Life philosophy: Schopenhauer, Nietzsche.

The irrationalistic direction established at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. His emergence was associated with the rapid development of biology, psychology and other sciences, discovered the inconsistency of the mechanistic picture of the world. In the center of this philosophy lies the concept of life as an absolute, infinite unique start of the world, which, unlike the matter and consciousness, is actively, diverse, forever moves.

Arthur Schopenhauer - German philosopher idealist; I gained myself a glory as a brilliant essayist. He considered himself a follower of Kant. In the interpretation of his philosophical views, the main focus was made on the teaching on a priori forms of sensuality to the detriment of the teachings on the categorical structure of thinking. Highlighted two aspects of the understanding of the subject: one that is given as an object of perception, and one that is subject in itself. The world as a representation is entirely due to the subject and is a sphere of visibility.

Schopenhauer - supporter of voluntarism. The will in his teaching appears as a cosmic principle underlying the universe. Will, being a dark and mysterious force, extremely egocentric, which means for each individual an eternal aspiration, anxiety, conflicts with other people.

The aesthetic ideal of Schopenhauer - in Buddhist Nirvana, in the scenery of "Will to Life", in full asceticism.

Friedrich Nietzsche - German philosopher, one of the founders of modern irrationalism in the form of a philosophy of life. His views underwent a certain evolution from the romantic estimation of cultural experience through the "reassessment of all values" and the criticism of "European nihilism" to a comprehensive concept of voluntarism.

The main provisions of mature philosophy Nietzsche are:

all existing will be the will to power, power;

the world itself is a lot of peace struggling to each other, or prospects coming from power centers - perspectivism.

Nietzsche is a decisive enemy accelerated in the European culture of the opposite of the "true world" by the world of Empherichek, the origins of which he sees in the denial of life, in Decadence. Nietzsche binds criticism of metaphysics with criticism of the tongue. The deep inner controversial of Nietzschean Vitalism is manifested in the question of the ratio of the truth of one or another doctrine, ideas, concepts, etc. And their historical genesis. Main Sochiney: "Human, too human", "Merry Science", "On the other side of good", "Antichristian".

Problems of Genesis at A. Shopenhauer, F. Nietzsche, A. Bergson, K. Marx

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). One of the brightest figures of irrationalism is Arthur Schopenhauer, which was dissatisfied with optimistic rationalism and dialectics of Hegel.

At the heart of the world, according to Schopenhauer, lies the will, which subordinates the intellect.

As far as the will is stronger than intelligence, according to Schopenhauer, you can judge by our own actions, because almost all of them are not dictated by the arguments of the mind, but instincts and desires. The strongest instinct in life is sexual love, i.e. the continuation of the kind, and in fact - the reproduction of new generations for suffering, flour and inevitable death.

Schopenhauer denied all the dogmas of Christianity, including the immortality of the soul. According to Schopenhauer, the domination of world evil and faith in God are incompatible.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). Friedrich Nietzsche - German philosopher and philologist, the brightest propaganda of individualism, voluntarism and irrationalism.

According to Nietzsche, the world is a permanent formation and aimlessness, which is expressed in the idea of \u200b\u200b"the eternal return of the same".

Following Arthur Shopenhauer Nietzsche, the world called the will:

As a driving force of becoming;

As a gust;

As "will be to power";

Will to expand her I, to expansion. The central concept of Nietzsche is the idea of \u200b\u200blife. He is a source of directions, which is called the philosophy of life.

In man, according to Nietzsche, the main thing is the principle of physicity and in general the biological or-low-altitude principle; Intelligence is only the highest layer required to conserve organisms, primarily instincts.

Henri Bergson. Anri Bergson (1859-1941) - French thinker, representative of intuivism and philosophy of life.

Bergson's views can be defined as a retreat from the materialist-mechanistic and positivist direction of philosophical thought.

His exercises are most important: the intensity of sensations; time; freedom of will; memory in its ratio over time; creative evolution; The role of intuition in comprehension of things.

Bergson offered life as a substance as some kind of integrity, different from the matter and spirit: life directed upwards, and the matter is "down".

The meaning of life, according to Bergson, will be compiled only by intuition, interpreted in a kind of sympathy, affordable direct penetration into the essence of the subject by merging with its unique nature.

Problems that were interested in Bergson:

Soul and body;

The idea of \u200b\u200bspiritual energy;

Dreams, etc.

They had a special meaning for him because:

He wanted to "free" the spirit from the body and thereby prove the possibility of the immortality of the soul;

His interest in Spiritis and telepathy was associated with them.

Karl Marx. Marks Karl (1818-1883) - a philosopher and socialist, the creator of the "Communist Manifesta", the founder of historical materialism.

Marx and Engels create their new philosophy, called "new materialism."

Applying materialistic dialectic to the analysis of public life, K. Marx made two discoveries: "the secret" of surplus value in the capitalist society; Materialistic understanding of history.

Problems of consciousness at A. Shopenhauer, F. Nietzsche, K. Marx, A. Bergson, W. James

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). Arthur Schopenhauer was not agreed with the concept of reason as the area of \u200b\u200bconscious mental activity of human consciousness, introducing unconsciously irrational moments.

The main fact of Consciousness Schopenhauer saw in the presentation.

Intuition is the first and most important view knowledge. The whole world of reflection is based on intuition.

According to Schopenhauer, only contemplation, free from any attitude to practice and to the interests of will, may be truly perfect knowledge. Scientific thinking is always consciously, because he is a report in its principles and actions, and the activities of the artist, on the contrary, unconscious, irrational: it is not able to understand their own essence.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). The form of the presentation of philosophical ideas in Friedrich Nietzsche is aphorisms, myths, sermons, controversy, declarations.

According to Nietzsche, consciousness connects:

Antique installation on the value of the objective world, the direction of attention to it;

Personal skill of the work of consciousness with himself. Nietzsche sought to create the foundations of the new morality "Superman" instead of Christian, find a new way of religious consciousness. The world, according to Nietzsche:

This is a life that is not identical to organic processes: its sign is becoming;

This will be to power.

Karl Marx (1818-1883). Karl Marx was a hence of the ideas of the secondaryness of consciousness, its conditionality, deterministic external factors for him and above all - economic.

According to Marx, no consciousness determines the being and the world of phenomena, but on the contrary: being determines consciousness, consciousness is conscious being.

Karl Marx argued that a person, his consciousness and his whole spiritual life are determined by exclusive social and economic relations.

Marx proposed to analyze the consciousness and its content through the study of the subject-practical forms of human activity, i.e., analyze the consciousness, woven into the being of people.

Henri Bergson (1859-1941). Henri Bergson is one of the brightest representatives of the philosophy of life.

The most important philosophical work of Bergson is the "experience of direct data of consciousness", in which he introduces the concept of "net durability" is the essence of consciousness and being.

Bergson in his philosophy applied to the life of our consciousness: after all, it was given to us directly in our self-consciousness, which shows that the finest tissue of mental life is the duration, i.e. the continuous variability of states.

Bergson's teachings about the nature of the consciousness and conditions of the possibility of an open society at one time was characterized as a revolution in philosophy.

William James (1842-1910). William James - the North American philosopher, in his opinion, the consciousness is disseminated and has an expedient structure.

One of the most famous works of James - "There is a consciousness", in it the philosopher denies the existence of consciousness as a special entity relating to anything.

In his opinion, the personality (a certain volitional center), and not consciousness, refers to the flow of sensations and experiences, which are the last reality given to us in the experience.

Z. Freud, his followers and opponents

Sigmund Freud -Avustian psychologist, a neuropathologist, a psychiatrist, is characterized by studies of the phenomena of the unconscious, their nature, forms and methods of manifestation.

Freud's main works containing philosophical ideas and concepts:

- "Mass psychology and analysis of the human" I "";

- "On the other side of the principle of pleasure";

- "" I "and" it "";

- "psychology of the unconscious";

- "dissatisfaction in culture";

- "Civilization and analysis of the human" I "" and others. Freud put forward:

Hypothesis about the exceptional role of sexuality in the emergence of neurosis;

The approval of the role of the unconscious and the possibility of his knowledge through the interpretation of dreams;

The hypothesis that the mental activity of the unconscious obeys the principle of pleasure, and the mental activity of the subconscious - the principle of reality.

For Freud's philosophy, the main idea is that the behavior of people manage irrational mental forces, and not the laws of social development, which intelligence is the apparatus of the masking of these forces, and not a means of active reflection of reality, and more in-depth understanding.

