As stated above, climate is the long-term weather pattern observed in a given area. The problem of climate assessment can be considered at three levels or in three aspects. A macro-climatic (background) assessment should be understood as an assessment of meteorological conditions in a large area of the territory, allocated by the commonality of climatic characteristics (region, district, sub-region). We can talk about the climate of the central region of the European part of Russia, the climate of the Urals, the Kola Peninsula, subregion 1 B (according to the SNiP map), etc. Assessment of the mesoclimate (or its co-scale local climate) involves the identification of climatic features characteristic of a city or a large settlement as a whole: the climate of Moscow, Vladivostok, Salekhard, etc.
Architectural and climatic analysis is carried out in order to establish links between architecture, which is understood as the art of building buildings, structures and their complexes, and the climatic conditions in which architectural objects are built or will be built. Architectural and climatic analysis begins with an analysis of individual climatic characteristics: the amount of solar radiation, wind speed, temperature and humidity, etc., each of which in its own way affects the choice of architectural and urban planning and related engineering and construction solutions. An example of areas for accounting for climatic parameters in the process of architectural design is given in Table. 2.1.
Architectural climatography is based on a comprehensive analysis of climatic factors that affect the architectural environment and the person in it. Some of these factors, while acting simultaneously, mutually reinforce this influence. For example, at low air temperatures it is analyzed together with wind action, at high temperatures - together with air humidity and solar radiation, etc. up to complex indicators that take into account four or more factors.
The connection of the architectural composition with climatic conditions (“+” - the connection exists)
table 2.7
|
Cold |
Cool |
Comfortable |
arid | ||||||||||
|
no wind |
no wind |
no wind |
no wind |
humidity |
no wind |
With dusty |
no wind |
calmly |
|||||
|
architectural space: Closed |
|||||||||||||
|
semi-enclosed |
|||||||||||||
|
semi-open |
|||||||||||||
|
open |
|||||||||||||
|
Unoriented |
|||||||||||||
|
Oriented |
|||||||||||||
|
Mass, plastic volume: Undivided |
|||||||||||||
|
Little dissected |
|||||||||||||
|
dismembered |
|||||||||||||
The end of the table. 2.7
|
Weather types and additional climate characteristics |
|||||||||||||
|
Cold |
Cool |
Comfortable |
arid | ||||||||||
|
no wind |
no wind |
no wind |
no wind |
humidity |
no wind |
with dusty |
no wind |
calmly |
|||||
|
streamlined |
|||||||||||||
|
Oriented |
|||||||||||||
|
Surface finish: Undivided |
|||||||||||||
|
Little dissected |
|||||||||||||
|
dismembered |
|||||||||||||
|
Actively dissected |
|||||||||||||
In architecture, the building is considered not just as a physical shell that protects the internal environment and a person from adverse climatic influences, but as a set of architectural forms and techniques that make it possible to better adapt it to natural and climatic conditions and make this protection more efficient and less energy intensive. This is what architectural climatography, which studies aspects of the relationship between architecture and various climate factors, differs from other types of applied climatology, including building climatology.
The ability of buildings to protect their internal environment and adjacent territory from adverse climatic influences directly depends on how environmental factors were taken into account in the architectural and planning solution of these buildings at the design stage, how well the use of certain building materials and structures, plastic and color solutions.
Since weather conditions differ in summer and winter in most parts of the world, it is almost impossible to find an architectural and construction solution that is equally effectively adapted to winter and summer weather conditions. In this regard, another practical task arises - the creation of an adaptive architectural form and environment, differently, but equally effectively "working" in different types of weather. The ability of buildings to adapt to changing weather conditions is determined by the presence of unchanging, "passive" climate-protective architectural techniques, which in most cases are complemented by transformable, "active" climate-protective architectural details and elements. The former include, for example, the tectonics of buildings and the design of their walls or the orientation of buildings along the sides of the horizon. The second category includes architectural solutions related, for example, to the creation of buffer zones between external fences and internal premises, the microclimate in which is controlled by transformable enclosing structures, transformable light apertures, sun protection devices, etc.
Thus, in the most general form, three main areas of climate protection solutions in architecture can be distinguished:
- a) passive buildings with permanent climate protection functions through the use of passive architectural solutions;
- b) buildings with active climate-regulating architectural solutions that can change the degree and even the direction of climate protection depending on weather conditions;
- c) buildings that combine the two principles listed above. In this case, passive methods can be completely replaced or simply supplemented by active methods of climate control, giving the building the highest "climatic mobility".
In passive buildings (type "a") adaptability to external climatic influences can be achieved through a different mode of use of the interior under different types of weather or at different times of the year. Or vice versa, they should provide for an internal layout that allows maximum preservation of the functions of the premises, regardless of the season or weather conditions. Often, this layout comes at the expense of functionality. In such buildings, it is also very important at the design stage to correctly determine the most suitable building materials and design solutions.
In buildings with active climate-protective architecture (type "b"), the premises can adapt to external climatic influences - insolation, wind, temperature - due to transformable architectural elements: interactive facade structures, buffer zones, sun-protection or sun-catching devices, etc.
The use of modern building technologies and materials allows architects to design buildings that are much more flexible and effective in terms of climate protection. Such buildings can more accurately respond to weather changes or be used in different types of climates. However, this universality should not deprive them of their individuality associated with the natural and climatic conditions of the area for which they are designed, deprive them of the "spirit of place", depersonalize, make them alien in relation to the natural environment. Therefore, modern technologies should not be opposed to local architectural traditions. Only a combination of the experience gained in traditional architecture in protecting against adverse climates and new technological capabilities allows architects to find their own, new, expressive and at the same time characteristic of a particular culture architectural solution that provides maximum functional efficiency, durability and economy at all stages of the life cycle. building.
The complexity of adapting an architectural solution to climatic conditions lies in the fact that there is no universal architectural and climatic indicator that determines the need to use one or another architectural method of climate protection, which could be applied with the same degree of accuracy and reliability in any climatic regions. Therefore, the sequence of architectural and climatic analysis provides for the identification of those climatic parameters and their combinations that create the main problems for a particular area, after which they begin to develop architectural and climatic measures to reduce their negative impact on the internal environment of the building and the territory adjacent to it. In a continental climate with contrasting weather conditions in winter and summer, these solutions can be mutually exclusive, so the architect's task often comes down to finding a reasonable compromise between the most unfavorable and least favorable climatic influences. This is an important part of the creative process to find a harmonious solution to the relationship between architecture and the natural and climatic conditions of a particular area.
Climatic protective functions of buildings and types of weather. The most obvious way to take into account the complexity of the impact of a combination of meteorological elements and climatic characteristics on the architectural environment is the method of weather complexes. For various types of weather (Table 2.2), the corresponding architectural and typological characteristics are used in architecture. At the same time, we note that for buildings, in particular residential ones, the concept operating mode. There are four operating modes (Table 2.3): isolated, closed, adjustable, or semi-open, and open. Illustration to the table. 2.3 is fig. 2.1.
