«Theory of systems and system analysis. System Behavior

Every day we are among people, we perform some actions in accordance with this or that situation. We have to communicate with each other, using generally accepted norms. Together, all of this is our behavior. Let's try to go deeper

Behavior as a moral category

Behavior is a complex of human actions that an individual performs over a long period of time under given conditions. These are all actions, not individual ones. Whether actions are performed consciously or unintentionally, they are subject to moral evaluation. It is worth noting that behavior can reflect both the actions of one person and the whole team. At the same time, both personal characteristics of character and specificity have an influence. interpersonal relationships. By his behavior, a person reflects his attitude to society, to specific people to the objects around him.

The concept of a line of conduct

The concept of behavior includes the definition of a line of conduct, which implies the presence of a certain system and consistency in the repetitive actions of an individual or the characteristics of the actions of a group of people over a long period of time. Behavior is perhaps the only indicator that objectively characterizes the moral qualities and driving motives of a person.

The concept of rules of conduct, etiquette

Etiquette is a set of norms and rules that regulate the relationship of a person with others. It is an integral part of social culture (culture of behavior). It is expressed in a complex system of relationships between people. This includes concepts such as:

• polite, courteous and patronizing treatment of the fair sex;
• a sense of respect and manifestation of deep respect for the older generation;
• correct forms everyday communication with others;
• norms and rules of dialogue;
• being at the dinner table;
• treatment of guests;
• compliance with the requirements for human clothing (dress code).

All these laws of decency embody the general idea of ​​human dignity, the simple requirements of convenience and ease in human relationships. Generally consistent with general requirements courtesy. However, there are also strictly established ethical standards that have an unchanging character.

• Respectful treatment of students and teachers.
  • Observance of subordination in relation to subordinates to their leadership.
  • Standards of conduct in public places, during seminars and conferences.

Psychology as a science of behavior

Psychology is a science that studies the characteristics of human behavior and motives. This field of knowledge studies how mental and behavioral processes proceed, specific personality traits, mechanisms that exist in the human mind and explain the deep subjective reasons for one or another of his actions. It also considers the distinctive features of a person's character, taking into account those significant factors that determine them (stereotypes, habits, inclinations, feelings, needs), which may be partly innate, and partly acquired, brought up in appropriate ways. social conditions. Thus, the science of psychology helps us understand, as it reveals its mental nature and the moral conditions of its formation.

Behavior as a reflection of human actions

Depending on the nature of a person's actions, various ones can be defined.

• A person by his actions may try to attract the attention of others. Such behavior is called demonstrative.
• If a person assumes any obligations and fulfills them in good faith, then his behavior is called responsible.
• Behavior that determines the actions of a person aimed at the benefit of others, and for which he does not require any reward, is called helping.
• There is also internal behavior, which is characterized by the fact that a person decides for himself what to believe in, what to value.

There are others that are more complex.

• Deviant behavior. It represents a negative deviation from the norms and patterns of behavior. As a rule, it entails applying to the offender various kinds punishment.
• If a person demonstrates complete indifference to the environment, unwillingness to make decisions independently, mindlessly follows others in his actions, then his behavior is considered conformal.

Behavior characteristic

The behavior of an individual can be characterized by various categories.

• Innate behavior - as a rule, these are instincts.
• Acquired behavior is the actions performed by a person in accordance with his upbringing.
• Intentional behavior - actions carried out by a person consciously.
• Unintentional behavior is actions that occur spontaneously.
• Behavior can also be conscious or unconscious.

Code of conduct

Close attention is paid to the norms of human behavior in society. A norm is a primitive form of requirement regarding morality. On the one hand, it is a form of relationship, and on the other hand, it is a specific form of consciousness and thinking of an individual. The norm of behavior is constantly reproducible actions of the same type of many people, obligatory for each person individually. Society needs people to act according to a certain scenario in given situations, which is designed to maintain social balance. The binding force of the norms of behavior for each individual is based on examples from society, mentors and the immediate environment. In addition, habit plays an important role, as well as collective or individual coercion. At the same time, the norms of behavior should proceed from general, abstract ideas about morality and ethics (the definition of good, evil, and so on). One of the tasks of the correct education of a person in society is to ensure that the simplest norms of behavior become an internal need of a person, acquire the form of a habit and be carried out without external and internal coercion.