The main researchFreed is the role of the most important, in his opinion, the engine of the mental life of a person - "libido" (sexual attraction), which determines the contradiction:

Man and social environment;

Man and culture;

Man and civilization.

Through the prism of sublimation, Freud considered:

Formation of religious rites and cults;

The emergence of science;

Self-development of humanity.

From the philosophy, Freud gives its understanding of man and culture. Culturasystatshes him as "above-I", based on the refusal to meet the desires of the unconscious, it exists due to the sublimated libido energy.

In his work, "dissatisfaction in culture" Freud concludes that the progress of culture reduces human happiness, strengthens the person's sense of guilt due to restriction of its natural desires.

In consideration by the social organization of the company, Freud concentrates its attention not to its nadudimal character, but on the natural tendency of a person to destruction, aggression, which can be curbed culture.

Karl Gustav Jung -Shweiger psychologist, philosopher, cultureologist, began his activity as the nearest candidate Sigmund of Freud and the popularizer of his ideas.

After Jung's gap with Freud, there is a revision of ideas about the origin of human creativity and the development of human culture from the point of view of the "libido" and "sublimation", the displacement of sexuality and all manifestations of the unconscious through "above-I".

"Libido" in understanding Jung is not just a certain sexual attraction, but a stream of vital-mental energy. Jung introduced such objects to scientific research as the doctrine of karma, reincarnation, parapsychological phenomena, etc. Major works K.G. Jung: "Metamorphosis and symbols of libido"; "Psychological types"; "Relationship between me and unconscious"; "Attempting to psychological interpretation of dogmat about Trinity."

The most interesting representative of Neofreedism was Erich Fromm.

Main works: "Flight from Freedom"; "Concept m

Psychoanalysis Z. Freud and Neofreedism, consciousness and unconscious

Sigmund Freud is an Austrian psychologist, a neuropathologist, a psychiatrist, he explored the phenomena of the unconscious, their nature, forms and ways of manifestation.

The main works of Freud, which contain philosophical ideas and concepts: "Mass psychology and analysis of the human" I ""; "On the other side of the principle of pleasure"; "" I "and" it ""; "Psychology of the unconscious"; "Dissatisfaction in culture"; "Civilization and analysis of the human" I "", etc.

Freud put forward a hypothesis about the role of the unconscious and the possibility of his knowledge through the interpretation of dreams.

Freud assumed that the mental activity of the unconscious obeys the principle of pleasure, and the mental activity of the subconscious - the principle of reality.

The main in the philosophy of Sigmund Freud was the idea that the behavior of people manage irrational mental forces, and not the laws of social development, which intelligence is a disguise device of these forces, and not a means of active reflection of reality, an increasingly in-depth understanding.

The most important, according to Freud, the engine of the mental life of a person is "libido" (sexual attraction), which determines the contradictions of a person and social environment, man and culture, man and civilization.

In his psychoanalysis, Freud considered:

The formation of religious cults and rituals;

The appearance of art and public institutions;

The emergence of science;

Self-development of humanity.

Freud argued that the main part of the human psyche is unconscious that a person is in a constant desire to satisfy his deposits, desires, and society is a hostile environment, which seeks to limit or completely deprive a person to satisfy his passions.

According to Freud, the personality is divided into it; I (ego); Ex-I (super ego).

It is the scope of the unconscious, subordinate only to the principle of pleasure, it has no doubt, contradictions and denies.

Any instincts and related attachments Freud shares two opposite groups:

Entry ego (death instincts, aggression, destruction);

Sex instincts (life instincts).

Freud proposes to consider the consciousness of the person as a system of external prohibitions and rules (super-ego), and the true content of the individual (ego) as something "cashless" (it), which contains impulsive attractions and passion.

According to Freud's philosophy, consciousness creates various kinds of norms, laws, commandments, rules, overwhelming the subconscious sphere, being a censorship of the Spirit.

The subconscious sphere manifests itself in areas:

Abnormal (dreams, random reservations, also forgetting, etc.);

Abnormal (neurosis, psychosis, etc.). Neofreedism is a direction in modern philosophy and psychology, which connected the psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud with American sociological theories. The main representatives of Neofreedism:

Karen Horney;

Harry Slivlyn;

Erich From and others.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bNeofreedists was an interpersonal relationship. Their main issue was the question of how to live a person and what to do.

The Company is recognized as hostile indigenous tendencies of personality development and transformation of its life values \u200b\u200band ideals.

The idea of \u200b\u200bsuperhuman in F. Nitsche

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) - German philosopher and philologist, the brightest propaganda of individualism, voluntarism and irrationalism.

In the work of Nietzsche, three periods stand out:

1) 1871-1876 ("The birth of tragedies from the Spirit of Music", "untimely reflections");

2) 1876-1877. ("Human, too human", "Mottle opinions and sayings", "Wanderer and his shadow", "Merry Science") - a period of disappointments and criticality - "sober";

3) 1887-1889. ("So said Zarathustra", "on the other side of good and evil", "Twilight idols", "Antichrist", "Nietzsche Vagner").

Cognition for Nietzsche is interpretation, interpretation, closely related to the inner life of a person, he rightly notes that the same text admits numerous interpretations, since the thought is a sign with a lot of meanings. To understand the thing, you need a human translate to natural, so one of the most important means of knowledge and the translation of human into natural.

According to Nietzsche, a person is "earth disease", he is mimolen, he "basically there is something wrong." But you need to create a genuine, new person - "Superman", which would give a goal, would be the winner of "being and nothing" and was honest, first of all before himself.

The main problem of man, his essence and nature is the problem of his spirit.

According to Nietzsche, the Spirit:

This is endurance;

Courage and freedom;

Approval of your will.

The main goal of man's aspirations is not good, not pleasure, not truth, not a Christian God, but life. Life is space and biological: it will be the will to power as the principle of world being and the "eternal return". The will to life is obliged to express himself not in a miserable struggle for existence, but in the battle for power and superiority, for the formation of a new person.

In his work, "so spoke Zarathustra" Nietzsche announces:

That man is something that should overcome;

All creatures created something above them;

People want to become a garbage of this great wave, they are ready to return to animals than to overcome the person.

The present greatness of man is that he is a bridge, and not a goal. Nietzsche wrote: "A person is a rope, stretched between animals and superhorecom."

Nitszhevsky superman is the meaning of being, the salt of the earth. In his opinion, the place of the deceased God will take superhumans. Nietzsche believes that the idea of \u200b\u200bsuperman as a goal that must be achieved, returns to a person's lost meaning of existence. Superman may turn out from the generation of aristocrats, the Lord by nature, in whom the will to power is not crushed by the culture hostile to it, from those who are able to unite with themselves, to confront the majority that does not want to know anything about the true purpose of modern people.

Nietzsche under the influence of the physico-cosmological surveys Duringe has developed the idea of \u200b\u200ban eternal return, which should compensate for the hopeful hopefulness with Christianity eternal life Behind the coffin. If logically follow this idea, then people are doomed to eternity, because they already live in eternity. Eternity, according to Nietzsche, coincides with a moment.

The main feature of the Irrationalism of the XIX century is to criticize the mind, science, logic, systemics, since the rationality and its investigation destroy the very ever-becoming and developing life. Representatives of this area Danish, Thinker Seresen Kierkegra (1813-1855), German philosophers Arthur Shopenhauer (1788-1860) and Friedrich Nietzsche (1844 1900) believe that the central characteristic man is something irrational, mystical, incomprehensible means of science and logic, inexplicable and inexpressible in conceptual thinking.

The reason for the occurrence of irrationalism is the crisis of German transcendental philosophy. Representatives of the non-classical type of philosophy saw in I. Kant and G. Hegel only a pure theory and scholastic schematics, which do not explain, but only simplify and schematize contradictory and mysterious life. Therefore, the central task neklissical philosophy It is to discover a certain primary irrational reality ("Hungry will" at A. Shopenhauer, "Absurd Faith" in S. Kierkegor, "Will to power" by F. Nietzsche).

Like the remaining representatives of non-classical philosophy, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) argues that the basis of the People's Age, his generic essence is not a mind, but some blind, unconscious life, unreasonable will. The mind in human life plays a secondary role-dependent role.

Criticizing the German classical philosophy, A. Shopenhauer, however, uses the main ideas and achievements of the latter. The main work of A. Shopenhauer "The World As Will and Presentation" (1816) was written under the direct influence of the philosophy I. Kant. Just as I. Kant distinguishes the "phenomenon" and an unrecognizable "thing in himself", A. Shopenhauer considers the world as a presentation ("phenomenon") and as a will ("thing in itself"). The world in which a person lives is declared a philosopher from a near world of presentation. Here everything is visibility, mirage, Mai covering. In this world, it is almost impossible to distinguish between reality and sleep, reality and visibility. In the world, as a view there is no place for freedom, because here everything is subject to the power of the mind, the domination of space and time and the law of causality.

