2. Large races of man
Since the 17th century, many different classifications of human races have been proposed. Most often, three main, or large, races are distinguished: Caucasoid (Eurasian, Caucasian), Mongoloid (Asian-American) and equatorial (Negro-Australoid).The Caucasoid race is characterized by fair skin (with variations from very light, mainly in Northern Europe, to relatively dark in Southern Europe and the Middle East), soft straight or wavy hair, horizontal eyes, moderate to highly developed hair on the face and chest in men, a noticeably protruding nose, a straight or slightly sloping forehead.
In representatives of the Mongoloid race, the skin color varies from dark to light (mainly in the North Asian groups), the hair is usually dark, often hard and straight, the nose protrusion is usually small, the palpebral fissure has an oblique incision, the fold of the upper eyelid is significantly developed and, besides in addition, there is a fold (epicanthus) covering the inner corner of the eye; the hairline is weak.
The Equatorial, or Negro-Australoid race is distinguished by dark pigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes, curly or wide-wavy (Australian) hair; the nose is usually wide, slightly protruding, the lower part of the face protrudes.
Genetically, all races are represented by different autosomal components, and in cases where the race is of mixed origin, then there are usually several such components, each of which is of different origin.
3. Small races and their geographical distribution
Each major race is subdivided into minor races, or anthropological types. Within the Caucasian race, the Atlanto-Baltic, White Sea-Baltic, Central European, Balkan-Caucasian and Indo-Mediterranean small races are distinguished. Nowadays, Caucasians inhabit virtually the entire inhabited land, but until the middle of the 15th century - the beginning of the great geographical discoveries - their main area included Europe and partly North Africa, Western and Central Asia and Northern India. In modern Europe, all small races are represented, but the Central European variant predominates numerically (it is often found among Austrians, Germans, Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Russians, Ukrainians); in general, its population is very mixed, especially in cities, due to resettlement, cross breeding and the influx of migrants from other regions of the Earth.Within the Mongoloid race, the Far Eastern, South Asian, North Asian, Arctic and American minor races are usually distinguished, and the latter is sometimes considered as a separate large race. Mongoloids inhabited all climatic and geographic zones (North, Central, East and Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, Madagascar, North and South America). Modern Asia is characterized by a wide variety of anthropological types, but various Mongoloid and Caucasoid groups prevail in terms of numbers. Among the Mongoloids, the most common are the Far Eastern (Chinese, Japanese, Koreans) and South Asian (Malays, Javanese, Probes) small races, among the Caucasians, the Indo-Mediterranean. In America, the indigenous population (Indians) is a minority compared to the various Caucasian anthropological types and population groups of representatives of all three large races.
Rice. Scheme of the anthropological composition of the peoples of the world (small races, distinguished within large ones, differ from each other in less significant features).
The equatorial, or Negro-Australoid, race includes three small races of African Negroids (Negro, or Negroid, Bushman and Negrillic) and the same number of Oceanian Australoids (Australian, or Australoid, race, which in some classifications is distinguished into an independent large race, as well as the Melanesian and Vedoid). The area of the equatorial race is not continuous: it covers most of Africa, Australia, Melanesia, New Guinea, and partly Indonesia. In Africa, the Negro minor race is numerically predominant; in the north and south of the continent, the proportion of the Caucasian population is significant.
In Australia, the indigenous population is a minority in relation to migrants from Europe and India, and representatives of the Far Eastern race (Japanese, Chinese) are also quite numerous. Indonesia is dominated by the South Asian race.
Along with the above, there are races with a less definite position, formed as a result of prolonged mixing of the population of certain regions, for example, the Lapanoid and Uralic races, combining the features of Caucasians and Mongoloids to one degree or another, as well as the Ethiopian race, intermediate between the equatorial and Caucasian races.
4. Origin of human races
Human races appear to have emerged relatively recently. According to one of the schemes based on the data of molecular biology and genetics, the division into two large racial trunks - Negroid and Caucasian-Mongoloid - most likely occurred about 80 thousand years ago, and the primary differentiation of proto-Caucasian and proto-Mongoloid - about 40-45 thousand years ago. Large races were mainly formed under the influence of natural and socio-economic conditions in the course of intraspecific differentiation of the already established Homo sapiens, starting from the Paleolithic and Mesolithic, but spread mainly already in the Neolithic and later. The Caucasoid type has been established en masse since the Neolithic, although many of its individual features can be traced in the Late or even Middle Paleolithic. In fact, there is no reliable evidence of the presence of established Mongoloids in East Asia in the pre-Neolithic era, although in North Asia they may have existed as early as the Late Paleolithic. In America, the ancestors of the Indians were not definitively formed Mongoloids. Also, Australia was settled by racially neutral neoanthropes.There are two main hypotheses for the origin of human races - polycentrism and monocentrism.
According to the theory of polycentrism, modern human races arose as a result of a long parallel evolution of several phyletic lineages on different continents: Caucasoid in Europe, Negroid in Africa, Mongoloid in Central and East Asia, Australoid in Australia. However, if the evolution of racial complexes and proceeded in parallel on different continents, it could not be completely independent, since the ancient protoraces had to interbreed at the borders of their ranges and exchange genetic information. In a number of areas, intermediate small races have formed, characterized by a mixture of signs of different large races already in antiquity. So, an intermediate position between the Caucasian and Mongoloid races is occupied by the South Siberian and Uralic minor races, between the Caucasian and Negroid - the Ethiopian, etc.
From the standpoint of monocentrism, modern human races were formed relatively late, 30-35 thousand years ago, in the process of settling neoanthropes from the area of their origin. At the same time, the possibility of crossing (at least limited) neoanthropes during their expansion with displaced populations of paleoanthropes (as a process of introgressive interspecific hybridization) with the penetration of the alleles of the latter into the gene pools of neoanthropic populations is also allowed. It could also contribute to racial differentiation and stability of some phenotypic traits (like the spatulate incisors of Mongoloids) in the centers of race formation.
There are also compromises between mono- and polycentrism concepts, allowing the divergence of phyletic lineages leading to different large races at different levels (stages) of anthropogenesis: for example, Caucasoids and Negroids that are closer to each other already at the stage of neoanthropes with the initial development of their ancestral trunk in the western part of the Old World, while even at the stage of paleoanthropes, the eastern branch - the Mongoloids and, perhaps, the Australoids - could have separated, although according to some individual characteristics the Caucasians have common features with the Austroloids.