Raising the next generation

One of the most crucial moments in the upbringing of the younger generation are. The purpose of such conversations should be to expand the knowledge of schoolchildren about the culture of behavior, explain to them the moral meaning of this concept, as well as educate them in the skills of correct behavior in society. First of all, the teacher should explain to the students that it is inextricably linked with the people around them, that it depends on how the teenager behaves, how easy and pleasant it will be for these people to live next to him. Teachers should also bring up positive character traits in children using the examples of books by various writers and poets. Students should also be taught the following rules:

• how to behave at school;
• how to behave on the street;
• how to behave in a company;
• how to behave in public transport;
• how to behave when visiting.

It is important to pay special attention, especially in high school, to such an issue, both in the society of classmates, as well as in the society of guys outside of school.

Public opinion as a reaction to human behavior

Public opinion is a mechanism by which society regulates the behavior of each particular individual. Any form of social discipline falls under this category, including traditions and customs, because for society it is something like legislative norms behaviors followed by the vast majority of people. Moreover, such traditions form public opinion, which acts as a powerful mechanism for regulating behavior and human relationships in different areas life. From an ethical point of view, the determining moment in regulating the behavior of an individual is not his personal discretion, but public opinion, which is based on certain generally recognized moral principles and criteria. It must be admitted that an individual has the right to independently decide how to behave in a given situation, despite the fact that the norms adopted in society, as well as collective opinion, have a tremendous influence on the formation of self-consciousness. Under the influence of approval or censure, the character of a person can change dramatically.

Assessment of human behavior

Considering the question, one should not forget about such a concept as an assessment of the behavior of an individual. This assessment consists in the approval or condemnation by society of a particular act, as well as the behavior of the individual as a whole. People can express their positive or negative attitude towards the subject being evaluated in the form of praise or blame, agreement or criticism, manifestations of sympathy or hostility, that is, through various external action and emotions. In contrast to the requirements expressed in the form of norms, which in the form general rules prescribe how a person should act in a given situation, the assessment compares these requirements with those specific phenomena and events that already take place in reality, establishing their compliance or non-compliance with existing norms of behavior.

golden rule of conduct

In addition to what we all know is generally accepted, there is Golden Rule. It originated in ancient times, when the first essential requirements for human morality were formed. Its essence is to treat others in the way you would like to see this attitude towards yourself. Similar ideas were found in such ancient works as the teachings of Confucius, the Bible, Homer's Iliad, and so on. It is worth noting that this is one of the few beliefs that has survived to our time in almost unchanged form and has not lost its relevance. The positive moral significance of the golden rule is determined by the fact that it practically orients the individual towards the development important element in the mechanism moral behavior- the ability to put yourself in the place of others and emotionally experience their condition. In modern morality, the golden rule of behavior is an elementary universal prerequisite for relationships between people, expressing a successive connection with the moral experience of the past.

The state of the system is an ordered balance of all elements of the system, while a change in at least one element leads to a change in other elements.

The initial state of the system - the system has no history.

The final state is when the system achieves its goal. All other states are called intermediate.

The state of the system is usually called equivalent if, with the same input action, we get the same reactions at the output.

The state of the system is usually called forbidden if this state causes an undesirable reaction of the system.

The state is usually called catastrophic, if the system does not function at all, or we get a negative reaction.

The system is capable of changing and moving from one state to another. Distinguish between internal and external movement.

The internal movement of the system is ϶ᴛᴏ, as it were, chewing and digesting food, that is, an internal process, often invisible. We can observe that the process is going on at the output of the system. The computer calculated the model and issued a printout.

The external movement of the system is the interaction of the system with the external environment.

The system can be in the following states. Equilibrium is the ability of a system in the absence of external disturbances to maintain its behavior for an arbitrarily long time.