The authentic meaning of the world believes the philosopher, hidden and represents an irrational will. Will is the heart of the world, the grain of all existing, it exists in all objects and phenomena. The will does not obey the power of mind, she is reckless, eternal and infinite, absolutely free. The main property of the will is overcoming itself. Always "hungry" will "devour" itself, because it is an infinite aspiration, eternal formation. Its properties are insatiability, eternal dissatisfaction with the infinite overcoming of their frozen, cranked forms. The highest manifestation of the will, according to A. Schopenhauer, it turns out to be a person, so in his nature you can also find an eternal desire for unknown, permanent conflicts And the struggle against the world and itself, all this is a constant source of infinite suffering of man. The person considers the philosopher, is doomed to suffering, it is impossible to get rid of them. Being a big fan of philosophy buddhismA. Shopenhauer offers to get rid of the inevitable human suffering by denial of life itself, the source of which is the will (the cause of all suffering). The ideal and sample for A. Shopenhauer - asceticism of Christian devotees and the achievement of Buddhist Nirvana: a person remains to live, but the life does not mean anything for him.

For Serena Kierkegara (1813-1855), which is often referred to as the ideological forerunner of the philosophy of existentialism, the problem of human personality, its uniqueness and uniqueness, its tragic fate becomes the most important theme of all philosophy.

The main thing in man, believes S. Kierkegore, not a mind, and the mystical irrational mystery, which the philosopher calls existentition (from Lat. - existence). Mind and existence - opposite things. If Descartes say "I think, therefore, I substantially", then S. Kierkegor says: "The less I think, the more I existed," showing that the mind in the disclosure of the secret of existentition turns out to be completely helpless.

Existential is the deep mystical essence of a person, its core, the mystery, which cannot be described or rationally determine in the concepts. No scientific or rational methods are not suitable for human knowledge. Peel into the essence of human existence, to detect the meaning of his life, a person can only in certain turning situations of a vital choice, in the so-called existential situations, when the meaning of human life is detected. "Meeting" with its own existence does not occur in distracted thoughts, but in difficulty, risk and choosing "or-or-or". Trying to reveal the essence of the existential and to discover the meaning of human life, S. Kierkegra in his work "stage in the life path" considers different stages of human existence.

At the aesthetic stage (symbol - Don Juan), a person has been facing the outside world, immersed in life feelings. Values \u200b\u200bof this stage - youth, health, beauty. A person seeks to learn and experience all types of pleasure: from the lowest, physical to the highest intellectual one. This is the position of hedonism (life is pleasure). But the more the person indulges, the stronger the dissatisfaction and disappointment become its dissatisfaction. A man masters a boredom, which leads him to the edge of despair. A person is aware of the inexitivity of his lifestyle and the need to choose a higher stage.

At ethical stage (symbol - Socrates) The sense of duty is dominant. Man voluntarily obeys moral law. The disadvantage of this position, Kierkegore believes, is the subordination of a person to the Universal Law, that is, something external with respect to its own existence. It turns out that the person and at this stage cannot be in a true sense by itself.

Only at the religious stage (symbol - Abraham), when the mind can not save a person and help him, a person is alone with himself and the true absolute. Save the person can only absurd faith. S. Kierkegore believes that the meaning of human existence is revealed only through existential fear, through despair associated with the refusal of the mind. Fear, like fire, burns all bridges, all illusions and reveals the true essence of man and the meaning of its existence. As if "turning inside out" dialectic G. Hegel Kierkegaor believes that comprehension of the meaning of human existence, the disclosure of the existence of the existence and the connection with the world of transcendent is carried out instantly as a result of an irrational jump.

The criticism of the rationalism of the previous classical philosophy is observed in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), in whose work three stages are distinguished: 1. "Romantic" period (1871-1876). The main works of this period: "Birth of the tragedy from the spirit of music", "untimely reflections". This is a period of romanticism, hobbies by classical ancient literature, music of R. Wagner, the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer. 2. "Positivistic" period (1876-1877). Main works: "Human, too human", "motley opinions and sayings", "Wanderer and his shadow". For this period, the passion for Nietzsche is characterized by natural sciences, especially the biology and the theory of Charles Darwin. 3. "destructive" period (1877-1889). Main works: "So said Zarathustra", "on the other side of good and evil", "to the genealogy of morality". At this stage, the main headings of Nietzsche philosophy were formulated and disclosed: "Will to power", the furnace return of the same, reassessment of all values, European nihilism, the idea of \u200b\u200bsuperhuman.

In his early work, the "birth of a tragedy from the spirit of music", devoted to the analysis of ancient Greek culture, F. Nietzsche allocates two ontological principles that permeate Greek music, tragedy, philosophy and the whole culture as a whole.

The donisian start - the beginning of the irrational, excessive, volitional Nietzsche characterizes it as a soaring, dancing, creative, creative. This is the beginning of universality and unity. Apollonic - the beginning of the mind and harmony, symmetry and measures; The beginning is systematic, conceptual, scientific, theoretical. F. Nietzsche believes that at the beginning of development in the Greek tragedy, for example, in Eschil, a Dionisic choir principle prevails; The harmonic unity of Dionisic and Apollonic began to be found in the tragedies of sofocla, where the parties of the choir and heroes are almost equal; And in the future, the apollonic beginning begins to come to the fore, in particular, Euripid. In the middle of the V century BC. Apollonic start turns into a purely theoretical gear, exhaust, lifeless and dead. Socrates itself, F. Nietzsche considered the "killer" antique philosophy and culture and first in spirit Western European.

Life philosophy is a system of human views. Search for answers to the main questions in life, in which its meaning, for what, what and how to do, does not stop. With the ancient times of philosophers, the philosophers are worried about it. Dozens of teachings are formed, but still people ask themselves these questions.

What is the philosophy of life?

The concept of "philosophy of life" has two meanings:

1. Personal philosophy, in the center of which the solution of existential issues on the state of a person.
2. The philosophical direction originated in Germany in the second half of the XIX century as a reaction to rationalism. Main representatives:

• Wilhelm Diltei;
• Henri Bergson;
• Pierre ADO;
• Friedrich Nietzsche;
• Georg Zimmel;
• Arthur Schopenhauer.

The concept of life in philosophy

Life definition in philosophy occupied the minds of many thinkers. By itself, the term is multi-rival and can be considered from different points of view:

• biological (as a form of existence of matter);
• psychological (as the form of the existence of consciousness);
• cultural and historical (as the form of the existence of mankind).

The philosophy of life is the main ideas

The philosophy of life combined various directions united by common ideas. It originated as a reaction to outdated philosophical traditions caused by rationalism. The ideas of the philosophy of life are that being is primary, and only through it you can comprehend. All rational methods of knowledge of the world - in the past. I am replacing irrational. Feelings, instincts, faith are the basic tools to comprehend reality.

Irrationalism and philosophy of life

Irrationalism is based on the uniqueness of human experience, the importance of instincts and feelings, as opposed to reasonable knowledge. He, like romanticism in the literature, became a reaction to rationalism. Received reflection in the historic and relativism of Wilhelm Diltea. For him, all knowledge was due to a personal historical perspective, so he argued the importance of humanitarian sciences.

Johann Georg Hama, the German philosopher, rejected the process of reflection, was looking for the truth in feeling and faith. Personal confidence - the final criterion of truth. His associate in the literary group "Storm and Natisk" Friedrich Jacobi exalted confidence and clarity of faith to the detriment of intellectual knowledge.

Friedrich Shelling and Henri Bergson, concerned about the uniqueness of human experience, turned to the intuiviism, which "sees things, invisible science." Mind himself was not canceled, he lost his leading role. - Engine underlying existence. Pragmatism, existentialism, irrationalism is a vital philosophy, which has expanding the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman life and thought.