Large races of man occupy vast territories, covering peoples that differ in the level of economic development, culture, and language. There are no clear coincidences of the concepts of "race" and "ethnos" (people, nation, nationality). At the same time, there are examples of anthropological types (small and sometimes large races) that correspond to one or more closely related ethnic groups, for example, the Lapanoid race and the Sami. Much more often, however, the opposite is observed: one anthropological type is widespread among many ethnic groups, as, for example, in the indigenous population of America or among the peoples of Northern Europe. In general, all large peoples, as a rule, are anthropologically heterogeneous. There is also no overlap between races and linguistic groups - the latter arose later than races. So, among the Turkic-speaking peoples there are representatives of both Caucasians (Azerbaijanis) and Mongoloids (Yakuts). The term "race" is inapplicable to linguistic families - for example, one should speak not about the "Slavic race", but about a group of kindred peoples who speak Slavic languages.
5. Race and racism
Many racial traits are adaptive. For example, in representatives of the equatorial race, dark skin pigmentation protects against the scalding effect of ultraviolet rays, and elongated body proportions increase the ratio of body surface to its volume and thereby facilitate thermoregulation in hot climates. However, racial characteristics are not decisive for a person's existence, therefore, they in no way indicate any biological or intellectual superiority or, on the contrary, inferiority of a particular race. All races are at the same level of evolutionary development and are characterized by the same species characteristics. Therefore, the concepts of the alleged inequality of human races in physical and mental relations (racism), put forward since the middle of the 19th century, are scientifically untenable. Racism has distinct social roots and has always been used as an excuse for violent land grabbing and discrimination against indigenous peoples. Racists usually ignore the fact that the differences between the achievements of different peoples are fully explained by the history of their cultures, depending on external factors, on their historically changing role. It is enough to compare the level of cultural development of the population of Northern Europe today and in the era of the great civilizations of the past in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley.Conclusion
Human races are systematic divisions within the species Homo sapiens. The concept of "race" is based on the biological, primarily physical similarity of people and the commonality of the territory (area) inhabited by them in the past or present.Most often, three main, or large, races are distinguished according to characteristics: Caucasoid (Eurasian, Caucasian), Mongoloid (Asian-American) and equatorial (Negro-Australoid). Each major race is subdivided into minor races, or anthropological types.
There are two main hypotheses for the origin of human races - polycentrism and monocentrism.
According to the theory of polycentrism, modern human races arose as a result of a long parallel evolution of several phyletic lineages on different continents: Caucasoid in Europe, Negroid in Africa, Mongoloid in Central and East Asia, Australoid in Australia.
From the standpoint of monocentrism, modern human races were formed relatively late, 20-35 thousand years ago, in the process of settling neoanthropes from the area of their origin.
There are also compromise concepts between mono- and polycentrism, allowing for the divergence of phyletic lineages leading to different large races at different levels (stages) of anthropogenesis.
Large races of man occupy vast territories, covering peoples that differ in the level of economic development, culture, and language. There are no clear coincidences of the concepts of "race" and "ethnos" (people, nation, nationality). In general, all large peoples, as a rule, are anthropologically heterogeneous. There is also no overlap between races and linguistic groups - the latter arose later than races.
Many racial traits have an adaptive meaning and are not decisive for human existence, so they in no way indicate any biological or intellectual superiority or, on the contrary, inferiority of a particular race. All races are at the same level of evolutionary development and are characterized by the same species characteristics. Therefore, the concepts of the alleged inequality of human races in physical and mental relations (racism), put forward since the middle of the 19th century, are scientifically untenable. Racism has distinct social roots and has always been used as an excuse for violent land grabbing and discrimination against indigenous peoples. Racists usually ignore the fact that the differences between the achievements of different peoples are fully explained by the history of their cultures, depending on external factors, on their historically changing role.
At the genetic level, there are also clear correlations between
For about one million years from the beginning of the Quaternary period, during its glacial and interglacial epochs up to the postglacial, modern era, ancient mankind settled more and more widely in the ecumene. The development of groups of mankind often took place in separate areas of the Earth, where the conditions of isolation and the peculiarities of the natural environment were of great importance. The earliest humans evolved into Neanderthals, and Neanderthals evolved into Cro-Magnons.
Race - biological subdivisions of modern mankind (Homo sapiens), differing in common hereditary morphological features, associated with the unity of origin and a certain area of residence.
One of the first creators of the racial classification was a French scientist Francois Bernier, published in 1684 a work in which he used the term "race". Anthropologists distinguish four large races of the first order and a number of intermediate ones, numerically small, but also independent. In addition, in each race of the first order, the main divisions are distinguished -
Negroid race: negros, negrilli, bushmen and hottentots.
Characteristic features of a Negroid:
Curly hair (black);
Dark brown skin;
Brown eyes;
Moderately protruding cheekbones;
Strongly protruding jaws;
Thick lips;
Wide nose.
Mixed and transitional forms between the Negroid and Caucasian large races: the Ethiopian race, the transitional groups of the Western Courts, the mulattoes, the "colored" African groups.
Caucasian race: northern, transitional, southern.
Characteristic features of a Caucasian:
Wavy or straight soft hair in different shades;
Light or dark skin;
Hazel, light gray and blue eyes;
Weak cheekbones and jaws;
Narrow nose with high nose;
Thin to medium lip thickness. Mixed forms between Caucasoid
the great race and the American branch of the Mongoloid great race: the American mestizo.
Mixed forms between the Caucasian large race and the Asian branch of the Mongoloid large race: the Central Asian groups, the South Siberian race, the Laponoids and the Subural. 3.2. Caucasoid type, mixed group of Siberia.
minor races, or races of the second order, possessing (with some variations) the basic characteristics of their large race.
The signs on the basis of which races of different orders are distinguished are diverse. The most obvious are the degree of development of the tertiary hairline (the primary hairline already exists on the body of the embryo in the uterine state, the secondary - hair on the head, eyebrows - is available in a newborn; tertiary - associated with puberty), as well as a beard and mustache, hair shape and eye (Fig. 3.1; 3.2; 3.3; 3.4).
Pigmentation, that is, the coloration of the skin, hair and growth, plays a prominent role in racial diagnosis. However, according to the degree of pigment;
Mongoloid race: American races, Asian branch of Mongoloid races, continental Mongoloids, Arctic race (Eskimos and Paleo-Asians), Pacific (East Asian) races.
