Breeding methods of I. Michurin. The main methods of breeding I.V.

Equipment: tables on general biology, illustrating the methods of plant breeding, methods of breeding I.V. Michurin and achievements in plant breeding.

DURING THE CLASSES

I. Testing knowledge

A. Work on cards

№ 1. Scientists have obtained a wheat-rye hybrid of triticale. How did you manage to create such a hybrid that reproduces successfully sexually?

№ 2. The most high-yielding (up to 100 centners / ha) wheat varieties are recognized Bezostaya 1 (bred by P.P. Lukyanenko) and Mironovskaya 808 (bred by V.N. Craft). Their ears and grains are very large, the stems are thick and strong. These varieties are soft, polyploid ( 6n) wheat. The highest yield and largest fruits in strawberries also give polyploid (8n) plants. Using this data, answer the questions:

a) how does polyploidy affect the size of fruits and other morphological characteristics of wheat and strawberries?
b) how does polyploidy affect the productivity of these plants?
c) what is the economic importance of polyploidy for humans?

№ 3. Evolutionary theory was confirmed by the studies of the Danish geneticist W. Johansen. He studied the effects of selection in populations and pure lines. It turned out that selection in terms of size, mass of seeds, and other traits within the pure line is ineffective. At the same time, selection in freely interbreeding populations is effective. Explain what pattern of evolutionary theory is supported by the results of this study.

№ 4. Currently, a hybrid tomato variety that is resistant to two viruses is widespread in the United States and England. The variety is obtained as a result of the fusion of the germ cells of a wild tomato and a cultivar. Explain the importance of preserving the genes of wild species in breeding.

B. Oral knowledge test

1. What are the biological characteristics of plants taken into account in breeding?
2. What is inbreeding and interline crosses?
3. What is interspecies and interspecies crossing?
4. What is the phenomenon of heterosis and what are its genetic bases?
5. What is the method of G.D. Karpechenko to overcome the infertility of interspecific hybrids?
6. What is mass and individual selection in plant breeding?
7. What is induced mutagenesis and what is the method of obtaining polyploids in plant breeding.

II. Learning new material

1. Methods of breeding I.V. Michurina

Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin (1855-1935) - an outstanding breeder and practitioner, the author of 300 varieties of fruit and berry crops. At the beginning of his career, I.V. Michurin was engaged in acclimatization according to Grell's method, grafting southern varieties into the crown of hardy and cold-resistant varieties in order to achieve their adaptation to new conditions. But it was impossible to change the genotype of southern varieties by this method. Michurin became convinced of this by testing about 200 foreign varieties: after 35 years not a single tree remained of them, although Michurin lived and worked in the relatively mild climate of the Black Earth zone of Russia (Kozlovsk, now Michurinsk, Tambov province).
Convinced of the futility of attempts at simple acclimatization, I.V. Michurin began to develop new breeding methods based on hybridization, selection and education (the impact of environmental conditions on developing hybrids). When implementing them, he used a variety of approaches (many - for the first time in world breeding practice), the most important of which are as follows.

Biologically distant hybridization - crossing representatives of different species to obtain varieties with the desired properties or crossing representatives of different genera. For example, Michurin crossed Vladimirskaya cherry with Winkler's white cherry. During further work with hybrids, he developed the Krasa Severa cherry variety, which had good taste and winter hardiness. When crossing cherry with bird cherry, Michurin got a hybrid called cerapadus. He also obtained hybrids of blackberries and raspberries, plums and thorns, mountain ash and Siberian hawthorn, etc.

Geographically distant hybridization - crossing of representatives of contrasting natural zones and geographically remote regions in order to impart the necessary qualities to the hybrid. For example, the well-known pear variety Bere Zimnaya Michurina was obtained as a result of hybridization of the wild Ussuri pear and the southern French variety Bere-Royal.

Mentor Method - one of the methods of "education" of hybrids, developed by I.V. Michurin. It is based on the fact that the characteristics of the developing hybrid change under the influence of the scion or rootstock. Michurin used this method in two versions. In the first case, the hybrid seedling served as a scion, and it was grafted onto an adult fruiting plant (stock), the properties of which it was desirable to obtain from the hybrid. In the second case, a cutting of the variety was grafted into the crown of a young hybrid seedling (rootstock), the characteristics of which would be obtained from the hybrid.
This method was applied by Michurin, for example, when creating the Bellefleur-Chinese apple variety. In the first year of fruiting of the hybrids, it turned out that their fruits were small and sour. To direct the further development of the hybrid in the right direction, Bellefleur cuttings were grafted into the crown of young trees. Under the influence of cuttings, the fruits of the hybrid began to acquire the taste of Bellefleur.
The influence of the mentor should be seen as a change in dominance during the development of the hybrid. In this case, the mentor promoted the phenotypic manifestation (dominance) of genes obtained from the Bellefleur variety, without changing the genotype of the hybrid.

Mediator method was applied by Michurin for distant hybridization. It consists in using the wild species as a mediator to overcome non-breeding. By crossing the wild Mongolian almond with the wild David peach, Michurin received the Mediator almond, which he later used to cross with the cultivated peach. The hybrid peach he obtained acquired winter hardiness, thanks to which it was moved north.

Pollen mixing was used by Michurin to overcome interspecies non-interbreeding (incompatibility). The essence of the method was that when pollinated with a mixture of its own pollen and pollen of a different species, its own pollen irritated the stigma of the pistil, and it perceived foreign pollen.

Environmental exposure ... When "educating" young hybrids Michurin used changes in the methods of storing seeds, the nature of nutrition and soil properties, exposure to low temperatures, and used frequent transplants. As a result, the hybrids were tempered and could withstand adverse environmental conditions.

Selection - repeated and rigorous selection of plants by size, shape, winter hardiness, immune properties, quality, taste, fruit color, etc.
Most of the varieties obtained by I.V. Michurin, was a complex heterozygote. To preserve their qualities, they are propagated vegetatively: by layering, grafting, etc.