The meaning of human life is philosophy

The problem of the meaning of life in philosophy was and remains relevant. Answers to questions, what is the meaning of life and what makes life is significant looking for philosophers of different directions over the centuries:

1. Antique philosophers were unanimous in the opinion that the essence of human life lies in the desire for good, happiness. For Socrates, happiness is equal to improving the soul. For Aristotle - the embodiment of human essence. And the essence of a person is his soul. Spiritual work, thinking and knowledge lead to achieving happiness. The epicurus saw the meaning (happiness) is the pleasure that he represented not as a pleasure, but as the absence of fear, physical and spiritual suffering.
2. In the Middle Ages in Europe, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe meaning of life was directly related to traditions, religious ideals and class values. There is a similarity with life philosophy In India, where the repetition of the life of ancestors, the preservation of the class status is key.
3. The philosophers of the XIX-XX centuries believed that the life of a person is meaningless and absurd. Schopenhauer argued that all religions and philosophical trends are only attempts to find meaning and make a meaningless life to be rendered. Existentialists, Sartre, Heidegger, Camus, equated life absurdity, and only a person could give her own actions and choose a certain meaning.
4. Modern positivist and pragmatic approaches argue that life acquires the meaning that is important for a separate person as part of his reality. It can be anything - achievements, career, family, art, travel. What a specific person appreciates his life and what she wants. Such a philosophy of life is very close to many modern people.

Philosophy of life and death

The problem of life and death in philosophy is one of the key. Death as a result of the process of life. Man like any biological organism Mortal, but in contrast to other animals, he is aware of his mortality. It pushes him to thoughts about the meaning of life and death. All philosophical teachings can be divided into two types:

1. No life after death. After death, there is no Being, along with the body of a person and his soul, his consciousness dies.
2. Life after death is. Religious and idealistic approach, life on earth is preparation for or reincarnation.

Books on the philosophy of life for self-development

Artistic literature can be an excellent source for philosophical enlightenment. Not only scientific or popular science books written by philosophers, introduce new philosophical ideas and give push. Five books in which the human life philosophy is presented:

1. "Strank". Albert Cami. The book is fiction, in it the author managed to reflect the main ideas of existentialism, even better than in philosophical treatises.
2. Siddhartha. Herman Hesse. This book will postpone your thoughts with concerns about the future to the thoughts about the beauty of the present.
3. "The Picture of Dorian Grey". Oscar Uad. The great book about the dangers associated with pride and vanity, the reader will find a lot of self-reflection and sensual search.
4. "So spoke Zarathustra". Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche built one of the most original and radical philosophies in his entire history. His ideas still send shock waves through the Christian community. Most people reject the slogan Nietzsche that "God is dead," but in this work Nietzsche really explains this statement and voicing interesting ideas about life on earth.
5. "Turning". Franz Kafka. One day waking up, the hero of the story discovers that he turned into a large insect ...

Films about the philosophy of life

Directors turn in their pictures to the topic of human life. Films about the philosophy of life, which will make thinking:

1. "Tree of Life". Director of Terrence Malika. This movie raises millions of rhetorical issues about the meaning of life, human identity problem.
2. "Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind". The picture of Michel Gondree, released on the screens in 2004, a kind of philosophical teaching about how to live his life, take mistakes and not forget about them.
3. "Fountain". Fantastic movies from Darren Aranof will show new interpretations of reality.

The philosophy of life "and its representatives.

In the second half of the XIX century. Within the framework of the irrationalistic direction, the so-called philosophy of life is developing. "The philosophy of life" is a direction established under the influence of F. Nietzsche in the last third of the XIX century. Its representatives were Dilte, Bergson, Spengler, etc. This direction arose as opposition to the classical rationalism and as a reaction to the crisis of mechanistic natural science. It turned to life as a primary reality, a holistic organic process.

The very concept of life is multi-valued and vaguely, gives space for various interpretations. It is understood in biological and cosmological and cultural and historical plans. So, Nietzsche Primary life reality acts in the form of "will to power." For Bergson, life is a "cosmic life impulse", whose essence is consciousness or superconscious. In Diltea and Zimmel, life acts as a stream of experiences, but culturally historically determined.

However, in all interpretations, life is holistic process Continuous creative formation, development opposing mechanical inorganic formations, everything defined, frozen and "has become". That is why the problem of time as the essence of creativity, development, formation was also important in the philosophy of life. With an exacerbid sense of time, the topic of history, historical creativity is connected.

Is it possible to comprehend life? If possible, then with what means, methods, techniques, etc.? Some representatives of the philosophy of life believe that the phenomena of life is inexpressible in philosophical categories. Others believe that the process of life is non-fully defensed, decomposing the activity of the mind with its analysis and dismemberment. The mind by nature is hopelessly cut off from life.

In general, antiscentism dominates in the philosophy of life, and rational knowledge is declared here oriented to satisfy the purely practical interests acting from the considerations of utilitarian expediency. The scientific knowledge and its techniques are opposed to extralectual, intuitive, figurative-symbolic methods of comprehension (irrational, idea) of life reality - intuition, understanding, etc. The most adequate way of expression is declared works of art, poetry, music, entertainment, driving and other extra-metering methods Mastering the world.

Intelligers of the "Academic" philosophy of life - Wilhelm Dilte (1833-1911), german historian of culture and philosopher. Its main works: "Descriptive psychology", "Types of worldview and their detection in metaphysical systems", "sketches to the criticism of the historical mind."

For a dilke life there is a way of being a person, cultural and historical reality. A person and history is not something different, and the person himself is a story in which the essence of man is considered. Dilites sharply separated the world of nature from the world of history, "life as a method of being of a person." The German thinker allocated two aspects of the concept of "life": the interaction of living beings is in relation to nature; The interaction that exists between personalities in certain external conditions, comprehended independently of changes in place and time, is in relation to the human world. Understanding life (in the unity of the two specified aspects) underlies the division of sciences into two main class. Some of them are studying the life of nature ( "Nature Sciences"), others ("Speech Sciences") - life of people. Dilites argued the independence of the subject and the method of humanitarian sciences in relation to natural.

According to Diltea, the comprehension of life, based on it, is the main goal of philosophy and other "Sciences on Spirit", the subject of the study of which is social reality in the entire fullness of their forms and manifestations. Therefore, the main task of humanitarian knowledge is to comprehend the integrity and development of individual manifestations of life, their value conditioned. At the same time, the dilites emphasizes: it is impossible to abstract from the fact that a person is a conscious being, which means that when analyzing human activity cannot be proceeded from the same methodological principles, from which an astronomer occurs, watching stars.

And from what principles and methods should "science on the spirit" should come to comprehend life? Dilites believes that it is above all method of understanding . Direct comprehension of some spiritual integrity. It is reliably, but irrationally, intuitive. "In any sense, there is an irrational as irrational and life itself; It cannot be represented by any logical formulas. "

This penetration into the spiritual world of the author of the text, inextricably linked to the reconstruction of the cultural context of creating the latter. In the sciences of nature applied method of explanation - Disclosure of the entity of the object being studied, its laws on the way of climbing private to the common one. Dilttes oppose the understanding of society to the knowledge of nature. "Facts related to society, we can understand only from the inside, only on the basis of the perception of our own states ... With love and hatred, we contemplate the historical world with the whole game of our affects. Nature is silent for us, she is alien to us, she is external for us. Society is our world. "

In relation to the culture of the past, the understanding acts as an interpretation method called by him hemenevity - The art of understanding writing fixed manifestations of life. Hermeneutics he considers how methodological basis all humanitarian knowledge. The philosopher highlights two types of understanding: understanding of its own inner world, achieved by introspection (self-surveillance); Understanding someone else's world - by cooling, empathy, educating (empathy). Dilites considered the ability to Em-Party as a condition for the possibility of understanding cultural and historical reality. The most "strong form" of lifestyle comprehension, in his opinion, is poetry, for it "is somehow related to a worried or understood event." One of the ways to comprehend life is intuition. Important methods historical science Dilites considers biography and autobiography.

From reflections about life, in his opinion, "life experience" arises. Separate events generated by the collision of our instincts and feelings in us with the surrounding and fate are out of us, are generalized in this experience in knowledge. As human nature always remains the same and the main features of life experience are something common to everyone. At the same time, the dilites noted that scientific thinking can test their reasoning, can accurately formulate and justify its provisions. Another thing is our knowledge of life: it cannot be checked, and the exact formulas are impossible here.

The social life of the Dilites understands exclusively as a spiritual life unfolding in the experiences of people. Dilites claims: "Since the society consists of structured individuals, then it shows the same patterns of the structure as in the individual ... the regularities of a separate soul take the form of societies of social life." Consequently, the structure of society is determined by the mental structure of the individual.