Resilience is the ability of a system to return to a state of equilibrium after it has been removed.

The interaction of various systems or elements of the system may be in the nature of cooperation or conflict.

There are the following types of behavior:

Elementary is the reaction of the system to one input

Locally or tactical - a set of elementary acts of behavior and reaction of the system

Strategic or target behavior - the behavior of the system in the process of achieving the goal.

A set of elements becomes a system only if there is a common goal for the functioning of the system.

Adaptation to the external environment

The organization as a system interacts with the external environment, and the external environment is constantly changing, therefore, in order to survive, the system must constantly adapt to the external environment.

The immediate environment or environment of direct impact. Influences with the organization most often: consumers, suppliers, employees, competitors, banks, tax office.

The main environment - affects the organization irregularly and not directly. These are social, cultural, political, demographic, legal and technological factors. At system research it is customary to investigate in detail all the factors external environment.

In terms of adaptation, it is important to understand the bottleneck of the enterprise. This is some kind of division, some kind of equipment, some kind of employees that reduce the ability of the organization to quickly respond to changes in the external environment.

The demand for the company's products has grown sharply by 1.5, but the company cannot cope with the order:

Lack of qualified workers

Lack of equipment

Lack of space...

Self-management system

Management is a function of the system that ensures its activities in accordance with the plan and keeps all indicators in acceptable limits. Management - ϶ᴛᴏ external influence.

Self-management of the system - the ability of the system to independently respond to external influences; as a result, the system constantly adapts to the influences of the external and internal environment. The system is completely self-governing if there is no hierarchy. But even in hierarchical structures, the system has a certain independence. Change in systems occurs constantly, and self-organizing and self-managing systems have the following properties:

The ability to change the environment for your own purposes.

Adaptability to changes in the external environment

Unpredictability of behavior

Ability to self-learn

Self-managed systems change not only under the influence of the external environment, but also generate change themselves. At the same time, any developing system has two contradictory tendencies:

1. Evolution and development
2. Decays and the so-called increase in entropy

Self-organization implies the presence of a predetermined goal, to which the system strives independently. The presence of such a goal structures the system, makes it more flexible, and the level of organization of the system rises.

An example of a self-organizing system. In octopuses, the male dies 7-9 months after reaching puberty, and females no later than the tenth day after the appearance of the last cub.

Self-organization always directs the system to some kind of stable state, while usually the system has many options for behavior in order to achieve the desired goal, the system chooses one option

Point A - bifurcation point, choice point

It is believed that the Russian Federation has passed the bifurcation point at 90 gᴦ.

Coevolution of systems

The term appeared in 1964 in ecology.

Gradually, the theory of co-evolution began to be used not only in biological systems, but also when considering human society. As a result, science gradually moved from the theory of evolution to the theory of co-evolution, that is, all evolutionary processes began to be considered mutually. There are two types of co-evolution: cooperation and competition.

Co-evolution is a joint, conjugated, interdependent, but autonomous development of integral systems, that is, this is the coexistence and co-development of man, animals, plants of everything on earth.

The concept of self-organization and co-evolution are interconnected. Self-organization is a change in one system, and co-evolution is a relationship between systems.

System Analysis Methodology

Specifics of system analysis:

1. It is recommended to compare all possible theoretical alternatives. Traditionally, two options are compared
2. Distraction from the secondary and consideration of essential properties.
3. Association within the framework of the study of living and inanimate nature, material and spiritual, hausa and order
4. All conclusions on the analysis should be made not just within the framework of subject knowledge, but within the framework of holistic knowledge (in conjunction with other sciences)

In the process of system analysis, a certain model is created that allows you to develop the most preferable solutions and evaluate the feasibility of certain actions. The model must be mathematical or verbal.

System analysis is based on the use of the system category:

The system as a whole is considered, subsystems are considered, the functions of systems and subsystems, connections in the system, the purpose of the system are considered, special attention is paid to the analysis of the goals and objectives of the system.