Table 2.2
Classifications of weather types
|
weather type |
monthly air temperature, °С |
Average monthly relative air humidity, % |
Average monthly wind speed, m/s |
|
Warm (overheating) |
|||
|
75 and over |
|||
|
24 and under |
|||
|
Comfortable (warm- |
24 and under |
||
|
fishing comfort) |
|||
|
75 and over |
|||
|
Cool |
|||
|
Cold (cooling |
|||
|
Harsh (strong |
|||
|
cooling) |
|||
Table 2.3
Weather types and building operating conditions
|
exploitation and type of weather |
Architectural planning |
constructive |
Engineering technical |
|
Closed, |
Compact solutions, reduced heat gain. Sun protection. Shading and watering of territories. protection from dusty winds, usage cool night winds |
fences necessary heat-shielding quality and breathability. Sun protection for walls and windows. Double glazing or single glazing |
Artificial air cooling without reducing moisture holding, mechanical fans-hair dryers |
|
open, |
Through, corner ventilation, sun protection, open spaces, loggias, verandas. The stairs are semi-open, without vestibules. Orientation to the south and north. Shading and aeration of territories, use cool night winds |
Mechanical fans - hair dryers. Insolation requires artificial cooling of the internal environment (air conditioning) |
|
|
Open, comfortable |
Open spaces, loggias, verandas. Household processes in the air |
Transformation of fences, transformable sun protection devices |
Not used |
|
open, cool |
Sun orientation. Protection of territories from the wind with green plantings, the use of intermium |
Single glazing, railing transformation |
Heating of low power, irregular. Ventilation natural, exhaust with inflow through valves, vents |
|
exploitation and type of weather |
Architectural planning |
constructive |
Engineering technical |
|
Closed, cold |
Compact solutions, heat reduction lose, warm stairs, vestibules, wardrobes for outerwear in apartments, orientation to the sunny side. Protection of territories from wind by buildings and plantings of conifers |
Fences of the necessary heat-shielding qualities and air tightness. double glazing |
Central heating medium power. Ventilation natural, exhaust with inflow through windows, vents, valves |
|
Maximum compactness, minimal heat loss, stairs, double vestibules, ventilated wardrobes for outerwear in apartments, dressing rooms in public buildings. Protection of territories from the wind by buildings. Warm transitions between buildings, covered streets and centers, insulated public transport stops |
High air tightness and heat-shielding fence quality. Triple and quadruple glazing. Foundations taking into account permafrost |
central heating large power. Mechanical supply and exhaust ventilation with air heating and humidification |
Rice. 2.1.
a- hot (isolated mode); b- dry hot or arid (indoor mode); in- warm (semi-open mode); G- comfortable (open mode); e - cool (semi-open mode); e - cold (closed mode); w -
severe (isolated mode)
The method of taking into account the duration of weather complexes directly reveals the relationship of climate with the tasks of urban planning and the typology of buildings. This method helps architects to outline ways to reveal the relationship of weather complexes with the categories of architectural composition, for example, with architectural space, mass (plasticity of a volumetric solution), plasticity of a surface. So, for comfortable and warm weather, the open character of architectural spaces is typical (free development of microdistricts, squares; planning of internal premises, providing aeration and opening to the external environment), dissected mass of the building (courtyards, courdoners, division of buildings into blocks); dissected (often actively dissected) plastic surfaces (loggias, balconies, windows of significant size, shading canopies, canopies, perforated fences). For cold weather with wind, enclosed, semi-enclosed and oriented spaces are recommended; the mass is undivided, slightly divided, streamlined and oriented; the plasticity of the surface is undivided. Finally, the method of weather complexes allowed domestic architectural climatology for the first time to reach the level of coverage of world architectural practice, to quickly compare many cities according to their architectural and climatic requirements for an open environment and buildings. These possibilities greatly expand the effectiveness of architectural and climatic analysis.
At the same time, it should be noted that this method is focused not on improving the comfort of the microclimate, but on climate protection. According to established practice, 1 month is taken as the minimum duration of the type of weather that determines the mode of operation of a dwelling. At the same time, when designing, it is necessary to take into account such weather conditions (combinations of meteorological elements) that can threaten the life and health of the population, although their frequency may not exceed 1-2%. This is a fundamental and very promising direction for the further development of architectural climatography.
Living environment in comfortable weather almost no climate protection functions. Thermal conditions of comfortable weather do not limit the time a person stays in the external environment, although within the limits indicated in Table. 2.2 extremes may be desirable insolation or shading. Comfortable weather is characterized by temperatures of 18-25°C, relative air humidity of 30-60%, air speed of 0.1-0.2 m/s indoors, 1-3 m/s outside. This is the best period of the Moscow summer. The mode of operation of the premises is open, in which the premises, as a rule, are directly connected with the external environment (open windows). Enclosing structures of buildings with high thermal insulation qualities, heating and cooling equipment are not required; loggias, verandas, active natural air exchange of premises with the external environment are characteristic.
Living environment in cool weather protects the person from easy cooling. In an urban environment, wind protection and the use of insolation create conditions close to comfortable. Cool weather is characterized by outside temperatures from 6 to 10°C (April-May, October in Moscow). A temperature of 4°C was adopted as the lower limit of cool weather, since at outside temperatures of 4.5-5°C and above, air exchange through the windows is quite acceptable, the mode is half-open or adjustable, and not closed (as in cold weather). The upper limit of cool weather is due to the fact that at an outside temperature of 12 ° C and below, it is desirable to heat non-insolated rooms and save internal heat emissions of the building. The relative humidity of the outdoor air in the specified temperature range does not play a big role, since the moisture content of the outdoor air is significantly below the physiological limit of feeling stuffy. The buildings are characterized by: the circulation of rooms to the sunny sides of the horizon; moderately compact space-planning solutions; in apartments - the availability of space for storing outerwear; air exchange through vents, transoms, valves; transformation (opening and closing windows) and the necessary airtightness and heat-shielding qualities of fences; heating devices of low power; accumulation of internal heat releases.
Living environment in cold weather protects a person from extreme cold. In an urban environment, effective wind protection (windbreaks) and the use of the sun are desirable, which alleviate cooling conditions, but do not create comfort. Cold weather from the standpoint of ensuring the comfort of the internal environment of buildings, as well as the need to protect people in the urban environment from the wind and the use of solar radiation, is characterized by temperatures up to -25°C; wind speed is 3-10 m/s, but at low temperatures it should not exceed: 5 m/s at temperatures up to -28°C and 2 m/s at -36°C. These values are typical for winter in the European territory of Russia, in Western and southern Eastern Siberia. The lower limit of cold weather is taken from the conditions of air exchange due to the inflow of outside air.
Living environment in severe weather should completely isolate a person from external influences. At an external temperature of -35°С and below, the relative humidity of the internal air does not exceed 5%, and taking into account internal moisture emissions - 25%, i.e. less than the hygiene limit of 30%. Below the temperature taken as a limit, artificial ventilation with air humidification and protection of a person outside the building from frostbite and excessive heat loss are required. Buildings are characterized by: mode of operation - closed; compact space-planning solutions that ensure minimal heat loss; closed heated staircase; wardrobes for outerwear; necessary (for air exchange) air permeability and high heat-shielding qualities of fences; windows closed, sealed; central heating of medium power, exhaust duct ventilation (for buildings over 10 floors, other approaches to assessing the air exchange of premises are required).
Living environment in warm weather should provide for the possibility of overheating of the premises. However, good shading and aeration create comfortable conditions or close to them in an urban environment. Characteristic air temperature is from 20 to 32 ° C, depending on the relative humidity of the air (the hottest days in central Russia). The upper limit of warm weather is due to the different influence of humidity and the degree to which air movement can be used to compensate for temperature rise. At an air temperature of 32-33°C and above, it is very difficult to deal with overheating by ventilation. Therefore, the limit of 32°C is taken as the upper limit of warm weather at low and normal air humidity. At high humidity, the moisture content limit plays an important role, which determines the upper limit of the weather in terms of air temperature of 28 ° C at humidity up to 75% and 25 ° C at higher humidity. This applies to cases where the radiation temperature and air temperature are the same, and the wind speed is in the range of 0.5-1.0 m/s.