2. Achievements in plant breeding

Breeding work is of tremendous importance to the national economy. Replacing low-yielding varieties with highly productive breeding varieties is one of the main ways to increase yields. At present, both in our country and abroad, selection and genetic work is leading to remarkable results.
Let's take a look at some of the latest advances in breeding for major crops.

Winter wheat ... For Russia, wheat is the main grain crop. Academician Pavel Panteleimonovich Lukyanenko (1901–1973) created a number of high-yielding varieties of winter wheat, covering millions of hectares both in Russia and in other countries. The varieties Aurora and Kavkaz, which yield up to 100 c / ha, and Bezostaya 1, with a yield of up to 50 c / ha, are especially popular. On the basis of the latter variety, varieties Krasnodarskaya 57 and Odessa semi-dwarf were bred.
No less high-yielding varieties were bred at the Mironovskaya selection experimental station by Academician Vasily Nikolaevich Remeslo (1907-1983): Mironovskaya 264, Mironovskaya 808, etc. Over the past 50 years, the yield of winter wheat varieties has increased from 25 to 65 kg / ha, ie. 2.5 times. Illichivka also belongs to the new high-yielding winter wheat varieties bred at the same station. In 1974, this variety was zoned in 15 regions of Ukraine and, with proper irrigation and high agricultural technology, yields up to 100 centners / ha.
Among the new varieties are very promising perennial wheat bred under the leadership of Academician Nikolai Vasilyevich Tsitsin (1898-1980) on the basis of interspecific hybridization of wheat and wheatgrass. They are high-yielding, drought-resistant, withstand frosts down to -35 oС.

Spring wheat ... Among spring crops, the most valuable is the high-yielding variety Saratovskaya 29, created by Alexei Pavlovich Shekhurdin (1886–1951) and Valentina Nikolaevna Mamontova (1895–1982), which is distinguished by its high baking qualities. We have already mentioned the Novosibirskaya 67 spring wheat variety with a shortened and thickened straw, bred at the Institute of Cytology and Genetics of the SB RAS. The yield of this variety in Western Siberia reaches 40 kg / ha.

Sunflower ... In this area of \u200b\u200bplant breeding, the achievements of Academician Vasily Stepanovich Pustovoit (1886-1972) are remarkable. Until the middle of the XX century. the best sunflower varieties in terms of oil content did not exceed 33%. At present, the average oil content of seeds reaches 50%.

Sugar beet ... In recent years, the sugar content and yield of sugar beets have sharply increased. Polyploidy (works of A.N. Lutkov, V.P. Zosimovich) played an important role in the selection of this culture.

Corn ... When creating new promising varieties of this culture, self-pollinating homozygous lines are used with their subsequent hybridization (MI Khadzhinov and GS Galeev).

III. Consolidation of knowledge

Generalizing conversation in the course of studying new material.

IV. Homework

To study a paragraph of the textbook (methods of breeding work of IV Michurin and achievements in plant breeding).

Lesson 8-9. Animal breeding, its methods and achievements

Equipment: tables on general biology, illustrating the methods of breeding work of I.V. Michurin, achievements in plant breeding, methods of animal breeding.

DURING THE CLASSES

I. Testing knowledge

A. Work on cards

№ 1. What important regularity of the dominance of traits in hybrids was established by I.V. Michurin? What is the significance of this pattern for selection? Give examples.

№ 2. What are the positive and negative aspects of self-pollination in the selection of cultivated plants?

№ 3. There is an expression: "A person is fed and clothed by polyploids." How should it be understood?

№ 4. When selecting parental pairs for hybridization, I.V. Michurin made extensive use of geographically distant forms. For example, the apple variety Bellefleur-Chinese was created, obtained as a result of hybridization of the Chinese apple tree from Siberia and the American variety Bellefleur yellow. Why did Michurin pay great attention to the crossing of geographically distant forms?

B. Oral knowledge test

1. What methods of breeding work did I.V. Michurin?
2. What are the latest advances in plant breeding?

II. Learning new material

1. Features of animal biology taken into account in breeding

When breeding animals, the following features must be taken into account:

- the small number of offspring in a pair of parents;
- long life expectancy;
- the impossibility of vegetative reproduction of highly organized animals and the presence in them only of the sexual mode of reproduction;
- dioeciousness;
- often late puberty;
- more complex than in plants, relationships with the environment due to the presence of the nervous system;
- the difficulty of studying the genotype, because it contains a large number of heterozygotes, and genes are in a complex interaction (productivity for meat, milk, wool, fertility, fur density in fur animals and other economically valuable traits are very difficult to inherit).

2. Types of crosses and breeding methods used in animal husbandry

In breeding work, it is important to represent the ultimate goal towards which the breeder is striving. Whether it is desirable to increase milk production, increase its fat content or change the meat qualities of livestock - all this requires different directions of selection and selection of producers, the use of various crossing systems.
When selecting sires, it is important to take into account their pedigrees. In pedigree farms, herd books are always kept, in which the exterior features and productivity of parental forms are taken into account in detail over a number of generations. According to the characteristics of the ancestors, one can judge the genotype of the producers.
The types of crossing in breeding work with animals are varied. There are mainly two types of crossing: unrelated and related.

Unrelated crossing , or outbreeding (from the English. out - outside and breeding - breeding), carried out between individuals of the same breed or between individuals of different breeds of animals. With strict selection, it leads to the maintenance of properties or their improvement in a series of subsequent generations of hybrids, because in the offspring, a successful combination of genes can turn out, providing the formation of a number of economically important traits.

Closely related crossing, or inbreeding, carried out between siblings or parents and offspring. This type of crossing is used in cases when one wants to transfer most of the genes of the breed to a homozygous state, i.e. to obtain clean lines, preserve economically important traits, increase the stability of these traits for subsequent crossing and obtain the effect of heterosis.
Such crossing is to a certain extent similar to self-pollination in plants, since leads to increased homozygosity. With closely related crossing, weakening of animals is often observed, loss of resistance to the action of external factors, to diseases. All these negative manifestations of closely related interbreeding are called depression.