The use of systems analysis helps to explore such a bottleneck in research as a clear statement of the problem.

System Methods help to formulate loosely structured problems where it is difficult to use mathematical methods.

When formulating a problem, use the following approach:

Are determined important indicators systems

It is determined whether there are problems in terms of these indicators

We analyze them

Exact formulation of the problem and analysis of its structure

The development of the problem in the past and future is considered.

The connections of this problem with other problems are considered.

The question is raised about the fundamental solvability of the problem

Looking for ways to achieve the goals. For this, sub-issues that make up the problem are identified, the question is posed: why should this issue be resolved? That is, what changes are expected in the system when solving this issue.

When solving any problem, it is extremely important to clearly set boundaries and not try to embrace the immensity. It is necessary to formulate the conditions that characterize the extremely important e or desired state of affairs.

We analyze the actual state of affairs in the analyzed area and determine the discrepancy between the actual and the desired.

For each identified problem, relevance is revealed (including in comparison with other problems).

The causes that give rise to the identified shortcomings are analyzed.

The means of eliminating the causes are determined.

Establish ways to implement selected means

Systems approach can be seen as a combination various descriptions:

1. Morphological description (what parts the system consists of)

2. Functional description (what functions the system performs)

3. Information description of the system (transfer of information between parts of the system)

4. Communication description of the system - ϶ᴛᴏ description of the relationship of the system with other systems horizontally and vertically.

5. Integration description - system change in time and space

6. Description of the history of the system

Practice

Heuristic Methods for System Synthesis

The rules of mood for creative thinking (activators of mood):

1. Rule 24: we write down in a notebook everything that arises in the tin regarding the solution of this problem throughout the whole day.
2. Rule 25: At least 25 ideas are expected
3. Rule 26: looking for words for all letters of the alphabet
4. Methods of analogy: direct analogy (dragonfly and helicopter), subjective analogy (what I would feel if I were a blackboard), symbolic analogy (decision tree, family tree), fantasy analogy (from science fiction novels)
5. Inversion method (permutation, reversal, eversion)
6. Empathy method - the researcher puts himself in the place of this system
7. Idealization method - development of a completely ideal system
8. Brainstorming method (collective generation of ideas)
9. The method of focal objects (transferring the features of a random object that is in the focus of your attention)
10. Method for generating random associations

1. Control questions method:

1. What new application of the system can be proposed?
2. What other campaign system is this ͵ and what can be copied?
3. what modifications are possible by changing functions?
4. What can be increased in the system?
5. What can be reduced in the system?
6. What can be replaced in the system?
7. What can be changed in the system? (Scheme of work order)
8. What can be done in the system on the contrary?
9. What new combinations of elements are possible?

What is the difference system analysis from other methods of analysis

All technically possible alternative methods and means of achieving goals are considered. All alternatives are evaluated from a long-term perspective. Often there are no standard solutions. Clearly set out different views to solve the same problem. Cost and time requirements are not clearly defined. Special attention refers to subjective factors, to harmonize different points of view. Particular attention is paid to risk factors and uncertainty.

Methods of system analysis:

1. The use of mathematical methods is the task, for example, of finding the maximum of the objective function. Classical mathematics, linguistic methods, statistics are used
2. The logic and methods of purely system analysis are used. The problem is structured, a goal is set, functions are defined, etc.
3. Graphic Methods: diagrams, histograms, drawings, block diagrams, network models.

These methods allow you to make the decision more clear.

1. The use of matrices. Matrices allow you to visualize information and reveal internal relationships between elements, for example, periodic system Mendel-Eev's elements.
2. scripting method. This method appeared precisely in system analysis: a group of qualified professionals draws up a scenario for solving a problem or developing events. Different sections of the script are written by different groups of people. All scenarios are logically justified, and often several scenarios are developed, that is, scenarios answer the question of what will happen if ... As a result, a tree of goals or a decision tree appears. After developing such a tree, it is very important to know the probability of each scenario occurring.
3. brainstorming method. Each participant is given the right to express the most various ideas. Everything is heard without criticism and recorded. All proposals are grouped and only then discussed.
4. Delphi method. The method is used if the group gathering is not possible. At the same time, each member of the group anonymously, without discussion with other members of the group, answers the questions posed, the results of the answers are collected, classified, and the integral document is again sent to all members of the group. It is proposed to answer the same questions again. The procedure can be repeated 3-5 times.
5. Method of expert assessments. Using a poll followed by a preferred option.
6. The goal tree method. This tree, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ combines all goals, all resources, as well as all possible options development of events.