In warm weather, it is recommended for buildings: two-sided layout of apartments (offices, other premises) to ensure active through or corner ventilation of internal spaces; open spaces - loggias, verandas, terraces, adjoining courtyards; transformation of spaces and enclosing structures in the daily course, open windows, the obligatory presence of sun protection devices on the windows, mechanical fans-hair dryers in the rooms. However, the most expensive methods, which include planning with through or corner ventilation, are sun protection devices on windows (the most effective are external ones), etc. are not always used.
Living environment in hot dry (.dry) weather protects a person from severe overheating, excessive insolation, and often from dust and wind exposure. The mode of operation of buildings is closed. Characterized by compact space-planning solutions that ensure minimal heat input from the outside, an increase in the cubic capacity of internal spaces, open spaces for evening and night rest, light openings protected from the sun, artificial (evaporative) cooling, forced local ventilation, use of the cooling effect of soil floors and building foundations. In an urban environment, active shading and watering soften the microclimate, but are not always able to create completely comfortable conditions. Protection from overheated dusty winds of deserts, trapping of cool night air currents from mountains and hills, and arrangement of fountains are necessary. Typical temperatures are 33-36°C and humidity less than 24% (daytime summer hours in Central Asia).
Living environment in hot weather also protects a person from severe overheating, excessive insolation and stuffiness. The feeling of stuffiness is caused by a combination of high temperature and high humidity. The mode of operation of buildings is isolated, requiring complete air conditioning in the mode of removing excess moisture to create conditions for thermal comfort. Evaporative (increases moisture content) and radiation (condensate forms) cooling is unacceptable. Characterized by compact space-planning solutions, open spaces for evening and night rest, the use of the cooling effect of soil floors and building foundations. Windows should be tightly closed during air conditioning operation, have sun protection devices. The urban environment and traditional dwellings are characterized by shading and active aeration, since only air movement can alleviate the feeling of stuffiness and overheating, but is not able to provide complete physiological comfort. Typical air temperatures are 30-35°C with a humidity of 60-25% (the hottest days on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, typical conditions for tropical marine and equatorial climate types).
As can be seen, in the proposed classification, hot weather with high and normal humidity is one type, although they differ in many ways and have a different geographical distribution. The combination is based on the commonality of typological requirements for obtaining comfortable conditions for the architectural environment (cooling with a decrease in humidity, aeration, sun protection, etc.).
Architectural and climatic analysis in terms of assessing background conditions by weather types requires counting the number of days (months or half a day) with a particular weather. According to the prevailing in the 1960-1980s. In the practice of design and construction in the USSR, when the tendency to typify projects and the desire for cost-effective solutions prevailed, the climatic regions that determined the right to introduce new projects covered territories within which the weather frequency varied by 15-20% from one region to another. At that time, it was concluded that the minimum weather repeatability, which at that stage should have been taken into account in the type design, is 8% of the length of the year. The value of 8% indicates that buildings and town planning formations were designed and are being designed to a large extent now with a significant tolerance for conditions that are far from comfortable.
If the design of buildings took into account the likely operating conditions, following the example of hydraulic structures (for example, according to a 1% flood), then the cost of their construction would increase significantly. Meanwhile, in order to ensure complete safety, it may someday come to taking into account weather events that have a frequency of 1-2%. At present, it seems appropriate to take into account meteorological conditions that have a probability of at least 5%, and in some cases, when designing urban areas, even rarer phenomena, especially those associated with a danger to the life of the population (say, strong gusty winds).
So, for example, the picture of weather conditions in Moscow is as follows. During the year, cool weather lasts 230 days (63%), cold - 73 days (20%), comfortable - 55 days (15%). These types of weather determine architectural decisions. Seven days (2%) is observed warm (overheating) weather, which "does not make weather", as its short duration does not allow buildings to overheat.
Yakutsk: cool weather lasts 113 days, or 31% (half that in Moscow), cold - 121 days, or 33% (more than 1.5 times more than in Moscow), and severe, which does not exist in Moscow at all , - 84 days, or 23%. Summer is very similar to Moscow: comfortable weather - 40 days - 11% (in Moscow - 15%), warm (overheating) - the same 2%.
Adler-Sochi: cool weather lasts 234 days - 64%, the same as in Moscow; comfortable - 58 days, or 16%, as in Moscow, but instead of cold 69 days, or 19%, warm (overheating) weather lasts and another 4 days, or 1% - hot, humid weather.
Analyzing the material presented above on the duration of weather complexes in Moscow, Yakutsk and Adler-Sochi, you need to pay attention to the following. The main type-forming weather classes in Moscow and Yakutsk have a significant frequency, and they determine the main requirements for architectural solutions. Nevertheless, in both Moscow and Yakutsk, warm weather is observed 7 days a year (2%), which, as noted, is not taken into account when designing buildings. However, it is she who creates the most dangerous overheating situations for the health of citizens. Due to this, a situation of compromise typical of architectural climatography is created: “complete comfort - pay, if you can’t - endure it!”, i.e. the assessment of the role of the frequency of occurrence or duration of this or that weather depends on the level of requirements for comfort, on material opportunities and social tasks at certain stages of the development of society.
In order to ensure complete comfort in the summer in the cities mentioned, it is necessary to fulfill the requirements for a warm weather living environment. For example, as the experience of the last 15-20 years has shown, in the Central region of Russia, including Moscow, “heat waves” can be observed in summer, which have such a great intensity and duration that the lack of adaptation of the living environment to them causes great harm to the city and its residents. The “heat wave” of 2010, which lasted almost a month, is memorable, a phenomenon whose frequency is 2% (about once every 50 years). Since the living environment was not adapted to such weather, this phenomenon had very serious consequences for Muscovites and residents of other cities in the region. Suffice it to say that during the month that this heat wave lasted, the death rate in Moscow more than doubled.
By the way, the severe weather, which in Moscow lasts for several days in January and February and in which pedestrians need warm transitions between buildings, and in the internal environment - forced supply and exhaust ventilation with heating and humidification of the air - is also not yet taken into account. in the practice of design preparation for construction. However, in order to get frostbite with a combination of temperature and wind speeds characteristic of severe weather, it takes several minutes, a maximum of half an hour. Such a danger arises for the inhabitants of Central Russia every winter, and more than once.
It can also be noted that in the Adler-Sochi region, hot humid weather lasting only 4 days (1%) is not reflected in architectural solutions, since this weather requires full air conditioning (cooling and reduction of moisture content), forced exhaust ventilation. The complex of means used in Sochi actually corresponds only to warm (overheated) weather, the duration of which is 69 days, or 19%, per year.
Another important aspect of creating a comfortable and safe architectural environment from the point of view of climatic impact is a comprehensive assessment of the climatic conditions of the building area from the standpoint of developing climate protection measures using appropriate architectural and planning tools. For such an assessment, it is possible to use specially designed nomograms that take into account the simultaneous impact of a number of climatic facts and show the required direction of impact on the climatic parameters of the building. The main architectural, planning and engineering means of microclimate control available for this are presented in Appendix 2.
For this type of architectural and climatic analysis, the method for assessing the comfort of climatic conditions is a factor-by-factor assessment, but focused not on the architectural environment, but on the person of whom he is the subject. Such an analysis requires data on the age, health and type of activity of people in a particular situation, as is done with a hygienic assessment of the microclimate. In the first approximation, an adult healthy pedestrian can be taken as a subject, since under adverse conditions all other groups of the population can be protected by the internal environment of buildings, and certain types of activities that do not meet weather conditions on the building site can be deliberately limited.