Interline crossing is carried out between representatives of pure homozygous lines in order to avoid the adverse effects of recessive genes, transfer them to a heterozygous state and cause the effect of heterosis. Usually, representatives of several lines are used for crossing.

Remote hybridization , i.e. interspecies crossing has been known in animals since ancient times. Most often, interspecific hybrids are sterile, because they have disrupted meiosis, which leads to a violation of gametogenesis. Since ancient times, people have used a hybrid of a mare with a donkey - a mule, which is distinguished by its endurance and long life span. Overcoming the infertility of interspecific animal hybrids is an important breeding task.
Sometimes gametogenesis in distant hybrids proceeds normally, and this made it possible to obtain new valuable breeds of animals. An example is the archaromerino, which can graze high in the mountains like argali and, like merino, produce good wool. Fertile hybrids were obtained from the crossing of local cattle with yaks and zebu (a subspecies of cattle common in Asia and Africa). Productive hybrids of beluga and sterlet (bester), ferret and mink (honorik) , carp and crucian carp. Also prolific is the offspring obtained by crosses between one-humped and two-humped camels, the domestic horse and the Przewalski's horse, bison and bison.
There are two main breeding methods used in animal husbandry: intra-breedand interbreed.

Intra-breed breeding, or breeding "in itself" , aimed at preserving and improving the breed. In practice, it is expressed in the selection of the best producers, culling of individuals that do not meet the breed's requirements.

Interbreed breeding used to create a new breed. At the same time, closely related crossing is often carried out, which helps to obtain a large number of individuals with the desired properties.

To be continued

michurin breeding plant

I.V. Michurin is an outstanding scientist-breeder, one of the founders of the science of selection of fruit crops. He lived and worked in the district town of Kozlov (Tambov province), renamed Michurinsk in 1932. Gardening from a young age was his favorite thing. He set the goal of his life to enrich the gardens of Russia with new varieties and achieved the realization of this dream, despite the incredible difficulties and hardships. He developed original practical methods for obtaining hybrids with new properties useful for humans, and also made very important theoretical conclusions. Having set himself the task of promoting southern varieties of fruit trees in central Russia, Michurin first tried to solve it by acclimatizing these varieties in new conditions. But the southern varieties grown by him froze out in winter. A change in the conditions of existence of an organism alone cannot change the phylogenetically developed stable genotype, moreover, in a certain direction. Convinced of the unsuitability of the acclimatization method, Michurin devoted his life to breeding work, in which he used three main types of influence on the nature of the plant: hybridization, education of a developing hybrid under various conditions, and selection. Hybridization, that is, obtaining a variety with new, improved traits, was most often carried out by crossing a local variety with a southern one, which had a higher taste. At the same time, a negative phenomenon was observed - the dominance of the characteristics of the local variety in the hybrid. The reason for this was the historical adaptation of the local variety to certain living conditions. Michurin considered the selection of parental pairs to be one of the main conditions contributing to the success of hybridization. In some cases, he took parents for crossing, distant in their geographical habitat. If the conditions of existence for parental forms do not correspond to their usual ones, he reasoned, then the hybrids obtained from them will be able to more easily adapt to new factors, since unilateral dominance will not occur. Then the breeder will be able to manage the development of a hybrid that adapts to new conditions.

This method was used to bred the pear variety Bere Zimnyaya Michurina. As a mother, the Ussuriyskaya wild pear was taken, distinguished by small fruits, but winter-hardy, as a father - the southern variety Bere Royal with large juicy fruits. For both parents, the conditions of central Russia were unusual. The hybrid showed the qualities of the parents necessary for the breeder: the fruits were large, mature, had high taste, and the hybrid plant itself tolerated cold up to -36 °.

In other cases, Michurin selected local frost-resistant varieties and crossed them with southern thermophilic ones, but with other excellent qualities. Michurin brought up carefully selected hybrids in Spartan conditions, believing that otherwise they would develop thermophilic traits. This is how the Slavyanka apple variety was obtained by crossing Antonovka with the southern Ranet pineapple variety. In addition to crossing two forms belonging to the same systematic category (apple and apple, pear and pear), Michurin also used hybridization of distant forms: he received interspecific and intergeneric hybrids. He obtained hybrids between cherry and bird cherry (cerapadus), between apricot and plum, plum and blackthorn, mountain ash and Siberian hawthorn, etc.

Under natural conditions, alien pollen of another species is not perceived by the mother plant and crossing does not occur. To overcome non-breeding during distant hybridization, Michurin used several methods.

Pre-vegetative convergence method

An annual cutting of a hybrid rowan seedling (scion) is grafted into the crown of a plant of another species or genus, for example, to a pear (stock). After 5-6 years of nutrition due to the substances produced by the stock, there is some change, the convergence of the physiological and biochemical properties of the scion.

During the flowering of mountain ash, its flowers are pollinated with the pollen of the rootstock. In this case, crossing is carried out.

Mediator method

It was used by Michurin when hybridizing a cultivated peach with a wild Mongolian bean almond (in order to move the peach to the north). Since direct crossing of these forms was not successful, Michurin crossed the legume with the semi-cultivated peach of David. Their hybrid was crossed with a cultivated peach, for which it was named an intermediary.

Pollination method with a mixture of pollen

IV Michurin used various versions of the pollen mixture. A small amount of the pollen of the mother plant mixed with the pollen of the father. In this case, its own pollen irritated the stigma of the pistil, which became capable of receiving foreign pollen. When pollinating apple flowers with pear pollen, a little apple pollen was added to the latter. Part of the ovules was fertilized with their own pollen, the other part was foreign (pear). Non-breeding was also overcome when the flowers of the mother plant were pollinated with a mixture of pollen of different species without adding pollen of their own variety.

Essential oils and other secrets secreted by foreign pollen irritated the stigma of the mother plant and facilitated its perception.

Through all his many years of work on breeding new varieties of plants, IV Michurin showed the importance of the subsequent upbringing of young hybrids after crossing.

When raising a developing hybrid, Michurin paid attention to the composition of the soil, the method of storing hybrid seeds, frequent transplantation, the nature and degree of nutrition of the seedlings, and other factors.