Methods of system analysis. Techniques are separate actions, in the process of solving a problem or in the process of using a method. The method is wider than the reception.

1. Comparison is comparing something with something. For example, the actual position and the desired one, for the past year and for this year, or a comparison of two options.
2. Rationing. Standards or limits are set for something. For example, a time limit or a financial resources, material resources.
3. Exception. Removing something. The technique is used in the preparation of goals, sub-goals when choosing alternatives.
4. Hypothetical technique - various hypotheses are put forward. For this, the problem is ʼʼshelledʼʼ large quantity questions that need to be answered. This technique is widely used in the development of many alternatives.
5. Balance reception. Something is being balanced. For example, income-expenditure.
6. Classification - the distribution of something into classes, groups, categories.
7. Ranking - establishing the relative importance of something.
8. Idealization - a representation of something better than it actually is, is used in the formation of alternatives.
9. Simplification - making something look simpler than it actually is
10. Selection.
    Hosted on ref.rf
    Not the entire set of objects is being studied, but only a certain part, pre-selected according to certain criteria
11. Proof by contradiction. Assessment of the relevance of the problem through the study of the consequences of its non-solution. What happens if this issue is not resolved.

Methodology for developing and analyzing the goals of the system.

Particular attention in system analysis is paid to the development of system goals.

1 System analysis methodology - the PATTERN methodology (USA) involved the development of a tree of goals. Key tips for goal setting:

1. The goal should direct activities towards a useful result and play an active role in the process.
2. Goal must be realistic
3. AT complex systems the goal should be blurred and replaced with a number of sub-goals
4. The goal is formulated in time and space (short-term, medium-term, long-term).
5. Goals below the underlying level are always considered as means to achieve goals above the underlying level.
6. The achievement of the goals of the lower level should not be fully ensured by the achievements of the sub-goals of the lower level.
7. The most common way to represent goals is a tree of goals. It is necessary to strive to limit the number of levels of goals to 5-7.
8. In parallel with the goal tree, a criteria tree is built.
9. To formulate goals and subgoals when solving an unclear problem, you can answer questions about what you need to know in order to solve the problem, what needs to be created to solve the problem, what needs to be organized in the process of solving the problem.

Before proceeding with the development of the logic of the software application, it is necessary to investigate and determine its behavior as a "black box". System behavior (systembehavior) is a description of what actions the system performs, without a specific mechanism for their implementation. One of the components of such a description is a sequence diagram.

Sequence diagrams

Use cases define how actors interact with a software system. During this interaction, the executor generates events transmitted to the system, which are requests to perform some operation.

A system sequence diagram is a diagram that, for a specific use case scenario, shows the events generated by external actors, their order, and the events generated internally by the system. In this case, all systems are considered as a "black box". The purpose of this diagram is to display events transmitted by executors to the system across its boundaries.

A use case scenario is a special case of it or the actual way it is implemented.

A sequence diagram should be created for the typical course of events of use cases, and, if necessary, for the most significant alternative sequences.

At this stage, an interaction model is built. The goal is to build a model of interaction between subjects and objects (businessobjectmodel) is a description of the scenario for the performance of production functions by subjects and objects of the subject area.

Building a model of interaction between subjects and objects (businessobjectmodel) produced using a sequence diagram (sequencediagram) and/or cooperation diagrams (collaborationdiagram).

sequence diagram system (sequencediagram) is a diagram that, for a specific use case, shows the events generated by external executors, their order, as well as events generated within the system itself.