Characteristic features of the Mongoloid:
Straight, coarse and dark hair;
Poor development of the tertiary hairline;
Yellowish skin tone;
Brown eyes;
A flattened face with prominent cheekbones;
Narrow nose, often with a low nose;
The presence of epicanthus (fold at the inner corner of the eye).
Transitional groups between the Asian branch of the Mongoloid large race and the Australoid large race: the South Asian race (southern Mongoloids), Japanese, East Indonesian Fig. 3.3. Mongoloid group
Australoid race: Veddoids, Australians, Ainu, Papuans and Melanesians, Negritos. Characteristic features of the Australoid:
Dark skin color;
Brown eyes;
Wide nose;
Thick lips;
Wavy hair;
Siltso has a developed tertiary hairline.
Other racial types (mixed): Malagasy, Polynesian, Micronesian, Hawaiian.
There are significant differences in each race. For example, rather light-pigmented groups of African Negroids and very dark Caucasians, residents of southern Europe. Therefore, the division of humanity into white, yellow and black accepted in the literature does not correspond to the actual data. The peculiarity of growth (short stature) is characteristic only of the few pygmy peoples of Asia and Africa. From among the more special signs used in racial diagnosis, blood groups, some genetic signs, papillary patterns on the fingers, the shape of the teeth, etc. can be named.
Racial characteristics were not only continuously consolidated, but also leveled out. Increasingly different from one another due to the differences in the geographical environment with which they were associated, and under the influence of labor, the development of culture and other special conditions of the race, at the same time, they acquired more and more similarity among themselves in the general features of modern man. At the same time, as a result of a qualitatively special path of development, human races began to differ more and more sharply from the subspecies of wild animals.
The time of the formation of racial types is usually attributed to the era of the emergence of a modern human species, neoanthrope, during which the biological stage of anthropogenesis was basically completed, which was expressed in the cessation of the overall action of natural selection. The social development of human societies began.
The formation of the main races, according to scientists, took place 40-16 thousand years before the present. However, the processes of race genesis continued later, but not so much under the influence of natural selection as under the influence of other factors;
The study of the bone remains of Neanderthals and fossil humans of a modern species in the Old World led some scientists to the idea that about 100 thousand years ago, two large racial groups were outlined in the bowels of ancient mankind (J. Ya. Roginsky, 1941, 1956). Sometimes they talk about the formation of two circles of race formation: large and small (Fig. 3.5).
In the large circle of race formation, the first original branch of the human trunk, the southwestern one, was formed. She split into two large racial groups: European-Asian, or Caucasoid, and equatorial, or negroid-australoid. Having appeared 2.5 million years ago in East Africa, more than a million years ago, humans began to populate Southern Europe and Southwest Asia, the natural conditions of which were significantly different from those of Africa. The appearance of man coincides with the beginning of the glaciation era, when mighty glaciers 2-3 km thick descended from the mountains to the plains and covered vast expanses, binding a huge mass of moisture. The ocean level went down, the water surface shrank, and evaporation decreased. The climate became drier and colder everywhere. During the glaciation, ancient people left such harsh regions and migrated to places with a favorable climate. This contributed to their mixing (after all, until the beginning of the last glaciation there were no characteristic racial differences).
The most significant difference between the two races in the process of their development in the large circle of race formation was the color of the skin, as well as a number of other traits.
In people negroid race: dark eye color, predominance of dark skin pigmentation (except for Hottentots); dark, coarse curly or wavy hair; poor development of the tertiary hairline, a wide nose in the wings, thick lips, alveolar prognathism is common (a strong protrusion of the facial part of the skull). Dark skin protects their body from harmful ultraviolet rays, curly hair creates an air gap that protects the head from overheating.
In people Caucasian race: skin color ranges from white to light brown, and eyes from blue to black; the hair is soft, straight or wavy; moderate to strong development of the tertiary hairline; significant profiling (protrusion) of the facial skeleton; narrow, strongly protruding nose; the lips are thin or medium. Northern Caucasians are characterized by light pigmentation of the skin and hair (blondes); among them there are albino noses, almost devoid of pigmentation. Blue eyes predominate. Southern Caucasians are highly pigmented, brunettes. Some groups of southern Caucasians have especially sharp facial profiling and strong hair growth (Assyroids). The eyes are usually dark. Large groups of Caucasians have intermediate pigmentation (brown-haired, dark-blond).
Natural selection led to the survival of narrow-faced (the minimum surface area of the body surface unprotected by clothing), long-nosed (warming up the inhaled cold air), thin-lipped (preserving internal heat), with a lush beard and mustache (protecting the face from the cold, according to polar explorers, is better than a fur mask). Long winter weakened the body, especially children, threatening rickets. The best cure for it is ultraviolet rays. Their excess causes burns, dark skin serves as protection against them. Light skin transmits ultraviolet rays, at a moderate dose they penetrate into the deeper layers of the skin, extracting the vitamin D so necessary for the body - a panacea for rickets. Light hair on the head also does not trap ultraviolet rays, allowing them to pass through to the skin. During the polar night, the northern lights, which emit the blue part of the spectrum, serve as an additional source of light. The dark iris absorbs this part of the spectrum, the blue one lets it through. Thus, in the Far North, a fair-haired, fair-skinned, blue-eyed race should have formed, which it is legitimate to find Nordic. To a greater or lesser extent, the features of this rice have been preserved by the peoples of Northern Europe.
Currently, the skin color is darker in the Negroid Australoid! noah, races and among those Caucasoid races that were formed in the hotter southern countries. On the contrary, the territorially northern Caucasoid racial groups gradually brightened. It is believed that in the beginning there was a lightening of the skin, and finally, of the hair.
In a small area, it was formed in the North-East; Asia, To north and east of the Himalayan mountains was formed Mongoloid race, which gave rise to several anthropological types. People of the Mongoloid race are characterized by yellowish; skin color, dark, straight hair, poor development of the tertiary hair, a flattened facial skeleton with a protruding zygomatic part, alveolar prognathism, a peculiar structure of the eye, in which the lacrimal tubercle is covered with a fold (epicanthus), and other signs, in particular, the so-called spatulate incisors.