Mentor Method

In addition, Michurin widely used the mentor's method developed by him. In order to bring up the desired qualities in a hybrid seedling, the seedling is grafted onto a plant that has these qualities. Further development of the hybrid is under the influence of substances produced by the plant-educator (mentor); the desired qualities are enhanced in the hybrid. In this case, during the development of hybrids, a change in the properties of dominance occurs. The mentor can be either the rootstock or the scion. In this way Michurin bred two varieties - Kandil-Kitayka and Bellefleur-Kitayka.

To cultivate keeping quality in the hybrid, Michurin planted several cuttings of late-ripening varieties into the crown of the Bellefleur-Chinese hybrid seedling. The result was good - the Bellefleur-Chinese fruits acquired the desired qualities - late ripening and keeping quality. The mentor's method is convenient in that its action can be regulated by the following methods: 1) the ratio of the age of the mentor and the hybrid; 2) the duration of the mentor's activity; 3) the quantitative ratio of the foliage of the mentor and the hybrid.

For example, the intensity of the mentor's action will be the higher, the older his age, the richer the crown of foliage and the longer he acts. In breeding work Michurin attached considerable importance to selection, which was carried out repeatedly and very rigidly. Hybrid seeds were selected according to their size and roundness: hybrids - according to the configuration and thickness of the leaf blade and petiole, the shape of the shoot, the location of lateral buds, winter hardiness and resistance to fungal diseases, pests and many other features, and, finally, the quality of the fruit.

The results of IV Michurin's work are amazing. He created hundreds of new varieties of plants. A number of apple and berry varieties have been advanced far north. They are highly palatable and at the same time perfectly adapted to local conditions. The new Antonovka six-gram variety gives a yield from one tree up to 350 kg. Michurinsky grapes withstood the winter without dusting the vines, which is done even in the Crimea, and at the same time did not reduce their market indicators. Michurin showed with his works that the creative possibilities of a person are endless.

Outstanding Russian scientist and breeder Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin spent most of his life in the district town of Kozlov (Tambov province), which was later renamed Michurinsk in recognition of his work. He is considered one of the founders of the science of breeding fruit crops. From a young age he was fascinated by gardening. His whole life was devoted to one goal: to develop new high-yielding varieties of agricultural crops in the climatic conditions of Russia. And he managed to achieve this dream, despite the incredible difficulties and hardships.

One of the most important results of his many years of work was the original practical methods he developed for obtaining hybrids with new, valuable properties. In addition, on the basis of the work done, he made very important theoretical conclusions.

Initially, Michurin set himself the task of acclimatizing the southern varieties of fruit trees to the conditions of central Russia. However, a failure awaited him here, due to the fact that the heat-loving southern varieties of plants, even if grown in new conditions, could not stand the harsh winter. This is due to the fact that one change in the conditions of existence of an organism cannot change a phylogenetically developed stable genotype, moreover, in a certain direction.

Thus, Michurin realized that the acclimatization method did not give the desired results. This led him to the idea that it is possible to obtain varieties with the required properties by crossing one variety with another, that is, by engaging in breeding work. Three main types of influence were used by Michurin in his work: hybridization, education of a developing hybrid under various conditions, and selection.

Hybridization method

Getting a variety with new, improved characteristics is called hybridization. As a rule, it is carried out by crossing a local variety with a southern one with a higher taste. However, due to the historical adaptability of the local variety to the conditions of the local existence, the resulting hybrids were dominated by the characteristics of the local variety.

In order for hybridization to be successful, Michurin took parents from very remote geographical areas for crossing. Michurin believed that in this case, unilateral domination would not occur, since the conditions of existence would not be familiar to any of the parental forms. Based on this, the development of the new hybrid obtained can be controlled.

Subsequently, Michurin practically proved the validity of the above statement, having received a completely new pear variety Bere zimnyaya Michurin. It was distinguished by large, mature fruits with good taste, while the hybrid plant itself tolerated cold up to -36 °. The southern pear variety, Bere Royal, with large juicy fruits, was taken as the father, and the wild Ussuri pear with small fruits and high winter hardiness was taken as the mother. For both parents, the conditions of central Russia were unusual.

Michurin also selected and crossed local frost-resistant varieties with southern thermophilic varieties, which differed in other characteristics. He strictly observed that the resulting hybrids were frost-resistant. Thanks to this, the Slavyanka apple variety was obtained by crossing Antonovka with the southern Ranet pineapple variety.

Michurin's experiments on crossing plants of different species were also widely known, while interspecific and intergeneric hybrids were obtained, such as hybrids between cherry and bird cherry (cerapadus), between apricot and plum, plum and blackthorn, rowan and Siberian hawthorn, etc.

Under natural conditions, crossing of varietal plants does not occur due to the fact that foreign pollen of another species is not perceived by the mother plant. Michurin used several methods to overcome non-breeding during distant hybridization.

Pre-vegetative convergence method

This method was used by Michurin when crossing mountain ash and pear. It consists of two stages.

First, a one-year-old cutting of a hybrid rowan seedling (scion) is grafted into the crown of a plant of another species or genus, for example, to a pear (stock). After 5-6 years of nutrition due to the substances produced by the stock, some change occurs, the physiological and biochemical properties of the rootstock become closer.

Then, during the flowering of mountain ash, its flowers are pollinated with the pollen of the rootstock. In this case, crossing is carried out.

Mediator method

The essence of this method is that in case of impossibility of direct hybridization of two forms of plants, a third is used. This plant is crossed with one of the first two, and then the resulting hybrid is crossed with the second, resulting in a hybrid of the first two forms. The third form acts as a mediator.

The mediator method was used by Michurin when crossing a cultivated peach with a wild Mongolian bean almond (to increase the frost resistance of the peach). Since the direct crossing of these forms was not successful, Michurin crossed the legume with the semi-cultivated peach of David. Their hybrid was crossed with a cultivated peach, for which he was named an intermediary

Pollination method with a mixture of pollen

Non-breeding was also overcome when the flowers of the mother plant were pollinated with a mixture of pollen of different species without adding pollen of their own variety. Essential oils and other secrets secreted by foreign pollen irritated the stigma of the mother plant and facilitated its perception.