In the general case, factor analysis of climate for architectural purposes requires knowledge of the provisions of architectural climatology, knowledge of the functional purpose and technical and economic indicators of the object for which the analysis is carried out, and the criteria that determine this or that decision. So, for example, the need for sun protection of sites and buildings associated with a long stay of the population is determined by the duration of the period with an air temperature of 2 GS and above. It is also known that favorable conditions on balconies and loggias in Moscow develop: if there is insolation - at temperatures of 12-16°C; if sun protection is used - at 16-26 ° C. As can be seen from this example, the analysis of comfort conditions requires taking into account a set of evaluation criteria and means of regulating the environment, implemented, as a rule, in the form of separate methodological developments. In a generalized form, climate protection measures when choosing an architectural and planning solution can be determined by the nomograms shown in Fig. 2.2.
strong wind cooling of buildings
walks invalid G
wind protection for pedestrians
obligatory
destruction
mechanical
snow and sand transfer
discomfort
desirable
E cm "f"
- -15 -10 -5 0 5
air temperature, ! With
wind speed, m/s
pedestrians in autumn and spring "nyaya wind protection for areas with reduced
wind protection
wind protection
territories
defence from
stimulation
summer wind protection of the territory
wind protection, . during the period
/ / o "suhoveev
winter wind protection in high humidity
’ maximum use of insolation
maximum use
- -1_I_I_I_
- -20 -15 -10 -5
At overheating at increased humidity
G "///
- 1 / o°>
overheat protection
natural air mobility _I_I_I_I_1_
air humidity, %
air temperature, C C Accounting for the microclimate:
Rice. 2.2. Examples of graphical methods for climatic analysis of the architectural environment:
graph of the impact of wind and air temperature on the living environment; b- bioclimatic graph of the comfort zone; in- chart
selection of the main urban planning measures to regulate the microclimate
Air temperature and humidity are the characteristics that best characterize the climate of the area. For the main cities of Russia, these parameters, average for each month of the year, are presented in SNiP 23-01-99 "Construction climatology". Types of weather are characterized by temperature gradations in a given area. The most important is the temperature during the working day. With regard to thermal effects on humans, the following types of weather are typical: Cold (;< +8° С); требуется отопление гражданских зданий. Прохладная (= +8...+15°С); при этой температуре, как правило, держат закрытыми окна и не пользуются длительно балконами, лоджиями и террасами. Теплая (= +16...+28 °С); позволяет длительно использовать открытые помещения. Жаркая (выше +28 °С); вызывает необходимость ограничения перегрева помещений и использования искусственного охлаждения воздуха. Кроме того, для многих районов целесообразно выделение очень холодной (< -12° С) и очень жаркой (выше +32 °С) погоды, неблагоприятно воздействующей на человека. В СНиП «Строительная климатология» даются среднемесячные температуры воздуха, включающие температуру в ночное время. где - средняя амплитуда колебаний температуры в течение суток для данного месяца. Ее величины не приводятся в СНиП 23-01-99 «Строительная климатология» (рис. 1.2). Поэтому при климатическом анализе надо пользоваться СНиП II-А.6-72.
The duration of characteristic types of weather during the year determines the main features of the climate that affect the architectural and structural solutions of buildings.
Thus, for four months a year, it is necessary to limit the overheating of the premises with the help of sun protection devices and the use of artificial air cooling. The rest of the year you can use the summer rooms. Heating is practically not required and should be arranged exclusively for space heating in cases of an unforeseen drop in air temperature. The type of building should be installed taking into account the protection of the premises from overheating during the hot season. Open spaces, landscaping and watering around buildings are expedient. Sun protection and artificial cooling are necessary. The orientation of the longitudinal facades should be latitudinal (N-S) with the location in the northern part of the service and communication premises, stairs, kitchens, etc., and in the southern part - most of the living rooms. With the right design of buildings, the use of sun protection and special systems that use solar energy for hot water and heating, it is possible to reduce the energy consumption during the operation of the building to a minimum.
As can be seen from the table, the climate in Yakutsk is sharply continental. Heating is required for 7 months of the year, and for three months the weather is very cold, adversely affecting a person. During three months of the year, the weather is very hot, requiring superheating limitation and artificial cooling. All this must be taken into account when designing, double vestibules, closed passages between houses and other special events should be used. Here, too, it is possible to save energy costs in the operation of buildings. Especially due to solar hot water and solar heating in April and September. However, this savings will be much less than in example 1. The examples given are an element of climate analysis in architectural and construction design. This analysis is carried out "from the general to the particular", i.e. from the assessment of background patterns characteristic of large areas, to the assessment of the microclimate of specific construction sites, taking into account the relief, vegetation, water spaces, and the nature of development. These factors can affect the background characteristics, which are accepted according to SNiP "Construction climatology". A schematic map of climatic zoning for construction is shown in fig. 1.3. According to this map, the territory of Russia is divided into IV belts with sub-regions. According to this map and tables in SNiP "Construction Climatology", the seasons of the year are identified, which determine the type of buildings in a given area. So, for example, the climate in example 1 can be briefly described as follows: Sochi: 8-T+ZZH+1-OZH; Yakutsk: ZOH + 2X + 2P + 2T + healthy lifestyle
An analysis of the wind regime on the sides of the horizon and total radiation on differently oriented surfaces makes it possible to resolve the issue of the directions for opening up the architectural space or its protection. When evaluating a specific site, the designer studies the landscape, site relief, makes adjustments for the microclimate of slopes of different orientations, sets the conditions for blowing buildings with wind, calculates insolation, natural lighting of premises, etc. For this, geodetic subbases of sites with contour lines, marks, and existing buildings are used. When approving a project in the territorial Architectural and Planning Department, the following sections of the project are required to be submitted related to issues of the physics of the environment and enclosing structures:
- - energy saving and building heat engineering;
- - noise protection;
- - natural lighting and insolation.
Without the agreement of these sections, any construction of buildings (with the exception of individual construction) is considered illegal.
The answers to tasks 1–24 are a word, a phrase, a number or a sequence of words, numbers. Write your answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.
Read the text and do tasks 1-3.
(1)Most modern lighting devices have a special electronic control system, it can save up to 50% of electricity and make the light even, flicker-free. (2) The latter is especially important from the point of view of preserving people's health. (3) ______ Recent studies have shown that flickering light damages the organs of vision.
1
Which of the following sentences correctly conveys the MAIN information contained in the text?
1. Modern lighting devices have a special electronic control system that saves up to 50% of electricity.
2. Flickering light is harmful to the eyes, so modern lighting devices are equipped with an electronic control system that eliminates flicker, which also saves energy.
3. Flickering light injures the organs of vision, so modern lighting devices are used today.
4. The electronic control system of modern lighting devices allows not only to save electricity, but also to eliminate the flickering of light that is harmful to vision.
5. The system of electronic control of lighting devices, which allows saving up to 50% of electricity, makes the light even, flicker-free, which injures the organs of vision.
2
Which of the following words (combinations of words) should be in place of the gap in the third (3) sentence of the text? Write down this word (combination of words).
2. Despite this
3. Against all odds
3
Read the fragment of the dictionary entry, which gives the meaning of the word LIGHT. Determine the meaning in which this word is used in the first (1) sentence of the text. Write down the number corresponding to this value in the given fragment of the dictionary entry.
LIGHT, -а (-у), m.
1. Radiant energy that makes the surrounding world visible; electromagnetic waves in the range of frequencies perceived by the eye. Sunny s. Electric with. S. from the lantern. S. truth (trans.). The face was lit up with inner light (trans.: became spiritualized).
2. Illumination, the state when it is light. In the light (in the light, in the light). In windows with
3. In some expressions: dawn, sunrise (colloquial). Until the light and around the world (before dawn). Neither s. no dawn (very early in the morning; colloquial). Slightly s. (Barely began to dawn).