The peculiarities of this race were formed in the conditions of open steppe expanses, strong dust and snow storms. During the period) of the formation of the Mongoloids and their movement across Eurasia 20-15 thousand years ago, the area of glaciers increased, the level of the oceans dropped by 150 meters, the climate became even drier and colder. In a wide strip from the East European to the Great Chinese Plain, the rate of loess accumulation has increased tenfold. Loess is a product of weathering, and its increase indicates raging loess storms. Natural selection caused the extinction of a part of the population. - Survived those who had a narrow cut of the eyes, epicanthus - a fold of the eyelid that protected the lacrimal tubercle of the eye from dust, a snub nose, straight coarse hair, a rare beard and mustache that did not clog with dust. Skin with a yellowish tinge marked the people against the background of yellow loess soils. This is how populations with Mongoloid features were formed. Archaeological finds indicate that during the peak of glaciation, hunter settlements were located in groups among unpopulated spaces.
In the east of Eurasia, the Mongoloids through Beringia, the land mass that connected Siberia with North America, penetrated into Alaska, free of glaciers. Further, the path to the south, blocking them with the giant Canadian ice sheet. At the beginning of the peak of glaciation, when the level of the World Ocean dropped very quickly, a land corridor was formed along the western edge of the shield along which hunters penetrated the Great Plains of North America. The path to the south was blocked by the deserts of Mexico, and the natural conditions on the Great Plains turned out to be very favorable. Although there were loess storms that caused the extinction of mammoths, countless herds of bison and deer served as an excellent hunting object. The Great Plains are literally littered with spear-pointed stone. The similarity of natural conditions in the Great Plains and in Central Asia led to the appearance of a number of similar features among the Indians: skin with a yellowish tint, coarse straight hair, and the absence of a beard and mustache. Less fierce loess storms made it possible to preserve large eagle noses and wide eyes. Archaeological finds indicate that the Indians are morphologically similar to the ancient inhabitants of the Baikal region, who lived there before the peak of glaciation. Settling further and further south along the mainland, this group over time transformed into the Indian, or American, small race, which scientists usually divide into several anthropological types.
All racial differences have evolved as adaptations to the environment. People of all human races are one species. This is evidenced by their genetic unity - the same set of chromosomes, the same diseases, blood groups, fertile offspring from interracial marriages.
As humanity settled and assimilated new ecological niches with different natural conditions within large races, small races became isolated, and intermediate (mixed) races arose at the boundaries of contacts between large races (Fig. 3.6).
Caucasians Mongoloids Mixed types Negroids Australoids
Caucasians Mestizos Mulattoes Negroids
Mongoloids-Indians
Rice. 3.6. Distribution of races in the world (Start)
In the course of history, there has been a constant mixing of races, as a result of which practically pure races do not exist, and they all exhibit certain signs of mixing. In addition, many intermediate anthropological types developed, combining different racial characteristics. For all the main morphological, physiological, mental and mental properties, the races do not have any fundamental, qualitative differences and constitute a single biological species of Homo sapiens.
This process has been especially intensive over the past 10-15 thousand years. Since the time that Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492, the process of mixing (or mestizing) has taken on enormous proportions. On the whole, all humanity is more or less mixed; tens of millions of people are very difficult or simply impossible to classify even to any large race. Mixed marriages of Blacks - slaves from Africa and whites gave rise to mulattos, Indian in-Mongoloids with white colonizers - mestizo, and Indians and blacks - sambo... The main reason for the confusion of racial characteristics was the numerous migrations of the population (Fig. 3.7, 3.8).
However, at the borders of the ecumene, located in the marginal Areas of human settlement, the factor of natural isolation played the greatest role. Peoples have survived on Earth with pronounced complexes of racial characteristics; These are, for example, the pygmies in the jungles of the Congo Basin in Africa; Indians in the equatorial forests of the Amazon; Lapps (Sami) in the Far North of Europe; Eskimos (Inuit) in the Far North of Asia and America; Indians in the Far South of South America; Australian Aborigines, Papuans of New Guinea; Bushmen in the South African Kalahari and Namib deserts.
Today, the geographic position of the modern races is quite clearly fixed (see col. Incl. 7). Negroids inhabit most of the African continent and in the New World, where they were taken out as slaves. The main areas of settlement of the Mongoloids are Siberia, Southeast, East and Central Asia, partly Central Asia, Polynesia and America. Caucasians live in almost all parts of the world, but they are mainly settled in Pyrope. North, Central and South America, in large parts of Front and Central Asia, in the northern regions of South Asia. Migrants from the Old and New World make up the majority of the Caucasian populations of Australia and New Zealand.
Representatives of the large Australoid (Oceanic) race are scattered (mainly in relatively small groups) over a vast territory from South Asia to Southeast and East Asia, Australia and Oceania.
Recognition of the fact of evolution at the end of the 19th century. meant abandoning the Typological Approach to Species, since Darwinism emphasized
(Fig. 3.7. Mestizos from mixed marriages)
3.8. World migration of the population in the XVII-first half of the XIX centuries.
and the fact of individual variation within species, and the constant transformation that each species undergoes. However, until recently, the thinking of anthropologists was distinctly typological, textbooks of physical anthropology contained mostly descriptions and names of human races. Some authors (“unifiers”) named only a dozen human races, while others (“splitters”) a myriad of them.
The difficulty with the use of these categories is that there are too many contradictions between the different ways of dividing the human races. Are the Turks a white race, as evidenced by their appearance, or oil and belong to the Mongoloid tribes of Central Asia, by which they (along with the Hungarians and Finns) have a linguistic
static relationship? What to do with the Basques, who look Spanish at first glance, but whose language and culture are unlike any other in the world? Those who speak Hindi and Urdu in India are creating their own problem. Historically, they represent a mixture of South Asian Dravidian aborigines, Central Asian Aryans (who are clearly Caucasians) and Persians. Should they be referred to the same group with Europeans, whose languages originate from Sanskrit - Hindi and Urdu are very close to it, or, because of their dark skin, should they be combined into one group with the inhabitants of South Asia?
The attempt to compose more and more complex sets of characteristics of human types that would correspond to the incredible diversity of people, in the end, failed. Anthropologists no longer try to name and define races and subraces, because they understand that there are no pure human groups. The most striking feature of the general history of mankind is the incessant, low migration of the population and, consequently, the mixing of racial groups from different regions.
The most recognized classification of races proposed Ya. Ya. Roshch ginsky and M. G. Levin(Figure 3.9).