Through all his many years of work on breeding new varieties of plants, IV Michurin showed the importance of the subsequent upbringing of young hybrids after crossing.

Mentor Method

This method was developed by Michurin and was widely used by him in practice. It consists in the fact that a seedling is grafted into a plant that has the necessary qualities for the development of desirable qualities in a hybrid seedling. As a result, the desired qualities are enhanced in the hybrid, and its further development proceeds under the influence of substances produced by the plant-educator (mentor). In this case, during the development of hybrids, a change in the properties of dominance occurs. In this case, both the rootstock and the scion can be a mentor.

By the method of the mentor Michurin bred two varieties - Bellefleur-Chinese and Kandil-Chinese.

Kandil-Kitayka is the result of crossing Kitayka with the Crimean variety Kandil-Sinap. Michurin grafted the hybrid into the crown of the frost-resistant mother Kitayka in order to develop and consolidate the frost-resistance sign. Thanks to the nutrition of the mother's substances, the hybrid acquired the desired quality.

The second variety, Bellefleur-Kitayka, was bred to prevent the hybrid from deviating towards the frost-resistant and early-maturing Kitayanka, and therefore the fruits of the hybrid could not be stored for a long time. Michurin planted several cuttings of late-ripening varieties in the crown of the Bellefleur-Chinese hybrid seedling in order to increase keeping quality in the hybrid. As a result of the hybridization, the Bellefleur-Chinese fruits became more mature and mature.

The effect of this method can be regulated by the following methods:

1) the duration of the mentor's activity; 2) the ratio of the age of the mentor and the hybrid; 3) the quantitative ratio of the foliage of the mentor and the hybrid.

The older the mentor's age, the richer the foliage of the crown and the longer it acts, the higher the intensity of its action. When carrying out breeding work Michurin made repeated and rather strict selection, which made it possible to obtain hybrids of excellent quality. Hybrid seeds were selected for their roundness and size; hybrids - according to the configuration and thickness of the leaf blade and petiole, the shape of the shoot, the location of the lateral buds, winter hardiness and resistance to fungal diseases, pests and many other signs, and, finally, the quality of the fruit.

As a result of his research IV Michurin created several hundred new varieties of plants. New cold-resistant varieties of apple trees and berry crops were developed. These plants are characterized by high palatability and at the same time are perfectly adapted to local conditions. One of these types is the Antonovka apple variety, six hundred grams, which gives a yield from one tree up to 350 kg. The grapes bred by Michurin withstood the winter without dusting the vines, which is done even in the Crimea. However, he did not reduce his commodity indicators.

I. V. Michurin with his works turned the idea of \u200b\u200bhuman capabilities and laid a solid foundation for further research on plant breeding

Bibliography

Biology manual for university applicants. Minsk, I., "Higher School", 1978
Encyclopedic Dictionary of a Young Naturalist. Moscow, I., "Pedagogy". 1981 year

IV Michurin is an outstanding scientist-breeder, one of the founders of the science of selection of fruit crops. He lived and worked in the district town of Kozlov (Tambov province), which was renamed Michurinsk in 1932. Gardening from a young age was his favorite thing. He set the goal of his life to enrich the gardens of Russia with new varieties and achieved the realization of this dream, despite the incredible difficulties and hardships.

He developed original practical methods for obtaining hybrids with new properties useful for humans, and also made very important theoretical conclusions.

Having set himself the task of promoting the southern varieties of fruit trees in central Russia, Michurin first tried to solve it by acclimatizing these varieties in new conditions. But the southern varieties grown by him froze out in winter. A change in the conditions of existence of an organism alone cannot change the phylogenetically developed stable genotype, moreover, in a certain direction.

Convinced of the unsuitability of the acclimatization method, Michurin devoted his life to breeding work, in which he used three main types of influence on the nature of the plant: hybridization, education of a developing hybrid under various conditions, and selection.

Hybridization, i.e. obtaining a variety with new, improved characteristics, was most often carried out by crossing a local variety with a southern one, which had a higher taste. At the same time, a negative phenomenon was observed - the dominance of the local variety traits in the hybrid. The reason for this was the historical adaptation of the local variety to certain living conditions.

Michurin considered the selection of parental pairs to be one of the main conditions contributing to the success of hybridization. In some cases, he took parents for crossing, distant in their geographical habitat. If the conditions of existence for parental forms do not correspond to their usual ones, he reasoned, then the hybrids obtained from them will be able to more easily adapt to new factors, since unilateral dominance will not occur. Then the breeder will be able to manage the development of a hybrid that adapts to new conditions.

In other cases, Michurin selected local frost-resistant varieties and crossed them with southern thermophilic ones, but with other excellent qualities. Carefully selected hybrids Michurin brought up in Spartan conditions, believing that otherwise they will have traits of thermophilicity. This is how the Slavyanka apple variety was obtained by crossing Antonovka with the southern Ranet pineapple variety.

In addition to crossing two forms belonging to the same systematic category (apple and apple, pear and pear), Michurin also used hybridization of distant forms: he received interspecific and interspecific hybrids.

He obtained hybrids between cherry and bird cherry (cerapadus), between apricot and plum, plum and blackthorn, mountain ash and Siberian hawthorn, etc.

Pre-vegetative convergence method

An annual cutting of a hybrid rowan seedling (scion) is grafted into the crown of a plant of another species or genus, for example, to a pear (rootstock). After 5-6 years of nutrition due to the substances produced by the stock, there is some change, the convergence of the physiological and biochemical properties of the scion.

During the flowering of mountain ash, its flowers are pollinated with the pollen of the rootstock. In this case, crossing is carried out.

Mediator method

It was used by Michurin when hybridizing a cultivated peach with a wild Mongolian bean almond (in order to move the peach to the north). Since the direct crossing of these forms was not successful, Michurin crossed the legume with the semi-cultivated peach of David. Their hybrid was crossed with a cultivated peach, for which he was named an intermediary.