Dilites believes that the flow of mental events is unpredictable. "We are unable to predict that in mental development will follow the condition achieved already." "We do not know what we will enter in the coming day. Historical development detects absolutely the same character. "

The German philosopher is convinced that not in the world, and in a person philosophy should look for the "internal relationship of his knowledge." Life living - this is what, in his opinion, wants to understand modern man. At the same time, firstly, you need to strive to combine the life relationship and the experience based on them "in one slender integer." Secondly, it is necessary to direct your attention to submit a "full contradiction image of the lifetime" (vitality and pattern, mind and arbitrariness, clarity and mystery, etc.). Thirdly, proceed from the fact that the lifestyle "speaks from the alleged lifestyle data."

In connection with these circumstances, the Dilites emphasizes the important role of the idea (principle) of development to comprehend the life, its manifestations and historical forms. The philosopher notes that the development doctrine is necessarily due to the knowledge of the relativity of any historical form Life. Before giving up, covering the whole earth And all the past, disappears absolute significance, no matter how a separate form of life.

Henri Bergson (1859-1941) - Representative of the French version of the philosophy of life. Bergson received a professional mathematical education. In 1881 - 1883 He worked as a teacher of mathematics and mechanics in Angers. Then he was a lecturer in ECOL Normal, and from 1900 to 1914 - Professor of the prestigious educational institution "College de France". In 1914, Bergson was elected by a member of the French Academy. In 1927 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. Most famous works Bergson - "Experience on direct data of consciousness" (1889), "Matter and memory" (1898), "Creative Evolution" (1907), "Duration and simultaneity" (1922), "Two sources of morality and religion" (1932).

In the book "Creative Evolution" Bergson reveals the main task of his philosophy - "To add the theory of the knowledge of the theory of life."

Bergson recognizes the existence of an "external reality", but it needs to be understood as "life", movement, "durability", connectedness. "That in a certain sense there are multiple items that a person is different from a person, a tree from a tree, a stone from stone is indisputable, because each of these creatures, each of these things has its own characteristic properties and obeys a certain law of development. But the separation of things from the surrounding medium cannot be absolute; By insensitive transitions, one is connected to another ... These items do not have the exact boundaries that we attribute them. "

Matter and consciousness "dissolve" in the general "stream" of life. Such a position, believes Bergson, allows him to become above materialism and idealism. "The case happens as if a wide stream of consciousness is penetrated into the matter, as well as any consciousness, huge number Mixed with each other features. He carried the matter to the way of the organization, but his own movement was thus slowed down and is very largely fragmented. " "Matter is burdened with geometry, and she, which comes down the book, is a reality, has a duration only due to its connectedness with what is raised up. Life and consciousness and there is this rise. Who once comprised them, having learned their movement, he will understand how the rest of the reality comes from them. "

Bergson is developing a development concept called "Creative Evolution." Speaking against mechanism, Bergson understands the evolution as "life." But life in the understanding of Bergson is not a biological life, but "duration", "life porus". Time or duration is a significant characteristic of life. "Clean duration is a form that the sequence of our states is received when our actively works." "Duration assumes, therefore, consciousness; And already due to the fact that we attribute things to the last time, we invest in the depth of their some fraction of consciousness. " Thus, Bergson believes that time is unthinkable outside consciousness and is a relationship between its states.

Evolution Bergson treats as a continuous process of qualitative change. The source of this change is a certain life of life, life. This rush arose at the beginning of the world. The world as a whole - a kind of center, "from which, like from a huge bouquet, ejected worlds, if only the center did not give out this ... not for the thing, but for the continuous throwing of the jets. In the spirit of idealism, Bergson writes that the "life began should be a consciousness ...". "Life ... There is consciousness that is bushed into matter." "Consciousness or superconsciousness is a rocket, the remnants of which fall in the form of matter; Consciousness is also what remains from the rocket itself and, breaking these residues, lights them in organisms. " Matter is the moment of stopping the "life impulse".

We give one more quote: "All organized creatures, starting with the most modest and upstream, from the first approach of life to our era, everywhere and at all times only make that they identify a single impulse, the return movement of Mate Rii and indivisible in themselves . All living beings hold together and everything is amenable to the same terrible pressure. An animal relies on a plant, a man curbs animals, and all humanity in space and in time is one huge army, galloping next to each of us and behind us in a crushing attack, able to overcome any resistance and defeat many obstacles, maybe even death".

Evolution Bergson is in the form of a beam of stems. The first developmental development is the separation of plants and animals. Animals, in turn, are divided into arthropods and vertebrates. The first superconscious takes the form of instinct, the second develops into intelligence. Instinct is the form of adaptation of consciousness to the mother of their "stay". Instinct is most clearly expressed in insects. This is a certain standard, "machine-shaped" consistency of the animal action and its subject, which does not require training, memory, self-consciousness. So, no one taught the Ospa to steal the caterpillar, in which she laying his eggs.

The person has an intelligence. "The essential function of intelligence, as the form-shaft formed its evolution of life, is the coverage of our behavior, the preparation of our action on things, the foresight of the phenomena of favorable or unfavorable for this situation." Unlike instinct, intelligence has creative potency. The superconsciousness uses the brain of the subject as its product, the gun, just as the artist uses the canvas and paint to embody his plan or a rack-hermit uses an empty snail shell to cover up its soft abdomen.

But intelligence is limited. It is not available to an understanding of life, he is able to understand only what calls matter, that is, inanimate reality. Intellect decomposes a change to "unchanged moments." Intellect can clearly imagine only the interrupted and fixed one. It shares the phenomena in space and fixes in time. Typical intelligence products - geometry and logic; They apply, according to Bergson, only to solid bodies.

Thus, neither an instinct nor intelligence is able to comprehend life, although both of them are its forms. "Life" eludes us when we are trying to know its intellectual means. But there is a way to directly comprehend life - intuition. Intellect and intuition are two properties of our consciousness. During the evolution, the intellectual possibilities of our consciousness developed to the detriment of intuitive.

What is intuitive knowledge and what is its advantages compared to intelligence? Bergson says that "intuition is called a gene of intellectual sympathy, by which it is transferred inside the subject to merge with the fact that it has a sole and, therefore, inexpressible." Comparing intelligence and intuition, he writes that it is "two deeply different ways to know things. The first is that we are moving around the object; The second is that we enter it. The first depends on the position with which we look at, and from characters with which they express themselves. The second does not depend on the point of view or from any symbols. It can be said that the cognition of the first kind stops on relative; The cognition of the second kind, in cases where it is possible, seeks to achieve absolute. " "While intelligence interprets all things mechanically, intuition is valid if you can express it, organically." Intuition - comprehension of reality in its essence.

Intuition is such a contemplation that does not depend on the interests of people, from practice. On the other hand, intelligence and science are related to practice and therefore cannot achieve the "disinterested", "clean" contemplation. As scientific knowledge It is practice, it is always one-way. Intellect chooses what is needed, and lowers everything else. "Before you philosophize, you need to live; And life requires that we put on the babies, so that we do not see the right, neither to the left, but right in front of us in the direction where we will need to go ... In an infinitely extensive field of our possible knowledge, we chose everything that is useful for our Actions on things to create from this current knowledge: We are neglected. "

With numerous statements about the importance of intuition at Bergson, however, there is no clear description of what it represents. First of all, intuition is characterized by the principle of "opposed". To know intuitive, it is not necessary to know anything, to do anything: only the effort of the will, the consciousness of consciousness is needed by all the inconsistencies, habits, points of view. It is necessary to destroy all connections with practice, look at things purely contemplatively - this means to have intuition.

The carriers of intuition are, on Bergson, people who have forgotten to connect the ability to perceive with the ability to act, i.e. Created a basic background of contemplation of contemplation. These people enhance the mechanism, more ancient than intelligence. This is an instinct. The ratio of intelligence and instinct, according to the teachings of Bergson, is quite difficult. Intellect - knowledge of shape, instinct - knowledge of matter. There is no intellect in which there would be no traces of instinct, but there is no instinct without a glimpse of intelligence. However, intelligence more needs instinct than instinct in intelligence. Processing of matter for product fabrication involves a high degree of organization of a living being. It was possible to climb this height only on the wings of the instinct. In its developed form, intelligence determines the vital activity of people. Instinct - animal life and, especially insects. But in any intelligence there are traces of instinct. This the trail of instinct in intelligence is intuition . Instinct, transformed by intelligence in sympathy for the subject of knowledge, allowing to merge into an act of disinterested contemplation with a qualitative definitude of the latter.