4. Use. as an affectionate appeal (obsolete and in folk literature). C. you are my clear! * In two light - about the room: with two rows of windows located one above the other. A hall with two lights. In the light of which, a preposition with a kind. n. - from the point of view of sth., meaning sth. Reconsider the decision in the light of recent events. In the light of what (see, represent) - in one form or another. Imagine sth. in a rainbow light. To shed or throw light on something (book - explaining, making understandable, clear. To see the light (colloquial) - to feel relief. Under the new boss, they saw the light. Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness - ate, about the benefits of knowledge, teachings. In the white light like a pretty penny (colloquial joke.) - about actions at random, without any purpose, usually unsuccessful. Than the light (simple) - very early in the morning. Than the light set off. Only the light in the window, that ... (colloquial) - only this pleases. Only the light in the window is like a granddaughter.
4
In one of the words below, a mistake was made in setting the stress: the letter denoting the stressed vowel is highlighted INCORRECTLY. Write out this word.
2. repeat
3. deepen
4. overtook
5. chain
5
In one of the sentences below, the underlined word is WRONGLY used. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
1. A DOCTORIAL portrait should be drawn up so that anyone can easily recognize the person to whom it belongs.
2. The fluffy snow has dressed the age-old pines in silvery outfits, their evergreen peaks reaching into the clear sky.
3. When you have finished picking herbs, be sure to DRY your clothing thoroughly and wash your hands with soap and water.
4. A CONFIDENT conversation took place between labor veterans and the management of the enterprise, during which a variety of topics were touched upon.
5. An important point that must be considered when choosing a material for covering the terrace is the ease of maintenance.
6
In one of the words highlighted below, a mistake was made in the formation of the word form. Correct the mistake and write the word correctly.
1. a little LONG
2. FROST
3. RINSE the laundry
4. RIDE FASTER
5. on BOTH banks
7
Establish a correspondence between the sentences and the grammatical errors made in them: for each position of the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
| SUGGESTIONS | GRAMMATICAL ERRORS |
| A) Everyone who loves poetry knows A.A. Fet as a subtle lyricist, a singer of art, love and nature. | 1) incorrect use of the case form of a noun with a preposition |
| B) About the play "The Cherry Orchard" by A.P. Chekhov wrote that he did not come out with a drama, but with a comedy. | 2) violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate |
| C) Between the conquerors - the Romans and the British, having conquered the British Isles, football meetings were arranged. | 3) a violation in the construction of a proposal with an inconsistent application |
| D) Thanks to the efforts of the builders, the object was commissioned on time. | 4) an error in constructing a sentence with homogeneous members |
| E) The main source of energy for every living being inhabiting our planet is the energy of the sun. | 5) incorrect construction of a sentence with a participial turnover |
| 6) violation in the construction of a sentence with participial turnover | |
| 7) incorrect sentence construction with indirect speech |
Write your answer in numbers without spaces or other characters.
8
Determine the word in which the unstressed checked vowel of the root is missing. Write out this word by inserting the missing letter.
1. hydrogen..sli
2. cons..rip
3. k..rrierist
4. floor..
5. horizontal
9
Determine the row in which the same letter is missing in both words in the prefix. Write these words out with the missing letter.
1. be..darny, ra..beg
2. pr..bereg, pr..hailed
3. z .. spend the night, from .. bent
4. pr .. attracted, pr .. wise
5. po..said, o..sorry
10
Write down the word in which the letter E is written in place of the gap.
1. Honor
2. arrogant..vy
3. overcome
4. jump off..wat
5. malleable
11
Write down the word in which the letter I is written in place of the gap.
1. hesitant..my
2. invisible..my
3. haunted..my
4. Renamed
5. dance.. sh
12
Identify the sentence in which NOT with the word is written CONTINUOUSLY. Open the brackets and write out this word.
1. I feel it is absolutely (NOT) NECESSARY to change the subject.
2. The guys wondered why they were (NOT) ALLOWED to go camping.
3. Unfortunately, the problem is (NOT) SOLVED.
4. Mongolia is the largest state in the world in terms of territory, (NOT) HAVING access to the sea.
5. A skeptic is a person who (DOES NOT) BELIEVE in enthusiasm.
13
Determine the sentence in which both underlined words are written ONE. Open the brackets and write out these two words.
1. (BY) THE way they listened to him, Vasiliev understood: WHAT (WHAT) he told now, they would not believe him.
2. Some fellings do not overgrow for a long time, (FOR) THIS (B) FOR several years, they can collect early small berries.
3. (B) FOLLOWING one absurd misunderstanding was followed by another - (FOR) THIS occasion began another endless correspondence with the road administration.
4. Forest raspberries (IN) COMPARED with garden chalk, but much sweeter and fragrant, (FOR) THIS, even having beautiful large garden raspberries, the villagers love to go for the forest.
5. The room in which Ilya Ilyich Oblomov lay, (C) AT THE BEGINNING seemed perfectly cleaned, but (B) SOON this impression was replaced by another.
14
Indicate all the numbers in the place of which HN is written.
Valaam became a truly (1) school of painting for I.I. Shishkin: Ra (2) Valaam canvases brought him a silver (3) medal of the Academy of Arts, and after two landscapes were awarded (4) with a gold medal, the artist was immediately (5) sent on a creative trip to Italy.
15
Set up punctuation marks. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which you need to put ONE comma.
1. The climatic conditions of the region affect both the architecture of buildings and the layout of apartments.
2. For the development of new models of technology, both equipment and highly qualified workers, both engineering and technical personnel and experimental plants, are needed.
3. The products of many machine-building plants are difficult to transport due to their large weight or large size.
4. During botanical excursions and surveys in many regions and regions, observations were made and information was collected on the use of plants in folk medicine.
5. V.M. Vasnetsov carefully studied the ancient Russian icon-painting technique and subsequently some of its techniques were applied by him in his work on historical paintings.
16
In front of us lay the Koishauri valley (1) crossed like two silver threads, the Aragva and another river (2) and (3) running away into the neighboring gorges from the warm rays of the sun (4) a bluish fog slid over it.
17
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentences.
1. The heroine of this novel (1) of course (2) was Masha.
2. The news from mom (3) should be (4) already by Thursday.
18
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.
A loan issued for any period (1) within (2) of which (3) an expense (4) for a certain need (5) is possible is called a bank loan.
19
Place punctuation marks: indicate all the numbers in the place of which commas should be in the sentence.
At sunset it began to rain (1) which immediately dispelled the stuffiness accumulated in the air (2) and (3) while it loudly and monotonously rustled around the garden around the house (4) the sweet freshness of wet greenery was drawn into the open windows in the hall.
20
Edit the sentence: correct the lexical error by eliminating the extra word. Write out this word.
Other cities and countries will open their arms to you, and maybe somewhere there you will find your shelter.
Read the text and complete tasks 21-26.
(1) On the Western Front, I had to live for some time in the dugout of quartermaster technician Tarasnikov. (2) He worked in the operational part of the headquarters of the guards brigade. (3) Immediately, in the dugout, his office was located.
(4) For whole days he inscribed and sealed packets, sealed them with sealing wax warmed over a lamp, sent out some reports, accepted papers, redrawn maps, tapped with one finger on a rusty typewriter, carefully knocking out each letter.
(5) One evening, when I returned to our hut, thoroughly soaked in the rain, and squatted down in front of the stove to melt it, Tarasnikov got up from the table and came up to me.
- (6) I, you see, - he said somewhat guilty, - decided not to heat the stoves temporarily. (7) And then, you know, the stove gives waste, and this, apparently, is reflected in its growth. (8) She completely stopped growing.
- (9) Who stopped growing?
- (10) Have you still not paid attention? - Staring at me with indignation, shouted Tarasnikov. - (11) What is this? (12) Don't you see?