Pollination method with a mixture of pollen

Through all his many years of work on breeding new varieties of plants, IV Michurin showed the importance of the subsequent upbringing of young hybrids after crossing.

Mentor Method

In addition, Michurin widely used the mentor's method developed by him. In order to nurture the desired qualities in a hybrid seedling, the seedling is grafted onto a plant that has these qualities. Further development of the hybrid is under the influence of substances produced by the plant-educator (mentor); the desired qualities are enhanced in the hybrid. In this case, during the development of hybrids, a change in the properties of dominance occurs.

The mentor can be either the rootstock or the scion. In this way Michurin bred two varieties - Kandil-Kitayka and Bellefleur-Kitayka.

Kandil-Kitayka is the result of crossing Kitayka with the Crimean variety Kandil-Sinap. At first, the hybrid began to deviate towards the southern parent, which could develop insufficient cold resistance in it. To develop and consolidate the sign of frost resistance, Michurin grafted a hybrid into the crown of Kitayka's mother, who possessed these qualities. Nutrition mainly with its substances brought up the desired quality in the hybrid. The breeding of the second variety Bellefleur-Kitayanka was associated with some deviation of the hybrid towards frost-resistant and early maturing Kitayka. The hybrid fruit could not withstand long storage. To cultivate keeping quality in the hybrid, Michurin planted several cuttings of late-ripening varieties into the crown of the Bellefleur-Chinese hybrid seedling. The result was good - the Bellefleur-Chinese fruits acquired the desired qualities - late ripening and keeping quality.

The mentor's method is convenient in that its action can be regulated by the following methods: 1) the ratio of the age of the mentor and the hybrid; 2) the duration of the mentor's activity; 3) the quantitative ratio of the foliage of the mentor and the hybrid.

Through the eyes of a Siberian gardener

From the book “Smart Garden. How to outsmart the climate. " N. I. Kurdyumov, V. K. Zhelezov:

«…

Chapter 1

Notes of the Enchanted Siberian Gardener

Fate - unpredictable predetermination.

These autobiographical notes appeared at the request of my co-author N.I. Kurdyumov. He convinced me to honestly tell how I "came to such a life." Well, I'll try! And I will try for you to look at the amazing Sayanogorsk gardening with my eyes, to recognize the joy of this creativity and, God forbid, continue on this path.

WE ARE ALL FROM CHILDHOOD

The war ended. The red pencil of the leader of the peoples has drawn a line on the political map of Europe. And this trait has passed through the souls and fates of millions of people. My grandfathers and my mother, who lived in the "Polish Ukraine", were put on a barge and dropped off in the scorching sun of the Kherson steppe. The old beautiful garden remained in their bitter memories. But life is life! Fruit trees also grew here.

All our free time in June, sitting like rooks on old trees of wild cherries, we gorge ourselves on delicious berries. Candy was seen only on New Year's, secretly stealing them from the New Year tree.

I went to school with a bouquet of flowers like a holiday. The teachers seemed like celestials. Once I went to the home of my first teacher and saw that her hands were in flour. Shocked. Angel is kneading dough!

Primary School. There are kerosene lamps on the walls in the classroom. Ink sometimes freezes in ink. And on the radio, like incantations, you constantly hear: "Michurinsky", "Michurinsky", "agrobiology", "hybridization). At the lessons we cram "square-nest planting method", "black fallow" and "grass-field farming system" ... Maybe there was a special program for us, students of the Ukrainian rural school? But here's the result: there wouldn't be those lessons - not being a gardener for me.

Every spring, school teachers taught us to plant trees on the streets of the military town. It is the fruit trees! I remember how it looked like this: I held the seedling in the air, and the teacher spread the roots and carefully covered them with earth. Probably, then I became a gardener ... I did not suspect that until it was thirty-five!

They also taught us greenhouse vegetable growing. And this despite the fact that in the south of Ukraine, spring comes two months earlier. I noticed that in frosts the glass of the greenhouse was wet. Oh, how later it came in handy in gardening! Early vaccinations and green cuttings under plastic bottles are the result of those childhood memories.

When, instead of lessons, we kids were thrown into picking spikelets, tomatoes or plums, that was also learning. The collective farm plum trees were not particularly looked after, and the harvests were excellent. Sweet fruits - one of the happy feelings of childhood - are etched into the memory for life.

I spent all my free time in the forest. It was great there! He ruined his teeth on hazelnut fruits. And I saw a lot. For example, the bushes and trees were dwarf at the edges, and the deeper into the forest, the larger. Obviously, the further into the forest, the more comfortable they are - protection from the wind, and more moisture. But there is a struggle for the sun. The trees stretch upward, the branch angle is sharp, and the lower branches are dry. But on the contrary: a powerful pine or wild pear grows on the wasteland. The sea of \u200b\u200bthe sun - and the tree is spreading, the branches branch off almost horizontally.

Then, as a child, I suggested that trees radiate heat into the environment. But this is still an assumption. Accurate measurements are needed. It is warmer in the forest, later winter begins. There is no wind here, and the heat is better retained, although the sun almost does not reach here. Life is based on the oxidation of carbohydrates, which is accompanied by the release of heat. But in winter, even with severe frosts, trees are not completely "dead" - some kind of breathing continues in them.

The fate of the soldier's son led him to the polar Norilsk. I finished school there. Hiking to the tundra for mushrooms and berries began. It was not difficult to notice that all living things here are hiding in the folds of the terrain. Real trees grew only on the southern slopes, sunny and sheltered from the wind.

Buying school textbooks in August, even before classes I read from cover to cover "biology", "history", "geography" and "astronomy".

Once, dissatisfied with the formality of teaching (bison, but do not think), he had the imprudence to joke: they say, after graduating from school, I will enter a theological seminary. Was subjected to the wild ostracism of teachers. He pretended to be "repentant." But he did not refuse to think. Academician Oparin's theory - "life originated in muddy puddles", and Darwin's doctrine of the origin of species - I was not satisfied with many points. Now it turns out: they did not arrange it right! Scientists in laboratories prove the improbability of the random origin of life from a mixture of molecules. Darwin's theory of the evolutionary variability of species also explains only part of the facts. It turns out that only targeted and massive mutations can create a new species. And rightly so, during global cataclysms, new species appeared suddenly, like devils from a snuffbox. In general, I do not exclude a reasonable start in life. But if you want, we will discuss this topic on the website.