Bergson says that intuition is most pronounced in art. The artist knows reality from the outside, but from the inside, with the help of intuition. Philosophy must become art. "Philosophy, such as I understand it, is approaching more to art than to science. It was considered for too long as science, hierarchically the most elevated. But science gives only incomplete, or rather, the fragmentary picture of reality, it catches it only indirectly by artificial symbols. The art and philosophy, on the contrary, are connected in intuition, which is their common basis. I will even say that philosophy is a genre whose species are various arts. "

In human social behavior Somewhere "behind" the mind, according to Bergson, is hidden powerful strength, "Virtual Instinct", which is supervised by the mind. Based on this force, morality and religion arise, which is "omnipresent". Life, as she embodied in man, there is a struggle against natural and to a certain extent to its overcoming.

how animal world Ups on the world of insects, in the life of the communities of which the instinct dominates, and the world of vertebrates, in the life of the highest representatives of which the intellect and communities of people are divided into "closed" and "open". The "closed" community strives for self-preservation and relies on violence and on submission to authority. For this type of society, static morality and religion are characterized, sharply opposing "their" and "strangers". For such communities, warring each other, it was split and repent, modern humanity. This split is represented by the natural state of human psychia, a certain imperative of nature. But at all times there are people who proclaim the ideals of the "open" society, comprehensive all of humanity, which forgotten about the division on "their" and "strangers". These people are saints, mystics. They lay the foundations of dynamic morality and religion, whose main principles are the love of humanity, the refusal of artificial needs, from the development of the "body" to the detriment of the "spirit". The basis of their religious and moral transparencies is the intuition, which can be called mystical. The progress of mankind, according to Bergson, is associated with the activities of these people, with the transition prepared by them from closed communities to open society. Thus, the real content of world history is the fight against the imperatives of nature.

The Philosophy of Bergson had an impact not only for many directions of the XX C philosophy. (French existentialism, personalism, phenomenology, etc.), but also on the art of the XX century. It reflected in one way or another in the work of M. Proust, F. Moriak, E. Verjarna, P. Klodel, M. Meterlinka, D. Joyis, V. Wulf, W. Falkner, in the music of K. Debussy, in the painting of cubism etc.

Irrationalistic motifs are traced in creativity Oswald Spengler (1880-1936). The German teacher of history and mathematics of one of Munich gymnasium became famous as the author of cultural bestseller "Sunset of Europe" (T.1-2, 1918-1922), withstood in a short period of more than thirty publications. The secret of the success-book, saturated with a huge number of ideas and symbolic images relating to the most different areas of knowledge from mathematics to religion, from physics to mythology, is primarily due to the lively artistic imagination of the author, able to unite thousands of disparate facts in a solid plastic picture.

The initial concept of Spengler is "life" as completeness, the variety of experiences. Something primary, but not coordinated to monotonous biological existence. Life is a creative impulse into the future. She is not satisfied with any framework, limits and constantly wants to surpass itself. Life is only partly and symbolically expresses itself in culture - in human beliefs, images, architectural structures, social institutions. Life is deeper and richer culture. Like Nietzsche, Spengler called "Life" liberated from the moral shells "Truth", reality, freedom of spirit, aspiring to an infinite expansion, the ability to risk, play.

The style of Spengler is rather the style of the artist than the scientist. He does not give anywhere accurate definition The meaning he invests in the concept of culture. Instead, he uses a number of metaphor, characterizing the culture as organismto emphasize its integrity, then how personalityto point out its individual originality, how work of fictionTo express the idea of \u200b\u200bthe presence of a common idea and a single style in it.

Essence of culture in general and each individual, local culture is depicted as a fundamentally unresolved mystery. The culture for him is something lying between life and death opposing them and at the same time connecting them. "Life" as a source of energy, continuously renewed instinctive impulses to the action, the eternal "grandeur" began with his vague, unconscious thirst to realize himself in the world, in the "spiritualized body" - this is a mysterious mystical force that encourages a person to create a culture. BUT B. cultural activity Man life is defamated. Instinctive impetus to action turns into reasonably designed to meet the needs. The creative burning of the Spirit fades and freezes in the finished, fixed products of creativity. Instead of the "spiritualized body" formed a lifeless, seeding mummy is a dead jumble of things treated with human labor.

Spengler highlights eight "great crops" :) 1) Egyptian, 2) antique, 3) Indian, 4) Babylonian, 5) Chinese, 6) Arabic, 7) Western and 8) Mexican. In his book, he focuses on, mainly on the ancient, Western and Arab culture.

Soul culture. From the point of view of Spengler, the history of cultures is the majestic and tragic history of human attempts to overcome the hostile life chaos, overcome the resistance of the matter of the spirit. Like a flower that brings his special beauty to the world, every culture carries its special idea, its special version of the struggle of life with death, the spirit with matter. This idea, this option is a soul of culture. Like each individual human personality, and every human culture has its own soul. She seeks to put it in the cultural activities of the people, and all its fruits are spiritualized by it. Culture is the body in which the soul is checked.

Culture is born that moment when the "grandeval state" peers and awakens to the life of the "Great Soul, a certain face of the bunch of faceless, something limited and transient from the limitless and staying". It blooms on the soil of a certain landscape and is looking for its self-effectiveness in its space. "Culture dies when her soul made the entire amount of its capabilities in the form of peoples, languages, creeds, arts, states, sciences." As soon as it happened, Speengler writes, she suddenly kochenets, her blood coats, the forces are overwhelmed - it becomes a civilization and in the form of civilization, as a withered tree, still for centuries and millennia, their rotten bits, until finally, will not return again to the grandeur Element.

Prasimwalls culture. Each new soul Cultures awakened together with the new worldview - a symbolic expression idealwhich she strives to embody in reality. The symbolism in which this ideal is expressed is sensually spatial. It determines how people perceive the world in this culture as they want to see him, which means for them. The world of culture is always a world correlated with a certain soul. It is based on prasimviv - The method of representing the "landscape" of culture in its spatial extent.

Spengler claims that the entire language of its forms can withdraw from the prasimirvol of culture, all its manifestations. "Like a flower that brings his beauty to the world, every culture carries its special idea. That is why there is deep affinity between the political and mathematical structures of the same culture, between religious and technical views, between mathematics, music and plastic, between economic and cognitive forms. " But Prasimviv himself unfulfing and incomprehensible.It is not exhausted by any multitude of its manifestations in culture. It can not be known and state in words, because the form of knowledge and language themselves the essence of the characters derived from it. Nevertheless, Spengler considers it possible to specify the images in which it is a cultural researcher.

Spengler believes that you can talk, on the one hand, about morphological affection all phenomena of the same culture existing in her different areas and at different stages of its development, and on the other - about homologous similarity Between the phenomena of different crops involving the same historical place.

Morphological affinity There is, for example, in Western culture between the differential calculus and the dynastic principle of the French state of the era of Louis XIV, the spatial prospect of oil painting and overcoming space through railways and telephones, counterpunctic music and the loan system. And homologous are, for example, antique sculpture and western instrumental music, Egyptian pyramids of the IV dynasty and gothic cathedrals. Homological elements of different cultures of Spengler calls "simultaneous" to emphasize that the time of their occurrence and existence falls on the same period of history - only experienced by each culture in its own way. In this sense, in his opinion, at the same time an ionic order in Greece and Baroque in the Western world, Islam in Arab and Protestantism in Western culture, the Greek arithmetic of finite numbers and the Arab algebra of uncertain numbers, an antique coin and Italian double accounting was born. And in this sense, "contemporaries" are Pythagoras and Descartes, Euclide and Gauss, Alexander Macedonian and Napoleon.

Antique (Apollonovskaya) Soul, born against the background of the crossed closed space of mountains, islands, peninsula, chooses with their Prasimir limited material body. Temptitude, imagery, visual decrees are characteristic of the consciousness of the Greeks. Only bodies are real for them - foreseeable, tangible, existing here and now. Empty, clean space that does not contain bodies - this is like nothing, non-existence. The Greeks did not seek to build gigantic structures like the Egyptian pyramids or the legendary Babylonian tower. Their buildings are small, foreseeable, are comparable to scale with the human body. The Greek soul does not carry out the type of open gave, the expanser, not dissected on separate foreseeable bodies and devoid of certain, visible borders. It makes the Greeks swim, without losing sight of the shores. Unlike the Egyptians or Phoenicians, they are not attracted by distant travel. They do not build roads, they are afraid of prospects running away in the distance alley. Their policies are tiny compared to the possessions of the Egyptian pharaohs or Chinese emperors. Motherland in their understanding is what can be interviewed from the fortress walls of his city. Behind these limits is someone else, enemy.