(12) And he looked with sudden tenderness at the low log ceiling of our dugout.
(14) I got up, raised the lamp and saw that a thick round elm in the ceiling had sprouted a green sprout. (15) Pale and tender, with unsteady leaves, he stretched out to the ceiling. (16) In two places it was supported by white ribbons pinned to the ceiling with buttons.
- (17) Do you understand? Tarasnikov spoke up. - (18) I grew all the time. (19) Such a glorious twig waved. (20) And here we often began to drown, but she, apparently, does not like it. (21) Here I made notches on a log, and I have dates.
(22) See how quickly it grew at first. (23) Another day I pulled out two centimeters. (24) I give you an honest noble word! (25) And how we began to smoke here, for three days now I have not observed growth. (26) So she won't get sick for long. (27) Let's refrain. (28) And, you know, I’m interested in: will he get to the exit? (29) After all, it stretches closer to the air, where the sun is, it smells from under the ground.
(30) And we went to bed in an unheated, damp dugout. (31) The next day, I myself already spoke to him about his branch.
- (32) Imagine, almost one and a half centimeters stretched out. (33) I told you, you don’t need to drown. (34) This natural phenomenon is simply amazing! ...
(35) At night, the Germans brought down massive artillery fire on our location. (36) I woke up from the roar of close explosions, spitting out the earth, which, from the shaking, fell abundantly on us through the log ceiling. (37) Tarasnikov also woke up and turned on the light bulb. (38) Everything hooted, trembled and shook around us. (Z9) Tarasnikov put the light bulb in the middle of the table, leaned back on the bed, with his hands behind his head.
Northern traditions in architecture and construction have evolved over the centuries. Folk architecture in the process of its development selected all the best, most viable.
For climate analysis, consider the Eskimo dwelling, built from the simplest and most accessible building material in local conditions - snow and ice. The shape of the igloo is ideal for harsh environments, as it provides a minimum surface area per unit volume. It provides little resistance to wind, and hence less heat loss. The inner surfaces of the dome and floor, usually covered with furs and skins, increased thermal insulation and provided a relatively high surface temperature. Small openings in the middle of the dome, which opened against the direction of the wind, provided limited ventilation.
Given the harsh climate, the architecture of traditional Siberian and northern huts is taking shape. Since ancient times, a wooden house consisted of three parts: a hut, a cage, and a vestibule. The hut was intended for winter housing, things were stored in a cage, they lived in the summer, through the canopy they got into all parts: on the porch, attic, in the pantries, an attached covered courtyard. Each part was intended for several purposes. Seni - a thermal vestibule, a "communication center" - was built spacious. They lived in the entrance hall in the summer or turned them into a summer gallery.
The advantages of a three-part house include: compact volume, careful protection of the thermal part and the very entrance to the "heat". Cold utility rooms for this purpose were attached to the hut from the side of the prevailing winds or located in the basement space of the first floor, creating a buffer zone - a layer that insulates and protects the building. The roof space also served as a thermal buffer. The Russian massive stove was located in the central part of the dwelling or near the entrance, as an additional thermal barrier. Revenge for sleeping was in the thermal part of the hut or on the stove.
According to the principle of thermal zoning, rooms where low temperatures are possible are surrounded by buildings where higher temperatures are required, and heat sources and warm rooms are located in the interior of the house.
In conditions of low temperatures, the ventilation of the premises was solved in a peculiar way. Instead of vents, there was a special ventilation hole in the upper part of the outer wall.
The climate of the northern territories determined the ratio of the area of light apertures and floor area. So, in the Siberian hut of the 19th century, this ratio was 1:8. To ensure uniform illumination, the angular arrangement of windows was used, in which there are no dull shadows and dark walls between the windows.
People's dwellings also included some transforming elements: open spaces, porches, cold lightrooms, window shutters, replaceable glazed frames, etc., which were means of creating flexibility in the functioning of the internal living environment.
In northern architecture, the connection between architecture and the natural environment is clearly traced. Much attention was paid to the optimal orientation of the building, protection from winds and snow. Based on the study of the terrain, the direction of the prevailing winds, the nature of snow drifts, the temperature regime of the landscape itself, craftsmen created a housing environment that protected people from the negative effects of the external environment.
The northern settlements are characterized not just by geometric, but by a more picturesque arrangement of building elements, corresponding to the features of the surrounding landscape. The buildings were placed according to natural directions: the bends of the river, the shore of the lake, the hill, etc.
In folk construction, the maximum distances between houses were worked out, within one and a half to three heights of buildings. The dense placement of residential buildings created mutual protection from the winds. In villages open to the winds, protected, closed spaces were created.
Especially clearly in the folk architecture of the northern territories, the dependence of the nature of the geometric shape of the volume on the natural and climatic situation can be traced. As a result, buildings of an aerodynamic, directional form, compact closed structures appeared.
One of the features of the northern dwelling is the compactness of the space-planning solution, which makes it possible to reduce heat losses by reducing the area of cooled surfaces. For example, complete compact dwellings made of modular planning elements - cages, walls, connections, priruba, etc.
The main elements of the architectural and artistic solution of a residential building were based on a combination of functional expediency, technical excellence and artistic expressiveness.
The need of the inhabitants of the North for increased reliability of a dwelling, its ability to protect a person from bad weather, was reflected in the creation of a unique look for a northern residential building with a simple but expressive facade design. A small number of architectural details gave the appearance of the house monumentality.
With the transition to modern construction with new materials, new types of buildings, traditional experience required a revision and use of scientific achievements.
At the initial stages in a harsh climate, the dwellings were characterized by compactness of space-planning solutions, isolation and security, the development of covered courtyards and summer quarters, double porches, small windows, and their limited use. In subsequent stages, with the development of central heating, mechanical ventilation and air conditioning systems, there were better opportunities to ensure the level of comfort in buildings without additional consideration of the influence of the external environment.
The planning and development of cities in Siberia and the North have characteristic differences from the development of cities in the middle zone: compactness, protection from adverse environmental influences, laying of engineering communications during construction on permafrost soils, etc.
When building up northern areas, the position of the sun on a certain day and hour is taken into account in order to know which sides of the building will be illuminated by the sun, the area of the cast shade around the building is calculated, taking into account solar radiation allows you to determine the optimal building density.
Features of the light climate also affect the general concepts of form, the nature of architectural and urban objects. In the North, inclined or vertical surfaces serve more effectively. In the development of the northern zones of many countries, cell systems are used. The main cell shapes: rectangular, diamond-shaped, trapezoidal, round, etc.
In windy areas on the development site, a system of windproof buildings is organized, each of which protects the adjacent territory from the wind.
Windproof buildings must have a special space-planning structure, windproof structures of external fences and filling of window and balcony openings.
The correct choice of the location of the building, its shape, the material of the enclosing structures, the arrangement of windows, balconies, loggias contributes to the reduction of heat loss from buildings during strong winds.
In blizzard areas during snowstorms, simple forms of buildings are needed, without ledges and wests. Roofs with a rounded contour, gable, single-pitched. The construction of buildings on supports prevents the risk of snow drifting of the building.
When designing northern residential complexes, it should be taken into account that the increased shading of the territory leads to a slowdown in the melting of snow cover, up to incomplete snow cover in the summer. , beveled ends and corners of buildings, etc.)
Accounting for rain and wind also affects the shaping of buildings and their durability, as well as how they are built. Apply sealing of joints of panels and window, balcony and other openings.
Housing in cool weather protects a person from easy cooling; operating mode semi-open. Such a dwelling is characterized by: the circulation of rooms to the sunny sides of the horizon; moderately compact space-planning solutions; fencing with heat-shielding properties; in apartments - places for storing outerwear, air exchange through vents, valves; heating devices of low power; accumulation of internal heat emissions (from cooking, washing). In an urban environment, wind protection and the use of insolation create conditions close to comfortable. Typical temperatures are 6-10 degrees.