Sequence diagrams (sequencediagram) and cooperation (collaborationdiagram) include the following elements: use case actors (businessworker, businessactor), use case entities (businessentity), messages ( messages).

Actor - the subject of the production process (businessworker) denoted on sequence diagrams (sequencediagram) or interactions (collaborationdiagram) as shown in fig. 2.1., actor - object (businessactor) production process - as shown in fig. 2.2.

Rice. 2.1. Image of the subject of the production process (businessworker)

Rice. 2.2. Image of the production process object (businessactor)

Object Image (businessactor) of the production process can also be used to refer to the subject of the production process. Under the image of the acting person, his name is indicated. The name of the actor is the role that he performs in the production process, for example, dealer (businessworker), automated trading system (businessactor).

Production entity (businessentity), represents an abstraction of a real-world entity or objects. An example of the image of a production entity (business entity) on class diagrams is shown in fig. 2.3.

Rice. 2.3. Sample Image of a Production Entity (businessentity)

Examples of a production entity may be: an invoice, a production schedule, an application for an invention, a computer, etc.

The name of actors and production functions is displayed on sequence diagrams (sequencediagram) and interactions (collaborationdiagram) as name of the acting person or production entity, For example, :dispatcher or :schedule.

Actors and production entities are located on the sequence diagram (sequencediagram) horizontally. Below each object is a vertical dotted line. On interaction diagrams (collaborationdiagram) actors and production entities can be arranged arbitrarily.

For each chart object, you can set its stability. The following types are supported:

Persistent(Stable). A durable object will exist even after the program terminates. It is usually stored in a database.

Static(Static). A static object is stored in the computer's memory during the entire operation of the program, but not after its completion.

Transient(Temporary). A temporary object is kept in memory for a short time until the processes associated with it end.

Message- this is a relationship between objects in which one of them requires the other to perform some action.

Message (objectmessage) between actors:

on the sequence diagram (sequencediagram) are indicated by a solid line with an arrow above which is the name of the message,

on interaction diagrams (collaborationdiagram) are indicated by a solid line, with an arrow above it, the serial number of the message and the name of the message .

The line is drawn from the actor who sends the message to acting person The that receives the message. The actor can send a message to itself (messagetoself).

In addition, on the Detail tab of the message specification window, you can determine the timing of messages to be sent. Five timing options are available:

Simple(Simple) - used by default. Indicates that all messages are executed on the same thread of control;

Synchronous(Synchronous) - used if the client sends a message and waits for the user's response;

Balking(Refuse to queue) - used when a message sent by the client is canceled if the server cannot send it immediately;

timeout(With limited waiting time). The client sends a message to the server and then waits for the specified time. If during this time the server does not receive the message, it is canceled;

Asynchronous(Asynchronous) - The client sends a message to the server and continues without waiting for an acknowledgment of receipt.

Complex scenarios can be supplemented with explanations. Explanations can be signed to any message to the left of the diagram at the appropriate level with text.

Every object has a lifeline ( life line), shown as a vertical dashed line under the object.

a system of internally interconnected and consistent with environment actions of the object (subject) aimed at the implementation of the relevant functions. In a broad sense, we can talk about the behavior of any objects (starting from an electron and ending with systems of a biological and social type); in a narrower sense, the concept of "behavior" describes the moral actions of a person (in philosophy, ethics), as well as the systemic characteristics of the mental activity of biological individuals of various levels of organization to maintain their existence (in physiology, psyche, ethology, etc.). Relying on the theories of reflex (N.A. Bernstein, P.K. Anokhin), Gestalt psychology (L. Levin), psychological school (L.S. Vygotsky), genetic psychology (J. Piaget) and other approaches, modern bioethics explores the specific mechanisms of human behavior in the context of biomedical research; legal, moral and value parameters of the behavior of medical professionals in the context of decision-making in extreme situations; mechanisms for regulating the behavior and relationships of individuals and society regarding the application of new biomedical knowledge and technologies.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

