himself, on his ability not to get into dangerous situations, readiness to take protective measures, and safety culture.
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A person exists in the process of life, continuous interaction with the environment in order to satisfy his needs.
Life activity- this is the time of a person's rest. It takes place in conditions that pose a threat to human life and health. Livelihoods are characterized by quality of life and safety.
Activity- this is an active conscious interaction of a person with the environment.
The forms of activity are varied. The result of any activity should be its usefulness for human existence. But at the same time, any activity is potentially dangerous. It can be a source of negative impacts or harm, leads to illness, injury, and usually results in disability or death.
A person carries out activities in the conditions of the technosphere or the surrounding natural environment, that is, in the conditions of the environment.
Habitat- this is the human environment that through a combination of factors (physical, biological, chemical and social) directly or indirectly affects the life of a person, his health, working capacity and offspring.
In the life cycle, a person and the environment continuously interact and form a constantly operating system “person - environment”, in which a person realizes his physiological and social needs.
In the composition of the environment, the production and domestic environment are distinguished. Every environment can be dangerous to humans.
The environment includes:
- Natural environment ()- the area of distribution of life on Earth, which has not experienced anthropogenic impact (atmosphere, hydrosphere, upper part of the lithosphere). It has both protective properties (protection of a person from negative factors - temperature difference, precipitation) and a number of negative factors. Therefore, to protect against them, man was forced to create a technosphere.
- Technogenic environment ()- habitat created by the impact of people and technical means on the natural environment in order to best match the environment to social and economic needs.
At the present stage of human development, society continuously interacted with the environment. Below is a diagram of human interaction with the environment.
In the 20th century, zones of increased natural environment arose on Earth. This led to partial and complete degradation. These changes were facilitated by the following evolutionary processes:
- Increased energy consumption
- Massive use of transport
- Rising military spending
Classification of conditions for a person in the "person - environment" system:
- Comfortable(optimal) conditions for activity and rest. A person is adapted to these conditions to a greater extent. The highest is manifested, the preservation of health and the integrity of the components of the habitat are guaranteed.
- Allowable... They are characterized by the deviation of the levels of flows of substances, energy and information from the nominal values within the permissible limits. These working conditions do not have a negative impact on health, but lead to discomfort and a decrease in working capacity and productivity. Irreversible processes are not caused in humans and in the environment. Permissible exposure rates are enshrined in sanitary standards.
- Dangerous... The flows of substances, energy and information exceed the permissible exposure levels. Have a negative impact on human health. Prolonged exposure causes disease and degradation.
- Extremely dangerous... Streams in a short time can cause injury or death, causing irreversible damage to the natural environment.
Human interaction with the environment can be positive (with a comfortable and acceptable state) and negative (with a dangerous and extremely dangerous). Many factors that constantly affect a person are unfavorable for his health and vigorous activity.
Security can be achieved in two ways:- elimination of sources of danger;
- increasing protection from dangers, the ability to reliably resist them.
- a science that studies hazards, means and methods of protection against them.
Danger Is a natural, man-made, ecological, military and other threat, the implementation of which can lead to a deterioration in the state of health and death of a person, as well as damage to the environment.
The main goal of life safety doctrine- protection of humans in anthropogenic and natural origin, the achievement of comfortable living conditions.
The solution to the problem of life safety consists in ensuring comfortable conditions for the activities of people, their lives, protecting a person and his environment from the effects of harmful factors.
A person pays for any harm with his health and life, which can be considered as system-forming factors in the system “person - environment”, the final result of its functioning and the criterion of the quality of the environment.
The object of the study of life safety is a complex of negatively influencing phenomena and processes in the system "man - environment".