Features of architectural design for the southern regions. Features of the development of the southern regions are dictated by the peculiar structure and lifestyle of the population, specific forms of settlement, the formation of settlements and service systems.
The similarity of the problems facing the development of the southern and northern regions often leads to similar ways of solving them. First of all, this is the ultimate isolation from adverse external influences, compactness in plan, wide body, thick outer walls, courtyards that protect against winds that carry air with too high or low temperatures.
Superheated air, excess solar radiation, ultraviolet oversaturation and other typical for most southern regions require appropriate approaches to the orientation and space-planning solutions of buildings, open cool winds and protection from the sun.
The main fundamental difference between design solutions for southern regions and solutions for other climatic regions is that a resident of the south spends most of his time in open space (yards, verandas, rooms with through ventilation, etc.) Already in the early stages of human development Two different architectural concepts of construction arose, related both to the social and cultural-historical characteristics of society, and to the specifics of the climate: one in hot-dry areas, the other in hot-humid ones.
In hot-dry areas, peculiar types of dwellings and their complexes have developed, in their design reminiscent of the architectural concept of closed three-dimensional structures. This is due to the need to provide protection from the sun and hot winds carrying dust and sand, as well as the desire to create well-shaded and cool spaces. Cities and settlements in a hot-dry climate are characterized by narrow shaded streets (usually planted along the edges with trees), high building density and closed compositions of residential and public buildings with courtyards facing the streets with blind fences.
In order to use favorable cool winds to ventilate the quarters of the city, the breakdown of the main streets, as a rule, was carried out in the direction of their action.
Adaptation to the influence of the winds found its most striking expression in the planning of the city of Babylon. The plan of the city took into account the entry into the city of favorable northern and northwestern winds.
In Mesopotamia, cities and palace complexes were built on high artificial platforms, which was dictated by the requirements of protection from grassroots storms and floods.
Light openings performed a specific function. Passing light, they delayed the penetration of direct sunlight, hot and dusty air currents.
For example, in the temples of Ancient Egypt, alabaster translucent slabs were used to protect from desert winds. The ancient Greeks chose the most favorable terrain for the construction of their cities. The Hellenistic peristyle dwellings of the Greeks and the atrium dwellings of the Romans exemplify elaborate planning adapted to the climate. In the civil architecture of Arabia, under the influence of a hot arid climate, a tower type of house with massive walls, with ledges and terraces of flat roofs and a large number of floors, developed.
In the cities of Central Asia, large courtyards with two iwans were practiced in residential complexes, the axes of which were strictly oriented from south to north. The summer room had windows to the north, and the winter room to the south. A large aivan in hot weather caught cool air currents and sent them down.
For the climate of the southern regions, the protection of the architectural environment from overheating is one of the most important problems. Its solution is connected with the constant search for characteristic and original space-planning and structural structures that provide comfortable living conditions for people and expressiveness of buildings and development.
Sunscreens used:
· Architectural planning and design techniques, which include the orientation of the building to the cardinal points, landscaping and watering (pools, fountains,) areas, planning of buildings and buildings, etc.
Shading and light control devices: canopies (solid and lattice), blinds (horizontal and vertical), screens, shutters, cornices, curtains, etc.
Glass solar products (light-shielding, light-diffusing, heat-absorbing)
In modern projects of architectural buildings and in their implementation, they strive to maintain the continuity and achievements of folk architecture of past eras with new achievements in the field of science and construction. In a hot dry climate, the outer volume of the building most often has the shape of a parallelepiped. For a more favorable internal microclimate, it is advisable to create closed or semi-enclosed yard spaces in such forms. If necessary, the space can be shaded (with walls, trees), and filled with cool air, using the cooling effect of ponds, fountains, lawns, the principle of evaporative cooling. To reduce heat transfer through the roof into the premises of one-story buildings, it is worth making narrow ones, with access to the courtyard.
In a hot - humid area, the dwelling protects a person from severe overheating and stuffiness. Requires cooling and reducing the moisture content of the air. Evaporative (increases humidity) and radiation (condensate) cooling is unacceptable. Indoor premises for evening and night rest, the use of the cooling effect of the soil are characteristic.
Characterized by shading and aeration, necessary to reduce temperature, stuffiness and overheating. The windows are closed during the operation of air conditioners, protected from the sun. In hot - humid areas, large window openings are necessary to ensure natural ventilation of the premises. In one-story buildings, large plumb roofs are made. In multi-storey buildings - blinds and light-shielding screens. Openings from two opposite facades.
In the multi-storey construction of the southern regions, the same types of houses are used as in a temperate climate: sectional, tower, gallery. And corridors. In hot - dry areas, the territory should be protected from dusty sandstorms, due to the correctly selected site, the orientation of the building, the nature of landscaping and landscaping.
The similarity of the problems faced in the development of these areas often prompts specialists to find ways to solve them. In both cases, we are dealing with extreme values: supercooled and overheated air, lack and excess of solar radiation, ultraviolet starvation and oversaturation, orientation of space-planning solutions to the peak of winter or summer discomfort. Buildings for the North are deployed towards the sun and are maximally sheltered from cold winds, and for the south they are open to cool winds and protected from the sun. A resident of the south exists in an open space (courtyard, veranda, rooms with through ventilation), a resident of the north spends most of his time indoors. Hence the different organization of the internal space of the house.
Construction in seismic areas also has its own characteristics.
Construction in mountainous areas.
· Erection of frame columns made of vibration-resistant steels in the form of closed seamless thin-walled square profiles filled inside with special concrete;
· Erection on the roof or in the upper floors of special mechanisms-devices;
· Monitoring the behavior of structures during earthquakes using special sensors;
· Installation of emergency helipads on the roof for emergency evacuation of people.
Conclusion: In architectural design, taking into account climatic specifics remains a big scientific and technical problem. The decision is connected with the search for forms of settlement, the structure of planning and development of a residential formation, volumetric and spatial methods of building composition, their design solutions, as well as the use of new building materials that increase the insulating and protective qualities of enclosing structures.
Similar information.
The design and development of cities is largely based on the study of the natural conditions of the area. Climate is one of the most important factors taken into account in urban planning.
Climate- this is an average, long-term regime of atmospheric phenomena, characteristic for each place on the Earth. Basically, the climate is determined by the geographical location of the place. The climatic characteristics are most significantly affected by the latitude and height of the terrain, proximity to the sea coast, and the peculiarity of the vegetation cover.
The relative stability of the climate is explained by the fact that the amount of solar heat received by the Earth is almost constant from year to year. The earth's surface itself does not change significantly, with its continents and oceans, mountains and plains on land, cold and warm currents in the seas and oceans. Air currents in the atmosphere, although they are distinguished by great diversity and variability, have their own patterns that manifest themselves over a long time.
Climatic features in themselves, that is, outside of their influence on land fertility and agriculture, are of all physical and geographical factors of the least importance for the formation and development of modern cities. It is well known that the concentration of the population in cities is due to economic reasons, and not to climatic features as such. For example, Ancient Rome, the first and only "giant city" of antiquity, has always been distinguished by unhealthy climatic conditions; London is famous for its unhealthy dampness and notorious fogs; Venice was built on the lagoons; in the swamps - St. Petersburg.
However, the importance of climate in relation to the nature of the planning of buildings, greening of cities, up to the choice of the type and material of housing, is enormous. In urban planning practice, the following main climatic characteristics are taken into account:
Air temperature and humidity;
Wind regime in the territory;
Arrival of solar radiation.