Racial studies as a science in our country developed poorly, because the state artificially obscured the acuteness of the problem. However, over the years of pluralistic development of spiritual life, fascist and other extremely nationalist movements have emerged in our country, which have absorbed the ideological principles of racism. That is why a scientific analysis of these problems is now so necessary.
Is race a biological or social phenomenon?
Author of the book "Culturanthropology" K.F.Kottak He writes that the scientific study of race as a biological education is very problematic, raises many questions and bewilderments. Researchers have great difficulty in applying biological concepts to groups of people in the question of what or which set of external features are most significant in determining their racial identity in different people. If you give priority to skin color, then the terms themselves inaccurately describe the color. The LC of this classification, entire peoples remain outside it: the Polynesians, the peoples of South India, the Australians, the Bushmen to the south! Africa cannot be attributed to any of the three above-named races.
Moreover, mixed marriages, and their number is increasing, modify the phenotypes of races, and in life the problem is reduced, first of all, to determining the status of an infant. In American cult, the subject acquires racial definition at birth, but race is not based on biology or simple inheritance.
Rice. 3.9. Major racial groups
In the American culture, a child born of a mixed marriage of an African American and a "white" can be classified as "black", while by genotype it should probably be classified as "white." In the United States, racial division is primarily a social grouping and has nothing to do with biological division. Other nations also have cultural norms that govern these relationships. For example, the Brazilian designation of someone's race can be expressed in one of 500 different terms. If we take the blood group as the basis for identifying a race, then the number of races, perhaps, will increase to a million. The conclusion from such a hypothesis will be the provision that all races are biologically full for the creation of their culture and possession of universal universals.
However, there are other antiscientific theories. They assert the biological disparity of races. Supporters of racism Yelat humanity into higher and lower races. The latter are not capable of cultural development and are doomed to degeneration. In co-
According to their theory, the inequality of races is due to the origin of people from different ancestors: the Caucasian - from the Cro-Magnons, and the rest - from the Neanderthals. Representatives of different races differ in the level of mental development; not all of them are capable of cultural development. These fabrications are refuted by scientific evidence. The capacity of the cerebral part of the skull varies among people of the same race, without affecting mental abilities; All elements of culture are similar in people of different races, and the uneven pace of its development depends not on biological characteristics, but on historical and social reasons.
Another anti-scientific direction - social Darwinism - transfers the action of biological laws (struggle for existence and natural selection) to modern human society and denies the role of social factors in human evolution. Social Darwinism explains the inequality of people in society, its stratification into classes co-j, by the biological inequality of people, and not by social reasons.
The problem of race and intellect also require separate consideration. Researchers believe that there are many power groups in the world who are socially dominant in societies who justify their privileges by declaring less | shrine (racial, ethnic, social) subordinate nd nature. Similar theories have been recognized to justify apartheid in South Africa, European colonialism in Asia, Africa and Latin America. In the United States, the supposed white supremacy was upheld by segregation doctrine. Confidence in the biologically substantiated backwardness of Native Americans - Indians gave grounds for their extermination, resettlement on the reservation.
Pseudo-scientific judgments have also appeared, trying to explain. that misery and poverty are nothing more than a consequence of lower intellectual abilities. American explorer A. Jensen, interpreting the observation, during which it was found that compared with the "whites", the "black" Americans, when tested, on average show a lower level of intelligence, makes the following conclusion: "white" Americans are "smarter" than "blacks", "blacks" are genetically incapable of show the same level of intelligence as "whites". However, the same K.F.Kottak gives examples where measurements of IQ (intelligence index) among US Indians showed contrasting results; those who lived on reservations, in conditions of poverty and discrimination, showed an average IQ of 0.87, and Indians from better-off areas with good schools for them 1.04. Today, in a number of states, such a study without consent) is punishable by law.
We can say that the initial division of peoples into civilized and savages is already a thing of the past. Ethnographic data indicate that the ability for cultural Evolution is equal for all races. Moreover, it has been proven that in any stratified society, differences in social groups in terms of economic, social, ethnic and racial parameters reflect inequality of opportunities to a greater extent than genetic structure. Therefore, differences in wealth, prestige and power between social classes are due to social relations, property.
The concept of "race" turned out to be completely undefined, which prompted UNESCO to recommend using the term "ethnos" instead. And although the concept includes anthropological characteristics, common origin and a single language of a separate group of people, it is not identical to the concept of "race" in the biological sense - as a group of organisms that have become geographically isolated and acquired hereditary morphological and physiological differences. In addition, despite the genetic relationship, in a number of cases the differences among neighboring ethnic groups are so great that they cannot be explained without resorting to the biological concept of "race".
In modern humanity, there are three main races: Caucasian, Mongolian and Negroid. These are large groups of people with some physical characteristics, such as facial features, skin, eye and hair color, and hair shape.
Each race is characterized by the unity of origin and formation in a certain territory.
The indigenous population of Europe, South Asia and North Africa belongs to the Caucasoid race. Caucasians are characterized by a narrow face, a strongly protruding nose, and soft hair. The skin color in northern Caucasians is light, in southern Caucasians it is predominantly dark.
The indigenous population of Central and East Asia, Indonesia, Siberia belongs to the Mongoloid race. Mongoloids are distinguished by a large flat wide face, cut eyes, hard straight hair, and dark skin color.
In the Negroid race, two branches are distinguished - African and Australian. The Negroid race is characterized by dark skin color, curly hair, dark eyes, and a wide and flat nose.
Racial features are hereditary, but at present they are not essential for human life. Apparently, in the distant past, racial characteristics were useful for their owners: the dark skin of blacks and curly hair, creating an air layer around the head, protected the body from the action of sunlight, the shape of the facial skeleton of Mongoloids with a larger nasal cavity is possibly useful for heating cold air before it enters the lungs. According to mental abilities, that is, the ability to cognize, creative and labor activity in general, all races are the same. Differences in the level of culture are associated not with the biological characteristics of people of different races, but with the social conditions of the development of society.
The reactionary nature of racism. Initially, some scientists confused the level of social development with biological characteristics and tried to find transitional forms among modern peoples that connect humans with animals. These mistakes were used by racists, who began to talk about the alleged inferiority of some races and peoples and the superiority of others, in order to justify the merciless exploitation and direct destruction of many peoples as a result of colonization, the seizure of foreign lands and the outbreak of wars. When European and American capitalism tried to conquer the African and Asian peoples, the white race was declared the supreme. Later, when Hitler's hordes marched across Europe, destroying the captured population in the death camps, the so-called Aryan race was declared the highest, to which the Nazis ranked the Germanic peoples. Racism is a reactionary ideology and politics aimed at justifying the exploitation of man by man.