behavior

BEHAVIOR- a set of internally interconnected actions carried out by the subject in interaction with the environment. The term "P." in a broad sense in science it is applied to both living and non-living objects; they talk about the P. of elementary particles, cosmic bodies, animals, humans, etc. In a narrow sense, P. is the expedient activity of living organisms executive branch top level interactions of the whole organism with the environment. The term "P." also means the actions of a person in relation to society, other people and the objective world, considered in moral, cognitive, aesthetic and other aspects. For epistemological analysis, only the last way of defining P. is of interest in terms of fixing subject-object relations. The logic of the development of ideas about P. in modern science moves from the classical paradigm to non-classical. Objectivism in the study of P. is characteristic of classical methodology. The basis for its scientific study as an independent subject of knowledge was discovered in the 20th century. reflex scheme (stimulus - reaction, S-R) and the reflex theory developed on its basis (I.P. Pavlov and others). Behaviorism (English behavior - behavior) proclaimed P. the main subject of his analysis (J. Watson, E. Thorndike, and others) and criticized the theory of the reflex. In the field of methodology, behaviorism rejects the method of introspection in all its variants and proposes a method of objective observations and experiment, in which S-R connection for the purpose of predicting P. of the subject and managing it. Behaviorism also "revolutionized" the system of categories describing the cognitive aspects of P.: sensation was understood as a "discriminatory reaction", thinking - "subvocal reaction of the larynx", feeling - "visceral reaction", self-consciousness - "verbal report", etc. The modernization of behaviorism in E. Tolman's concept (molar behaviorism) introduced a teleological component into P.'s theory. A special variety is social behaviorism (G. Mead, P. Lazarsfeld, L. Landberg, etc.), which uses S-R principle for P.'s studying of the person in the social environment. The idea of ​​P.'s dependence on communication is fixed, the P. of groups and collectives is studied, and mathematical models of social P. are created (Rashevsky, Dodd). Social behaviorism develops manipulative schemes that allow you to manage "open P.", i.e. the actions of people. Modern behaviorism is characterized by the maximum limitation of the range of phenomena explained with the help of reflex theory, and the desire to exclude any subjective factors from the explanation of P. The insufficiency of this scheme was revealed in science already in the mid-30s. 20 century, when a non-classical paradigm was established in the doctrine of the structural levels of P. (P. Janet and others), where feelings are the first level, prescribing P. the goal, intellect is the second, giving P. means. In the concept of J. Piaget, P. is presented as an equal unity of sensory and cognitive forms, taking into account the entire previous history of the subject's action. Piaget defines the functions of the cognitive side of P. through the method of developing ways to implement the will; at the same time, in his opinion, there is necessarily some form or structure that determines possible ways realization of P., which is its cognitive side. Gestalt psychology, in particular its adherent K. Levin, represents P. as an integral field, the dynamics of which are formed by feelings, and it is structured by perception, motor function and intellect. From the point of view of structural levels (P. Janet and others), P. is presented as consisting of primary (the relation of the subject to the object) and secondary (the reaction of the subject to his activity) actions. As the levels of P., feelings were considered, prescribing to him a goal, and intellect, providing him with means. The cognitive meaning of P. is also revealed in its sign character (L.S. Vygotsky and others); this makes it possible to single out linguistic and semiotic factors among the components of P., along with biological and social factors. It is argued that the accepted norms of the use of words determine certain forms of thinking and mentality (B.L. Whorf and others). P. can be strongly influenced by various types of grammatical categories - such as the categories of number, gender, classification according to animation, inanimateness, etc., as well as tenses, pledges and other forms of the verb, classification by parts of speech in general. Consequently, linguistic factors are decisive in the formation of P. in a situation knowledge, which in this connection is transformed into a situation understanding of hermeneutics). P. as an act is presented in the concept of M. Bakhtin, where act-thought, act-feeling and act-deed, which constitute being-event, are distinguished. Meaningful thought and a concrete-individual act in their "small but real" participate in the infinite whole. He also fixes attention on the value component of the epistemological reality of the act. In sociology, automatic P. and intentional action having social meanings and goals. In cybernetics, they study the possibilities of creating technical objects that would have subjective properties, i.e. own controlled P., for which they reveal the principal structural diagrams of P. and its dynamics. L. T. Retyunskikh

The term "P." applicable to both individuals, individuals, and their aggregates (II. biological. species, social group). P. is a material, objective process and is studied various sciences: biological, social and defined. aspects of cybernetics.