Air temperature determines the choice of heat-insulating properties of the enclosing structures of buildings. First of all, the calculated outdoor temperature in the cold season is taken into account. For thermotechnical calculations of enclosing structures, the following outdoor temperatures are used: the average temperature of the coldest five-day period and the absolute minimum temperature of the outdoor air. The lower the calculated temperatures, the more effective the thermal insulation of walls and country floors, the denser the window double (or even triple) sashes should be.
When making urban planning decisions, the average annual temperature, the average temperature by months, as well as the temperature difference, i.e., the difference between summer and winter temperatures, are taken into account.
Air temperature affects the layout of residential areas and neighborhoods. Distances from housing to service establishments, the so-called radius of accessibility, depend on the temperature regime. At low winter temperatures, these radii should probably be smaller, especially to children's institutions. For the northern cities of Russia, special projects of buildings are being developed, interconnected by insulated transitions.
Air temperature affects the layout of apartments. In a hot climate at high summer temperatures, it is necessary to provide through ventilation of apartments, the creation of loggias. It should be borne in mind that the microclimate of the city creates an increased temperature (by 2–3 degrees) in conditions of dense urban development due to the reduction of turbulent wind mixing of air, increased insolation surface and heat release from industrial facilities and housing.
wind mode. Wind - the movement of air relative to the earth's surface, caused by an uneven distribution of atmospheric pressure. The wind regime is taken into account in urban planning, primarily from the point of view of identifying the dominant directions and their speeds. The wind diagram clearly reflects the prevailing wind direction at a given point.
Rose of Wind- this is a graphical representation of the frequency of winds (in percent) along the horizon points (Fig. 3.1).
Rice. 3.1. Rose of Wind
The wind rose is built on 8 or 16 points - the main geographical cardinal points. In these directions, on a certain scale, the recurrence values of the directions or the values of the average and maximum wind speeds corresponding to each rhumba are plotted in the form of vectors. The ends of the vectors are connected by a broken line. The prevailing wind direction corresponds to the largest vector of the wind rose, directed towards its center. The basis for constructing the wind rose is a long-term series of observations at the nearest meteorological station.
Based on the analysis of the wind rose by directions, conclusions are drawn about the functional zoning of the territory, the mutual placement of residential and industrial areas. Industrial areas with harmful emissions into the atmosphere should be located on the leeward side so that they do not pollute the air of residential areas. The main wind direction is also taken into account when arranging airfields for the landing and take-off of aircraft.
In the harsh climate of the north, taking into account the directions of the prevailing winds makes it possible to organize wind protection for a residential area. Wind protection is carried out by using artificial wind barriers (buildings, green plantings of tall stem vegetation) or natural barriers (using lee slopes, large arrays of existing greenery).
Characterization of areas by wind speeds allows you to carry out measures for wind protection or, conversely, the organization of ventilation. The optimum wind speed is up to 4 m/s. Areas where the wind speed is less than 1 m / s are classified as unventilated, and more than 4 m / s - to zones of intensive ventilation.
In order to reduce the high speeds of the prevailing winds, the direction of the streets in the city is corrected. In addition, additional wind protection measures are being developed, such as planting trees and shrubs. In conditions of strong winds, the best wind protection is provided by the use of extended multi-section buildings located across the prevailing wind direction. In areas with low wind speeds, on the contrary, complex configurations of buildings and their long length should be avoided. Here, tower-type buildings are more preferable, providing maximum preservation of the initial wind speed.
Humidity- the content of water vapor in the air, one of the essential characteristics of the climate . Absolute humidity- the amount of water vapor in grams contained in 1 m³ of air. Relative Humidity- this is the percentage of absolute humidity to the maximum amount of water vapor that 1 m³ of air can contain at a given temperature.
Moisture has a huge impact on the heat-shielding qualities of building envelopes. It is known that water is an excellent conductor of heat, and air, especially dry air, has thermal insulation properties. Therefore, heat-insulating materials with a large number of air-filled pores have excellent heat-shielding properties. However, when moisture penetrates, the thermal insulation ability of any material deteriorates sharply. In addition, moisture dissolves chemicals that lead to the rapid destruction of materials.
Thus, increased humidity reduces the thermal insulation properties of building envelopes, stimulates the process of corrosion of metals, destruction of materials. Therefore, air humidity is taken into account when choosing materials for thermal insulation and building structures.
In addition, high humidity greatly impairs the heat perception of people. At low temperatures, humidity creates the impression of particular discomfort. Even not very cold weather is perceived negatively, at the same time, even severe frosts in dry, clear weather are easily tolerated. In a hot climate, humidity also acts uncomfortable, damp heat is very difficult for a person to tolerate.
A person's feelings largely depend on a combination of three factors:
Temperatures;
Humidity;
Air movement speeds.
So, at a temperature of 19 ° C, humidity 50% and still air, a person experiences a pleasant sensation of normal room temperature. At the same temperature and humidity, but with air moving at a speed of 0.5 m/s, a feeling characterized by the concept of “cool”, and at a speed of 2.5 m/s, a person becomes cold. And at a temperature of 24 ° C, still air saturated with water vapor, you get a feeling of stuffiness. At the same temperature and humidity, but with a wind speed of 1 m / s - a pleasant feeling of normal temperature.
Insolation- exposure to direct sunlight of any horizontal, vertical or inclined surface. This is a qualitative characteristic determined by the lighting time.
The normative duration of insolation is defined in SNIP 2.07.01 - 89 and depends on the climatic zone. In the zone located north of 58 ° N. sh., the duration of continuous insolation from April 22 to August 22 should be at least 3 hours a day. For zones south of 58° N. sh. from March 22 to September 22 - at least 2.5 hours. The placement and orientation of the buildings of preschool institutions and secondary schools, health care institutions should ensure a continuous three-hour duration of insolation.
When reconstructing residential buildings or when placing new construction in particularly difficult urban conditions (historically valuable urban environment, expensive preparation of the territory, the zone of the city and district center), it is allowed to reduce the duration of insolation of the premises by 0.5 hours.
Insolation is taken into account when organizing development and choosing a territory. Residential development should provide uniform illumination of apartments and plots of residential territory, destinations for recreation and sports of the population.
In temperate climates, buildings are positioned on the ground so as to maximize the duration of insolation. In the conditions of a pronounced relief, for residential development and placement of areas for children's institutions and recreation areas, mainly southern slopes are chosen, which are well insolated and with a good microclimate.
In areas with a hot climate, on the contrary, sun protection measures are provided. Landscaping of the territory includes the installation of canopies, green spaces with a dense branched crown, which reduce the time of direct solar irradiation of the territory.
The insolation of an individual building depends on its orientation to its sides of the horizon. Distinguish meridional, latitudinal and intermediate orientation of the building.
At meridional orientation buildings have main axes in the north-south direction. This orientation ensures uniform insolation of both facades and the minimum area of permanent shading areas. However, its disadvantage is that in the near noon hours, when the sun's rays are most rich in ultraviolet and heat, only the end part of the buildings is insolated.
With latitude orientation buildings have main axes in the direction west - east. Only one (southern) facade of buildings is insolated here. Direct sunlight does not enter rooms oriented to the north.
With an intermediate orientation there are no permanent shading zones, all four facades of the building have insolation, however uneven.
The lighting of a group of buildings also depends on the distance at which one building is located from another, as well as on the height of the neighboring building. To apply the type of orientation of buildings on the ground, the compositional reception of building and the terrain are also taken into account.
In addition to the factors considered, other elements of climate are of great importance in urban planning. For example, the amount of precipitation in a given area is taken into account in the engineering improvement of the territory, the calculation of the catchment area, the regulation of surface runoff and the design of storm sewers.