Dal times as little attracted Greeks as a spatial distance. Their existence will be closed in the foreseeable historical time as well as in the foreseeable volume of space. In contrast to the Egyptians and the Chinese, the Greeks do not have interest in the past and do not show concerns about the future. If the Egyptians spent the mass of the forces to save the memory of the dead, the Greeks of the bodies of the dead were simply burned, and the memory of them was quickly dispelled. The Greeks did not make an accurate time reference, poorly focused in the chronology of historical events, did not care about the preservation of documents, did not write either chronicles or memoirs. Persians after the destruction of Athens threw the works of art into a landfill - and no one was doing to them.

Prasimal Western Culture - Infinity, "Clean" limitless space. Born on the wide expanses of Northern Europe, the soul of this cult is directed to the distance. She needs will, freedom, exit outside the visible horizon. All borders shy her, it cannot stop on: achieved. From here - the thirst for traveling, the search for new land, new impressions, new spheres of the application forces. Territorial wisdom, crusades, the creation of the World British Empire, Magellanovo around the world - all this is dating about the unrestrained traction to an increasing expansion of the surrounding space. This traction encourages Europeans to invent a telescope and a microscope, invent a steamer and a car, build aimed upward gothic cathedrals.

The desire to infinite appears in christian religionthat appeared in the Arab Middle East, but organically entered in Western culture. Christians, God, is infinite and eternal, it is inherent in endless wisdom and infinite power. European science is built on the idea of \u200b\u200binfinity. Such is the Decartova Physics with its infinite ether and Newtonov classical mechanics with its picture of an infinite empty world space, in which the infinite number of atoms is moving. Such is the European mathematics of infinitely small values, endless rows, infinite sets. The infinity idea is permeated and the grandiose, all-encompassing philosophical systems of Spinoza, Hobbs, Kant, Hegel and other classics of European philosophy.

The soul of European culture, dissatisfied with the stay in the borders achieved, aimed at endless movement to the unexplored, is symbolically represented, according to Spengler, in the Guetes Faust. So he calls her faust soul.

Spengler glimpse and the question of Russian culture. Russia for him is a mysterious world, in which, perhaps, the soul of another great culture originates. In his opinion, prasimal of Russian culture is an infinite plain. But he does not yet find a "hard expression" in the creations of the Russian soul.

Civilization as a dying culture. The souls of cultures are not immortal. Exhausting your creative forces, they die. History develops cycles, circles; These cycles are a birth, flourishing and dying - every culture passes. Each culture is closed in itself and cannot transmit its achievements of another culture. "All culture is experiencing ages of a separate person. Each has its childhood, youth, matureness and old age. " This fateful end of the inner life of the spirit corresponds to the same fatal end of culture - his world external manifestations. No immortal creation culture. The last body and the last violin will ever be broken. The highest achievements of the Beethoven melodies will seek our distant descendants from the upcoming world of other culture with some kind of idiotic carcan. Rather, the titsa and Rembrandt can be eaten, those souls will be transferred for which they will be larger than color flaps. Who can now understand the Greek lyrics as they understood the ancient Greeks? Who can feel what she meant for them? No one understands, no one feels, - says Spengler. There is no single humanity, there is no single history, no development, no progress. There are only completely unlike, alien to each other's souls and various cultures created by them, each of which, having survived its flourishing, fades and, in the end, enters final stage His being - civilization. Thus, Civilization in Spengler is nothing more than a dying culture. This is its completion, "End without the right to appeal."

Each culture has its own civilization, that is, it is peculiar to her form of her death. But there is I. common featurescharacterizing all civilizations. Since these features act as signs of degeneration and death of culture, Spengler opposes civilization and culture and indicates the opposites between them.

"Culture and civilization is the living body of souvency and its mummy." Culture is becoming, and civilization -thest. Culture creates a variety, it involves inequality, individual uniqueness and variety of personalities. Civilization is committed to equality, to unification and standard. The culture of elitar and aristocratic, civilization is democratic. Culture rises above the practical needs of people, it is aimed at spiritual ideals that have no utilitarian nature. Civilization, on the contrary, utilitarian, it stimulates people to activities aimed at achieving practically useful results. In a cultural person, the energy is drawn inwards, in the development of his spirit, in civilized - internship, for conquest ambient. Culture is tied to Earth, to the landscape, the kingdom of civilization - the city, cluster engineering facilities. Culture - the expression of the soul "Arounded from the Earth of the People", civilization - the lifestyle of the urban population, torn off from the Earth, which has become comfortable ("by the benefits of civilization"), which became the creation of slaves created by the soulless technique. Culture national, civilization international. Culture is associated with the cult, myth, religion, the civilization is atheistic.

Spengler argues that in the most essence of civilization, the desire to spread to all of humanity is laid, turn the world into one huge city. Therefore, it inevitably generates imperialism. Civilization is generally distinguished by expansion and giantism: it is characterized by giant empires, giant cities, giant industrial enterprises, giant cars and systems of machines. Dying art is degenerated into mass spectacles, in the arena of sensations and scandals. Philosophy becomes no one needed. Science turns into a maid of technology, economics, politicians. The interests of people focus on the problems of power, violence, money, satisfying material needs.

Indicating that all marked features of civilization characterize modern condition Western world, Spengler predicts his close and inevitable death:

"The death of the West ... Represents no more and no less than the problem of civilization ... Civilization is a combination of extremely external and extremely artificial conditions, which are capable of people who have reached the last stages of development. Civilization is completed. It follows a culture, as becoming an internship, as death for life, as a developing development, as spiritual old age and a stone and a fueling world city for the rule of land and childhood of the soul .... She is an inevitable end; It come with a deep internal necessity of all cultures. "

It compares the european sunset in our eyes with the crash of the Roman Empire and finds a lot of similar (homologically similar) in these "simultaneous" processes: and there and here we see huge cities, enormous buildings, great powers, constitutions, transitions from constitutional forms of government to The shapeless power of individual people, destructive world wars, imperialism, etc. He notices the similarity and between different "ways of spiritual extrusion" of cultures in the era of civilization: if Buddhism is for the Indian soul in this way (from the VI century BC) , For an antique - the philosophy of Roman Stoicism (from the III century), for the Arabic - Islam (from the XI century), the Western soul finds its death shelter in socialism (from the XIX century).

All of these teachings are only various forms of nihilism, the collapse of spiritual ideals, replacing the religious globility of the soul to the irreligious. In socialist teaching, it looks a call for discipline and self-restriction, in Buddhist - disregard for the momentary benefits. The socialist is a dying Faust, obsessed with historical concern about the future "socialist nirvana" for which he is ready to sacrifice today's happiness. Socialism, like Buddhism and Stoicism, is not a system of compassion, humanity, peace; He is a willing system to power and has the goal of purely imperialist: to provide him with supporters the right to seek universal good, unhindered overcoming the resistance of dissidents. However, the socialist idea is only a powerless illusion that is not able to stop the inexorable death of the Faustic culture. Nothing can save the Western World, and its inhabitants can only take it as it is. Spengler ironically notices: "If under the influence of this book, people of the new generation will turn to the technique instead of lyrics, to the naval service instead of painting, to politics instead of criticizing knowledge, then ... the best you can not wish them."

The philosophy of life was formed in the second half of the XIX century in Germany and France. This area includes, Nietzsche, and Bergson, O. Spengler, Zimmel and many other philosophers.

It can be said that the philosophy of the life of Schopenhauer is pessimistic enough. Schopenhauer wrote the book "Peace as a Will and View." Schopenhauer said: "That all in this life will ruin the will."

The names of this work reflects the main ideas of the teachings of Schopenhauer. The whole world, from his point of view, is a "will to life." The will to life is inherent in all living beings, including a person, willing to the life of which is the most significant, because a person is endowed with a mind, knowledge. Each individual has his own will to life - not the same in all people. All other people exist in his representation as dependent on the boundless human egoism, as phenomena, meaningful only from the point of view of his will to life, his interests. The human community is thus as a totality of a free individual.

The great thinker believed that the existence of humanity and reason is incompatible concepts. The philosopher did not believe in progress. He wrote that the whole of a person's life was subordinate not to reasonable impulses, and the so-called will. Will - If you explain briefly, this is the main instinct, which encourages a person to preserve life at any cost. The will is expressed in certain affects. Mostly this is the need for power, love and so on. It should also be noted that the will of absolutely blind. It is not subordinate to the laws of logic.

Schopenhauer believed that so far there is this will to life that pushes a person to aimless and non-constructive actions, all existence is actually meaningless and chaotic. The philosophy of the life of Schopenhauer is that a person must understand the need for refusal. Only in this case his life will not be subordinate to the instinct, and the individual will find true freedom.