The failure of racism has been proven by the real science of race — race. Racial studies studies the racial characteristics, origins, formation and history of human races. The data obtained by racial studies suggests that differences between races are not sufficient to consider races as different biological species of people. Mixing of races - cross-breeding - took place constantly, as a result of which intermediate types arose at the boundaries of the ranges of representatives of different races, smoothing out the differences between races.
Will races disappear? One of the important conditions for the formation of races is isolation. In Asia, Africa and Europe, it still exists to some extent today. Meanwhile, newly settled regions such as North and South America can be compared to a cauldron in which all three racial groups are melted down. Although public opinion in many countries does not support interracial marriage, there is little doubt that race mixing is inevitable, and sooner or later will lead to the formation of a hybrid population of people.
Human races are the biological subdivisions of the species "Homo sapiens" historically formed in human evolution. They differ in complexes of hereditarily transmitted and gradually changing morphological, biochemical and other features. The modern geographic areas of distribution, or habitats, occupied by races make it possible to outline the territories in which races were formed. Due to the social nature of man, races are qualitatively different from the subspecies of wild and domestic animals.
If for wild animals the term "geographical races" can be applied, then in relation to humans it has largely lost its meaning, since the connection of human races with the original ranges is broken by numerous migrations of masses of people, as a result of which a mixture of various races and peoples and new human associations were formed.
Most anthropologists divide humanity into three large races: Negroid-Australoid ("black"), Caucasoid ("white") and Mongoloid ("yellow"). Using geographical terms, the first race is called the equatorial, or African-Australian, the second, European-Asian, and the third, the Asian-American race. There are the following branches of the major races: African and Oceanic; north and south; Asian and American (G. F. Debets). The population of the Earth is now over 3 billion 300 million people (data for 1965). Of these, the first race accounts for about 10% of the second - 50% and the third - 40%. This, of course, is a rough summary estimate, since there are hundreds of millions of racially mixed individuals, numerous minor races and mixed (intermediate) racial groups, including those of ancient origin (for example, Ethiopians). The large, or primordial, races that occupy vast territories are not entirely homogeneous. They are divided according to physical (bodily) characteristics into branches, into 10-20 small races, and those into anthropological types.
Modern races, their origin and taxonomy are studied by ethnic anthropology (race studies). The population groups are subjected to research for examination and quantitative determination of the so-called racial characteristics, followed by the processing of mass data by methods of variation statistics (see). For this, anthropologists use scales for the color of the skin and iris of the eyes, the color and shape of the hair, the shape of the eyelid, nose and lips, as well as anthropometric instruments: compasses, goniometer, etc. (see Anthropometry). Hematological, biochemical and other examinations are also carried out.
Belonging to a particular racial subdivision is determined on men 20-60 years old by a complex of genetically resistant and fairly characteristic signs of physical structure.
Further descriptive features of the racial complex: the presence of a beard and mustache, the stiffness of the scalp, the degree of development of the upper eyelid and its folds - epicanthus, forehead tilt, head shape, development of the brow ridges, face shape, body hair growth, type of addition (see Habitus) and body proportions (see Constitution).
Skull shape options: 1 - dolichocranial ellipsoid; 2 and 3 - brachycranial (2 - round, or spheroid, 3 - wedge-shaped, or sphenoid); 4 - mesocranial pentagonal, or pentagonoid.
A unified anthropometric examination on a living person, as well as on the skeleton, mostly on the skull (Fig.), Makes it possible to clarify somatoscopic observations and to carry out a more correct comparison of the racial composition of tribes, peoples, individual populations (see) and isolates. Racial characteristics vary and are subject to sex, age, geographic, and evolutionary variability.
The racial composition of mankind is very complex, which to a large extent depends on the mix (cross-breeding) of the population of many countries in connection with ancient migrations and modern mass migrations. Therefore, on the land territory inhabited by mankind, contact and intermediate racial groups are found, formed from the interpenetration of two or three or more complexes of racial characteristics during the cross-breeding of anthropological types.
The process of cross-breeding of races increased greatly during the era of capitalist expansion after the discovery of America. As a result, for example, Mexicans are half mestizos between Indians and Europeans.
A noticeable increase in interracial mixing is observed in the USSR and other socialist countries. This is the result of the elimination of all kinds of racial barriers on the basis of sound science-based national and international policies.
Races are biologically equal and blood related. The basis for this conclusion is the doctrine of monogenism, developed by Charles Darwin, that is, the origin of man from one species of ancient two-legged apes, and not from several (the concept of polygenism). Monogenism is confirmed by the anatomical similarity of all races, which, as Charles Darwin emphasized, could not have arisen by convergence, or the convergence of characters, of different ancestral species. The species of monkeys, which served as an ancestor for humans, probably lived in South Asia, from where the most ancient people settled on the Earth. Ancient people, the so-called Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), gave rise to "Homo sapiens". But modern races did not arise from Neanderthal ones, but were formed anew under the influence of a combination of natural (including biological) and social factors.
The formation of races (rasogenesis) is closely related to anthropogenesis; both processes are the result of historical development. Modern man arose over a vast territory, roughly from the Mediterranean to Hindustan, or somewhat more. From here, Mongoloids could have formed in the northeastern direction, Caucasians in the northwest, and Negroids and Australoids in the southern directions. However, the problem of the ancestral home of modern man is still far from complete solution.
In more ancient epochs, when people settled on Earth, their groups inevitably fell into conditions of geographical and, consequently, social isolation, which contributed to their racial differentiation in the process of interaction of factors of variability (see), heredity (see) and selection. With an increase in the number of the isolate, a new resettlement occurred and contacts with neighboring groups arose, resulting in crossbreeding. In the formation of races, natural selection also played a role, the influence of which noticeably weakened as the social environment developed. In this regard, the characteristics of modern races are of secondary importance. Aesthetic or sexual selection also played a part in the formation of races; sometimes racial characteristics could acquire the meaning of identifying characteristics for representatives of a particular local racial group.