In antique During the period, the soul was considered to be the regulator of the P. of living bodies as the beginning immanently inherent in them (Aristotle). In modern times, the doctrine of P. has been developed, which made it possible to understand it on the basis of the principle of causality, without resorting to incorporeal entities or forces. So, Descartes believed that living bodies behave like simple automata, not needing the influence of non-material forces. This view gave impetus to the emergence of the concept of reflex as automatic. the body's response to external impact.

With the development of evolution teachings in biology (Darwin), the objective expediency of P. receives a new deterministic explanation and the former mechanistic. the concept of a reflex as the main act II. is transformed into a system-biological one (Sechenov). In P.'s study, an objective method was established that allows him to be studied in the unity of physiological. and psychic. body manifestations. Thus, the foundations of the doctrine of higher nervous activity, Pavlov considered P.

Behaviorism put forward, in contrast to the idea of ​​psychology as a science of consciousness, the position that its subject is P. as a system of response drives. reactions to external incentives (E. Thorndike, J. Watson, later B. Skinner). Revealing the limitations of this mechanistic t. sp. on II. led to neobehaviorism (E. Tolman, K. Hull), who proposed to consider P. as a process, in which between external. various intermediate factors (motivations, attitudes, cognitive phenomena) act as a stimulus and responses of the organism.

In other areas of Western psychology, P.'s dependence on drives (Freud), "living space", in which the body realizes its impulses (Levin, Gestalt psychology), a stage-developing system of actions and operations (Piaget), etc., was studied.

The biology of P. developed, tracing the various forms of P. of animals, starting with the instinctive innate P., depending on the living conditions of the species, the lifetime forms of P. that arise on this basis (such as skills in animals, the mechanism of which is conditioned reflex) and, finally, elements of intellectual (rational) P. in higher animals. These forms are studied by ethology as the science of the characteristics of P. of animals in nature. conditions of existence and zoopsychology, exploring the role of various mental. phenomena (sensations, perceptions, emotions) in the regulation of P. in animals.

In the owls P.'s psychology of the person is interpreted as having natural preconditions, but in the basis of the socially caused activity, the typical form a cut is the work giving mental. human regulation. P. is a qualitatively new character. This allows you to open the components of P.: its regulation by a pre-set goal, which is chosen by a person with the ability to freely choose and make independent decisions. At the same time, the worldview is of fundamental importance, the orientation and social value of P.

P. of a person is inseparably connected with the system of speech signals, assimilated in the process of communication and creating the prerequisites for the internalization of external. engine P components. Thanks to this, a person’s ability to build an image of the future in his mind, to exercise self-esteem and self-control is formed.

In the conditions of collective life P. of the individual depends on the nature of his relationship with groups, collectives, a member of which he is. The group itself acts as a special subject of P., having collective goals and motives. In group P., such peculiar phenomena as imitation, emotional “infection”, empathy, subordination of individual P. to group norms and role prescriptions, and leadership are observed.

Valuable, axiological. P.'s aspects stand out most clearly when the action takes on the character of an act, that is, a personally significant act controlled by a system of norms accepted in society. In real P., conscious and unconscious, rational and emotional components are in a complex relationship. The action of unconscious mental. factors most prominently manifested in the emotional sphere, in likes and dislikes, in affective manifestations of P.

The most beings. a sign of pathology II. is its inadequacy to the objective requirements of the situation and the attitudes of the individual. There is a mismatch between the objective stimulus and behavior. act, between motive and action. The integrity of P. is violated due to the splitting of his verbal and real plans, the initiated action is not completed according to the intention, the criticality that provides control in the implementation of the P.'s program is weakened, obsessive actions are performed, etc.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