The philosopher believes that there are three main springs of human actions, and only through the excitement they act, which is possible, the motives. These "springs": - Egoism, who wants his own good (he is implanial); - anger that wants someone else's grief (comes to the most extreme cruelty); - The compassion, which wants someone else's good (comes to nobility and generosity).

Will to power is one of the species of volitional impulses of human behavior. The will to power Nietzsche considered the defining incentive of the activity and the main ability of a person. The basis of life, in Nietzsche, is the will to power or traction of everything living to self-affirmation, omnipality, the desire to expand power. Throughout life, a person seeks to achieve the maximum of the feeling of power. Nietzsche contemptically responds about a simple person and exalted the inborn "Aristocrats of the Spirit." Simple people are worthless, weak, gender, softly, are not able to build and rule. They are slaves from nature and can only obey. We must love not weak and neighbor, but strong. Will is not inherent to everyone, and the elect. Simple man Nietzsche anticipates superhumans - the creature of a higher biotype that does not belong to any race and grown by the elite of society.

"Superman" is a creature of a higher biotype. It is absolutely free, is beyond the generally accepted (Christian) moral norms, outside of good and evil. His morality implies the art of command, latitude of will, truthfulness, fearlessness, hatred for cowardice and a malignancy, confidence in the presence of a simple people, cruelty in overcoming the total lies of the world. "Superman" is not a hero and not a great man. This is an absolutely new breed of people who have not yet been in the world - the fruit of the development of all mankind, not some separate nation. "Weak" must die and free the place for the new generation "over people".

Bergson's philosophy, in contrast to most of the past systems, dualistic. The world for it is divided into two in the root of various parts: on the one hand - life, on the other - matter, or, or rather, the inert "something" that intelligence considers as matter. The whole universe is a clash and conflict of two opposing movements: Life that seeks up, and matter that falls down. Life is the only great strength, the only huge life impulse, this one, at the beginning of the world; Meeting the resistance of matter; struggling to break through matter; Gradually learning how to use matter with the help of the organization. Space - the characteristic of matter - occurs when the flow dissemination; It really is illusory, useful to some extent in practice, but is extremely misleading in theory. Time, on the contrary, there is a significant characteristic of life or mind.

Philosophy has had a great influence on the life of a person and society. Despite the fact that most of the great philosophers have long died, their theories and moral and ethical laws are still alive.

Philosophical ideals are building blocks of our modern life. Philosophy sends us in search of the meaning of life. What is this life at all? Why are we here? Is it a test? Are we alone? Philosophers always sought to find answers to these questions the most logical way. It is a pity that today discussions of philosophical ideas are conducted either in class at university (not the best way) or in private conversations.

The reality is that the media contribute to degradation. But I would like to see more people With a wide range of questions that ask questions and refuse to wear a label "normality". It's time to stop the eruption of meaningless theses and "facts" from the news feeds. Let's get acquainted with 10 philosophers that are able to change life.

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant, philosopher from Germany, one of the founding fathers of modern philosophy. He was a great thinker who lived in the eighteenth century, when the world changed. One of the memorable ideas of Kant was the "kingdom of goals".

The kingdom of goals is a mental experiment, the central question of the moral philosophy of Kant. Kant introduced this concept in his work "the basics of moral metaphysics". A mental experiment offers a world in which every person should be considered as a goal in itself, and not as a means to achieve the goals of other people. Kant, essentially believed that if he had to contact a person in justice, only good would grow in it. Its work is mainly focused on ethics, political theory and theory of knowledge.

Plato

This is probably one of the most famous philosophers of all time. Plato changed the way of writing laws around the world. He lived about four hundred years before our era. It is considered an important figure in the development of philosophy, especially Western tradition. He founded the first university in the Western world - the Academy in Athens and did a great job in the field of science.

Many people associate Plato with several central doctrines expressed in his writings: the world, as we know it, somehow faulty and full of mistakes, but there is another reality - perfect place, inhabited by the so-called "forms" or "ideas", which are eternal, unchanged, and in some sense paradigmatic for the world, perceived by us. Among the most important of these abstract ideas are good, beauty, equality, greatness, similarity, unity, being, the sameness, difference, changes and immutability. And, according to Plato, it is very important to distinguish between everything that apparently beautiful (good, great, unique, fair) what is actually so.

Avicenna

The author of some of the greatest philosophical ideas at the beginning of the 1000s is Avicenna. It is one of the most influential philosophers of Persia. Avicenna was an Islamic scientist, and most of his early works turned around his study of the Quran. Avicenna tried to resolve some fundamental questions, including the origin of the cosmos, the role of God in the human existence and the universe, and the interaction of God with people and other creatures created by them. He wrote about logic, metaphysics and ethics, while his biggest contribution was an attempt to reconcile ancient greek philosophy And God, as the Creator of all things.

In addition to the Avicency philosophy is one of the greatest doctors of his time. He created the "Healing Book" and "Canon Medicine". Avicenna first described five classic feelings: taste, touch, vision, hearing, and smell. Perhaps he was the first psychologist in the world, while people suffering from mental disorder at that time were defined as obsessed with demons.

John Lokk

At about the late seventeenth century, one of the greatest modern philosophers was born in England. John Locke - the author of some amazing ideas for which nations live, work and take laws. He worked his whole life in order to form the political principles for which the modern law and the rights of people around the world operates. He introduced the world to the thought that all people had the right to life, freedom and property, and that no government had to have too much power.

Zeno Kythy

Zeno Kythius was born in Cyprus in 334 BC. Zeno lived all his life in Cyprus, but had a great influence on philosophers around the world. Zenon was the founder of the philosophical school of Stoicism. Based on the moral ideas of ignomies, the stoicism was focused on good and peace of mind, obtained from a virtuous life in accordance with Nature.

Epicur

Epicur was born in a small Greek family in 341 BC. Philosophical questions visited Epicuri from young age. At 18, he moved to Athens, where he served in the army for two years before returning to the study of philosophy. Epicur is known for its teachings about the moral code and mind, its rational look at life.

For epicuris, the goal of philosophy is to achieve a happy, quiet life, which is characterized by pacification and freedom from fear ("Ataraxia"), as well as the lack of pain ("aponia"). Happy life in the epicurus is self-sufficient life in a circle of friends.

Epicur said that pleasure and pain are just measures that there is good and evil; Death is the end and body and soul, and, therefore, it does not need to be afraid; Gods do not punish and do not reward people; The universe is infinite and eternal; And the events in the world, ultimately, are based on the movement and interaction of atoms moving in an empty space.

Friedrich Nietzsche

The philosopher of the late nineteenth century, changed the world with his unconventional ideology. He began his career with the study of Greek and Roman texts. Nietzsche wrote critical texts about religion, morality, modern culture, philosophy and science. He is well known for his ideas about God. He believed that God was dead, and people should not devote their life to the doctrine, which does not allow to have broader ideas about life.

It is believed that Nietzsche became an inspirationor of the Nazis, with his ideas of the superhuman and its anti-human postulates, but this information is simply presented in false light. In understanding Nietzsche, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe superman is the idea of \u200b\u200bvictory of creative principle over the devastating, animals. According to Nietzsche, the only person should overcome - himself.

Confucius

Confucius was born about 550 to our era and, probably, he is one of the most cited Chinese philosophers. Confucius philosophy was based on personal and state morality, justice and sincerity. The principles of Confucius were based on Chinese traditions and beliefs. He supported the idea of \u200b\u200bthe importance of the family, worship the ancestors, respect for the elders. And the concept of self-discipline was one of the most important in his philosophy.

Rene Descartes

The end of the sixteenth century was full of great thinkers, but no one was so famous as Rene Descart. He was a philosopher who refused to take old ideas and therefore created his own.

Descartes adhered to one theory that distinguished him from others. Unlike those who were before him, he defended the existence of God. One of his reasons to believe in God was that he believed that God was perfect. Since perfection implies existence, it means God must exist. René Descartes was also considered a genius of mathematics and a key figure of the scientific revolution.

Aristotle

Born in 384 BC, is one of the most famous philosophers of all time. He studied at the Plato Academy in Athens, and became the author of ideas, giving a reason for reflection and today. It is believed that he was one of the first in the study of logic, which contributed to his understanding of the world. It is well known for his works about the virtues, which are used in many aspects of man's life today. Its works are mainly focused on ethics, science, rhetoric, theology, medicine, theory of literature and political theory.

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