I went on foot all the neighborhoods of Norilsk. On the bank of the river I found several dozen "illegal" summer cottages. On the poor peat soil, the parsley and radish beds were green. On a rare warm day, samovars with "boots" boiled on the tables. I remember, while treating myself to strong tea, I sharply envied the northerners who have at least some piece of land.

It was in the Arctic that he made his first "fundamental discovery". Imagine a small, abandoned church with a dome and a cross. And before that I, a boy, with burning eyes, read A. Tolstoy's book "The Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin." And now, many years later, an inspiration: the domes of churches are storage tanks, and the crosses are antennas for receiving and transmitting spiritual energy. This is an ingenious engineering solution, not just a religious symbol. Now scientific work is being written about this. It turns out that the ancient architects knew much more than ours! The question is where?

Studying in Krasnoyarsk, at the Institute of Non-Ferrous Metals, gave little to the future gardener. Although there was a plus here: a dislike for life in a huge stone "anthill" was born and strengthened. I did not accept, I did not understand “the laws of the city,). For example, a man is lying in blood, next to a hospital, crowds of people pass by - and no one but me cares about this poor fellow. The conviction is still alive: the metropolis makes people indifferent consumers. I guess I'm wrong - people are different. But big cities are allergic.

Norilsk again, thirteen years of successful work in the profession, inventions, honorary titles, a board of honor and even an order, successful career growth - and EVERYTHING IS NOT THAT! And suddenly, in a casual conversation I hear: they say, on the Yenisei, in the town of Sayanogorsk under construction, real plums are growing ... REAL PLUMS ?!

This phrase, thrown by chance, turned my whole life upside down.

WELL PLEASE BUY PLUMS!

Immediately I take a vacation, I come. I walk through the market in the village of Maina, and I see an amazing picture: a man about fifty sits in the market square, and in front of each one there are several buckets of selected round plums of all colors of the rainbow - yellow, blue, purple (photos 3 and 75), black, red, red-pink , yellow-red ... And everyone looks at me with longing and hope - the only buyer! Even now, a quarter of a century later, such a picture can hardly be seen anywhere in Siberia.

1985 - the Yenisei was closed. The revelation of my life is the city exhibition of agricultural products. I walk like a spell. Giant vegetables, and right there their mistresses offer seeds. He grew the first crop in his life: a carrot the size of a bottle and a beet the size of a head. Looking ahead, I will say: this unique local assortment is for the most part irretrievably lost. Summer residents unanimously switched to bright packages of seeds from unknown firms, which are littered with market stalls. These are mainly F1 hybrids, from which you cannot collect seeds. There are only a few reliable ones for our zone. Thank God, our local tomatoes are still in use - the Kuban has never tasted better! The amazing world of Sayanogorsk gardening was revealed with all colors and tastes. At the same exhibition I saw half-kilogram apples of Aport Alma-Atinsky, and also Borovinka, White filling, Papirovka, a variety of ranetki and semi-crops. At the dachas there are a great variety of felt and steppe cherries, Chinese plums, pears (although still unsweetened) and apricots. I emphasize that there is no reservoir yet, but there is already an abundance of fruits!

The myth that only ranetki can flourish in Siberia (Ranetki are the first hybrids of the Siberian berry apple tree with Russian varieties of apples. Fruits are still not edible, weighing 10-15 g, but landslidely fruitful and ultra-frost-resistant) collapsed in my mind completely. There is no snow! Rather, it became less and less every year. An eerie sight of winter 2009 - black fields from Sayanogorsk to Abakan and Shushenskoye in 40-degree frosts! But over the same quarter of a century, hurricane winds have noticeably weakened - for gardens they are more terrible than frosts.

THE MADNESS OF THE BRAVE!

What I saw then was a must-see! Thousands of builders, power engineers and metallurgists in the 80s and 90s massively "went crazy" - they became gardeners! Both at work and in kitchens, conversations only about gardens: where, who and what they got, what grows from whom and how they feel. You can't get to a store with seedlings. Without the slightest experience, not knowing about the "prohibitions" of science, guided only by holy hope and stubbornness, Sayanogorsk people plant on their plots everything that comes to mind. Cuttings, seeds, seeds, seedlings are brought from business trips and vacations. On airplanes, trains, buses - seedlings, seedlings! Nurseries of neighboring regions are loading tens of thousands of seedlings to us. Garden societies and dacha villages are being created by the efforts of our initiators.

A garden boom swept the city. Someone suddenly, to their surprise, has unusually large sweet fruits on the tree ... It is impossible to hide it! In the spring, like ants for honey, neighbors, friends and completely strangers come running, and in a hand trembling with excitement, they gratefully carry the cherished stalk for grafting. Several years - and this new-born "variety" is already in hundreds of gardens ...

For twenty years, Khakassia has become a huge mass regional selection and experimental station - even Michurin could not have dreamed of this!

Initially, the leader in gardening was the suburb of Sayanogorsk - the village of Maina. There, unique gardeners began to create and experience - A. Levitsky, V. Borodich, K. Soshnikov, T. Zhestovskaya, and dozens of their followers followed them. Every autumn the streets were colored orange: the apricots were ripe. Then the city and all the favorable corners of the summer cottages were filled with gardens.

When the reservoir of the hydroelectric power station was filled, the village of Cheryomushki took over the palm. Here, on the sunny coastal slopes, the most fertile and warm climate has been established. This is our "fruit Mecca". Only the winter of 2010/2011 left Cheryomushki without a crop of apricots and plums, and cut down many trees that were not hardy enough. Until recently, even peaches, mulberries and walnuts could be found here, which did not freeze for many years. It was here that Boris Iosifovich Bodnar grew his cherry orchard, the only one in all of Siberia.