As the population of mankind grew, both the specific value and the direction of action of individual factors of race genesis changed, but the role of social influences increased. If for the primary races, crossbreeding was a differentiating factor (when the cross-breeding groups again fell into isolation conditions), now mixing levels out racial differences. Currently, about half of humanity is the result of crossbreeding. Racial differences, which naturally arose over the course of long millennia, must and will, as K. Marx pointed out, be eliminated by historical development. But racial traits will manifest themselves for a long time in certain combinations, mainly in individuals. Cross-breeding often leads to the emergence of new positive features of the physical makeup and intellectual development.
The racial identity of the patient must be taken into account when evaluating some of the data of the medical examination. This applies mainly to the peculiarities of the color of the integument. Skin color, characteristic of a representative of the "black" or "yellow" race, in the "white" will be a symptom of Addison's disease or icterus; a purple tint of lip color, bluish nails in a Caucasian, a doctor will assess as cyanosis, in a Negro - as a racial feature. On the other hand, color changes in the case of "bronze disease", jaundice, cardio-respiratory failure, distinct in Caucasians, can be difficult to determine in representatives of the Mongoloid or Negroid-Australoid race. Of much less practical importance are and less often may require adjustments for racial characteristics when assessing physique, height, skull shape, etc. As for the alleged predisposition of a given race to a particular disease, increased susceptibility to infection, etc., these features, as a rule, do not have a "racial" character, but are associated with social, cultural, household and other living conditions, the proximity of natural foci of infection, the degree of acclimatization during migrations, etc.
In the main and secondary features of the external appearance and internal structure, people are very similar to each other. Therefore, from a biological point of view, most scientists consider humanity as one kind of "Homo sapiens".
Humanity, now inhabiting almost the entire land, even in Antarctica, is not homogeneous in composition. It is divided into groups that have long been called races, and this term has taken root in anthropology.
The human race is a biological group of people, similar, but not homologous to the subspecies group of zoological systematics. Each race is characterized by the unity of origin, arose and formed on a certain initial territory, or area. Races are characterized by one or another set of bodily features, relating mainly to the external appearance of a person, to his morphology and anatomy.
The main racial characteristics are as follows: the shape of the hair on the head; the nature and degree of development of hair on the face (beard, mustache) and on the body; color of hair, skin and iris of the eyes; the shape of the upper eyelid, nose and lips; head and face shape; body length, or height.
The human races are the subject of special research in anthropology. According to many Soviet anthropologists, modern mankind consists of three large races, which in turn are subdivided into minor races. These latter again consist of groups of anthropological types; the latter are the main units of racial taxonomy (Cheboksarov, 1951).
In the composition of any human race, you can find more typical and less typical representatives of it. In the same way, races are found more characteristic, more sharply expressed and comparatively little different from other races. Some races are intermediate.
The large Negroid-Australoid (Black) race as a whole is characterized by a certain combination of characters found in the most striking expression among the Sudanese Negroes and distinguishing it from the Caucasian or Mongoloid large races. The racial characteristics of Negroids include: black, spirally curled or wavy hair; chocolate brown or even almost black (sometimes yellowish brown) skin; Brown eyes; rather flat, slightly protruding nose with a low nose bridge and wide wings (some have a straight, narrower one); most have thick lips; many have a long head; moderately developed chin; the protruding dental section of the upper and lower jaws (jaw prognathism).
Based on the geographical distribution, the Negroid-Australian race is also called the equatorial, or African-Australian. It naturally splits into two small races: 1) Western, or African, otherwise Negroid, and 2) Eastern, or Oceanian, otherwise Australoid.
For representatives of the large European-Asian, or Caucasoid, race (white), in general, a different combination of signs is characteristic: pinkness of the skin, due to the translucence of blood vessels; some have a lighter skin color, others have a darker complexion; many have light colored hair and eyes; wavy or straight hair, moderate to strong hair growth on the body and face; lips of medium thickness; the nose is rather narrow and strongly protruding from the plane of the face; high nose nose; poorly developed fold of the upper eyelid; slightly protruding jaws and upper part of the face, moderately or strongly protruding chin; as a rule, a small width of the face.
Within the large Caucasian race (white), three minor races are distinguished by the color of their hair and eyes: the more pronounced northern (light-colored) and southern (dark-colored), as well as the less pronounced Central European (with an intermediate color). A significant part of the Russians belong to the so-called White Sea-Baltic group of types of the northern small race. They are characterized by light brown or blond hair, blue or gray eyes, and very light skin. At the same time, their nose is often with a concave back, and the nose bridge is not very high and of a different shape than that of the northwestern Europeoid types, namely in the Atlanto-Baltic group, whose representatives are found mainly in the population of the countries of Northern Europe. With the latter group, the White Sea-Baltic has many features in common: both of them constitute the northern Caucasian small race.
The darker colored groups of southern Caucasians form the bulk of the population of Spain, France, Italy, Switzerland, southern Germany and the countries of the Balkan Peninsula.
The Mongoloid, or Asian-American, large (yellow) race as a whole differs from the Negroid-Australoid and Caucasian large races in its inherent totality of racial characteristics. So, its most typical representatives have dark, yellowish skin; dark brown eyes; hair is black, straight, tight; on the face, a beard and mustache, as a rule, do not develop; on the body, the hairline is very poorly developed; for typical Mongoloids, a highly developed and peculiarly located fold of the upper eyelid is very characteristic, which covers the inner corner of the eye, thereby causing a somewhat oblique position of the palpebral fissure (this fold is called the epicanthus); their face is rather flat; wide cheekbones; the chin and jaws protrude slightly forward; the nose is straight, but the nose bridge is low; the lips are moderately developed; the growth of the majority is average and below average.
Such a combination of traits is more common, for example, among the northern Chinese, who are typical Mongoloids, but taller. In other Mongoloid groups, one can find less or thicker lips, less tight hair, the growth is lower among him. A special place is occupied by the American Indians, for some signs seem to bring them closer to the large Caucasoid race.
There are also groups of types of mixed origin in humanity. The so-called Lapland-Uralic are the Lapps, or Sami, with their yellowish skin, but soft dark hair. By their bodily characteristics, these inhabitants of the far north of Europe connect the Caucasian and Mongoloid races with each other.
There are also such groups that at the same time have great similarity with two other, more sharply different races, and the similarity is explained not so much by mixing as by ancient family ties. Such, for example, is the Ethiopian group of types, linking the Negroid and Caucasian races: it has the character of a transitional race. This appears to be a very ancient group. The combination of the signs of two large races in it clearly testifies to very distant times, when these two races were still something one. The Ethiopian race includes many inhabitants of Ethiopia, or Abyssinia.
In total, humanity splits into approximately twenty five to thirty groups of types. At the same time, it is a unity, since there are intermediate (transitional) or mixed groups of anthropological types among races.
For most human races and groups of types, it is characteristic that each of them occupies some definite common territory in which this part of humanity historically arose and developed.
But due to historically prevailing conditions, it happened more than once that one or another part of the representatives of a given race moved to neighboring or even very distant countries. In some cases, some races have completely lost touch with their original territory, or a significant part of them have undergone physical extermination.
As we have seen, representatives of a particular race are characterized by approximately the same combination of hereditary bodily features related to the external appearance of a person. However, it has been established that these racial characteristics change during the course of an individual life and in the course of evolution.
Representatives of each human race, due to their common origin, have a somewhat closer relationship with each other than with representatives of other human races.
Racial groups are characterized by strong individual variability, and the boundaries between different races are usually not clearly expressed. So. some races are connected with other races by imperceptible transitions. In some cases, it is very difficult to establish the racial composition of the population of a particular country or population group, population.
Determination of racial characteristics and their individual variability is carried out on the basis of techniques developed in anthropology and with the help of special tools. As a rule, hundreds and even thousands of representatives of the studied racial group of humanity are subjected to measurements and examination. Such techniques make it possible to judge with sufficient accuracy the racial composition of a particular people, the degree of purity or mixed racial type, but do not give the absolute possibility of attributing some people to a particular race. It depends either on the fact that the racial type in a given individual is not clearly expressed, or due to the fact that this person is the result of confusion.
Racial characteristics in some cases vary markedly even during a person's life. Sometimes, for a short time, the signs of racial divisions also change. So, in many groups of humanity, the shape of the head has changed over the past hundreds of years. The largest progressive American anthropologist Franz Boas established that the shape of the skull changes within racial groups even over a much shorter period, for example, when moving from one part of the world to another, as happened among immigrants from Europe to America.
The individual and general forms of variability of racial characteristics are inextricably linked and lead to continuous, albeit usually little noticeable, modifications of the racial groups of humanity. The hereditary composition of the race, while sufficiently stable, is nevertheless subject to constant change. So far, we have talked more about racial differences than similarities between races. However, we recall that the differences between races appear quite clearly only when a set of characteristics is taken. If we consider racial characteristics separately, then only very few of them can serve as more or less reliable evidence of an individual's belonging to a particular race. In this regard, perhaps the most striking feature is the spirally curled, or, in other words, curly (curly) hair, so characteristic of typical blacks.
In very many cases, it is completely impossible to establish. to which race should this or that person be attributed. So, for example, a nose with a fairly high back, a mid-nose bridge and medium-wide wings can be found in some groups of all three large races, as well as other racial characteristics. And this is regardless of whether this person is descended from a marriage between representatives of two races or not.
The fact of the intertwining of racial characteristics is one of the proofs that races have a common origin and are blood related to one another.
Racial differences are usually secondary or even tertiary features in the structure of the human body. Some of the racial traits, such as skin color, are largely associated with the adaptability of the human body to the natural environment. Such features have developed in the course of the historical development of mankind, but they have already largely lost their biological significance. In this sense, human races are not at all similar to subspecies groups of animals.
In wild animals, racial differences arise and develop as a result of the adaptation of their organism to the natural environment in the process of natural selection, in the struggle of variability with heredity. Subspecies of wild animals as a result of long or rapid biological evolution can transform and transform into species. Subspecific features are vital for wild animals and have an adaptive character.
Breeds of domestic animals are formed under the influence of artificial selection: the most useful or beautiful individuals are taken to the tribe. Breeding of new breeds is carried out on the basis of the teachings of IV Michurin, often in a very fast time, during only several generations, especially in combination with proper feeding.
Artificial selection did not play any role in the formation of modern human races, and natural selection was of secondary importance, which it had long lost. It is obvious that the process of the origin and development of human races differs sharply from the pathways of origin of breeds of domestic animals, not to mention cultivated plants.
The first foundations of the scientific understanding of the origin of human races from a biological point of view were laid by Charles Darwin. He specially studied the human races and established the certainty of a very close similarity between them in many basic characteristics, as well as their blood, very close relationship. But this, according to Darwin, clearly indicates their origin from one common trunk, and not from different ancestors. All further development of science has confirmed his conclusions, which form the basis for monogenism. Thus, the doctrine of the origin of man from different apes, that is, polygenism, turns out to be untenable and, consequently, racism is deprived of one of its main supports (Ya. Ya. Roginsky, MG Levin, 1955).
What are the main features of the species "Homo sapiens", which are characteristic of all modern human races, without exception? The main, primary signs should be recognized as a very large and highly developed brain with a very large number of convolutions and grooves on the surface of its hemispheres and a human hand, which, according to Engels, is an organ and a product of labor. The structure of the leg is also characteristic, especially the foot with a longitudinal arch, adapted to support the human body when standing and moving.
The important features of the type of modern man include further: the spinal column with four bends, of which the lumbar column is especially characteristic, which developed in connection with upright posture; the skull with its rather smooth outer surface, with a highly developed cerebral and poorly developed facial regions, with high frontal and parietal regions of the cerebral region; strongly developed gluteal muscles, as well as the muscles of the thigh and lower leg; poor development of body hair in the complete absence of tufts of tactile hair, or vibrissae, in the eyebrows, mustache and beard.
Possessing the totality of the listed characteristics, all modern human races are at the same high level of development of physical organization. Although in different races these basic species characteristics are not quite equally developed - some are stronger, others are weaker, but these differences are very small: all races have completely the features of the type of modern man, and none of them is Neanderthaloid. In the composition of all human races, there is not one biologically superior to any other race.
Modern human races have equally lost many of the monkey features that were still in the Neanderthals, and acquired the progressive traits of "Homo sapiens." Therefore, no modern human race can be considered more ape-like or more primitive than others.
The adherents of the false doctrine of higher and lower races argue that blacks are more like monkeys than Europeans. But scientifically, this is completely wrong. Blacks have spirally curled hair, thick lips, straight or convex forehead, tertiary hair on the body and face is absent, legs are very long relative to the body. And these signs indicate that it is blacks that are more sharply different from chimpanzees. than the Europeans. But the latter, in turn, with a very light skin color and other features, differ more sharply from monkeys.