The Sayanogorsk aluminum giant plant is also under construction, with a launch ahead. And the city died out: everyone is in their dachas! The news of the "pioneers" who received the first harvest of unprecedented new varieties instantly becomes the event of the month. I grew a fruit larger and sweeter than that of others - and you are a respected person! .. The lucky ones take away the cherished cutting - and run to the courses, learn to vaccinate!

A great help to everyone's enthusiasm is the new super-popular magazine Priusadebnoe khozyaystvo (PKh). I observed almost anecdotal situations. I went to the "patch" where the seedlings are sold. A dozen silent women are waiting for the seller. Everyone stands in silence - and not a word, even try. Here comes the seller - everything is snapped up in a minute. Finally I find out: Chinese lemongrass was on sale. The magazine wrote that it, among other things, cures impotence!

LEARNING TO LOOK WITH YOUR EYES

In fact, here is a very brief summary of the subsequent chapters of the book. Something like a list of main findings.

He started, of course, like everyone else: from the market. I buy everything that I see, poke at any free patch ... Here I have gained experience! With excitement, I plant four cherry seedlings. I've been waiting for the harvest for five years. I taste the sour berries ... Well, how did I then know that all garden Siberia calls any local sour cherries with a long stalk "cherries"!

Felt cherries turn out to be truly edible and reliable. They are also called "Chinese". I studied the surrounding gardens, selected and grew my bushes. I have been enjoying the berries since mid-July, when there are no other berries yet (photo 4).

Many of our "local varieties" are selected from seeds and seeds of cultivated varieties, including European ones. For a long time I watched the fate of various seedlings and came to the conviction: sowing seeds is not a way of propagating cultivated trees. This is the hardest, long and thorny path only for keen breeders. In order for one surviving tree with valuable fruits to remain and become famous, hundreds of Sayanogorsk sowed tens of thousands of seeds. All other seedlings either gave half-wilds or froze out in the very first winters.

I take out the filing of the new "PH" - my first window into the big garden world. I find out: the basal offspring of seedlings not only retain the maternal qualities of the fruit, but also begin to bear fruit early. I am making another expedition through the gardens. I decorate my garden with dozens of overgrowth trees of Chinese (Ussuriysk) plums of all colors of the rainbow (photos 3 and 75). A fantastic sight! For all the years, not a single tree has frozen, the harvests are plentiful and annual, the fruits are sweet, even sugary. But it is worth getting seeds from them and growing trees - and here it is, a cold shower: the leaf is smaller, and the sweetness is not at all the same, and the harvest is not expected for 3-4 years, but for 5-6 years. And this despite the fact that the Chinese plum, in comparison with the "Europeans", very well conveys its qualities by seeds!

Learning to vaccinate. I vaccinate like everyone else - "in the stump under the bark." They take root perfectly. But then the years passed, and already adult apple trees began to dry out! Or worse, crumbling under the weight of the harvest. I draw a conclusion: "fixing" the rootstock with the scion is not right. Having tried other techniques, I stop at two: "improved copulation" - with a handle in the butt, and with a handle in a split, or "in a stump" (Copulation is the connection of two shoots with oblique cuts to each other. For more details, see the chapter on grafting. In the split - a wedge of the scion inserted into the split of the rootstock of the same diameter (for more details - ibid.). These trees live with me longer than others.

I do not miss a single opportunity to try a new variety, almost on my knees I ask permission to cut a stalk - at least the very top ... And for several years, only failures! Or dead vaccinations, or "freaks." It turned out that the best fragment for grafting in a harsh climate is not even the middle of the cut growth, as they say in the classics, but its lower part, not counting a few dormant buds at the base.

There were other discoveries:

The older the rootstock, the faster the scion.

The lower the grafting site, the more vigorously the seedling grows and develops faster.

The lower the grafting site, the fewer dead or weak scions.

The result - I confidently grow powerful plum and apricot seedlings on two- and three-year-old seed stocks. In five months - more than two meters, with a powerful skeleton of dozens of branches and hundreds of flower buds (photos 5, 6 and 67).

The selection of rootstocks, and then the strengthening of their compatibility with the scions, I started on a whim, after one "little trick". The suburban area, alas, is not dimensionless! I go into the forest, make a hundred grafts on one-year and two-year-old seedlings of a semi-wild Siberian apple tree. By the fall I come and see: some vaccinations have developed much stronger than others. I choose the most powerful seedlings and transfer them to my garden. And I think: what if we re-graft them onto the Siberian worm again? ..

This is how, from time to time, my interest in breeding manifested itself.

IGNORANCE IS POWER ALSO ...

Having settled down a little in a new place, in the very first spring of 1985 I buy a summer cottage in the Shushensky district, in the village of Krasny Khutor. Now journalists and television, gardeners from the surrounding regions come here regularly, and even scientists sometimes drop in. To my delight, how many centners of delicious fruits they have eaten from me in twenty years is beyond counting. It all started with the fact that I ... did not believe Michurin.

An old neighbor lady advised to plant cultivated apple trees on the “berry apple-Siberian tree”. Obviously Michurina did not read it! At one time, Ivan Vladimirovich sentenced Siberians, making sure from his experiments: the support of frost-resistant rootstocks does not increase the frost resistance of the crown. Yes, and modern authors often accuse the Siberian worm of incompatibility with many large-fruited varieties.

But I didn't know that then. I also did not know that our forest apple trees are no longer quite Siberian trees (photos 7 and 8). He grafted on their seedlings different varieties that came from the Black Earth Region and from the Ukraine. And I, still an inexperienced graftsman, turned out to be quite good seedlings! In half of the cases, I waited for the harvest. The fruits were quite "European".

I was finally convinced by a specific episode from practice. An acquaintance gardener went to Belarus and brought seedlings, a dozen varieties of apple trees and plums. He just planted them, and I got cuttings for grafting. Grafted in early spring: plums - on Chinese, apple trees - on the forest "Siberian". A few years later, having already managed to give the first harvest of tasty fruits, all its trees were frozen. And mine, grafted onto local frost-resistant rootstocks, remained alive. And this despite the fact that at that time I had not yet applied vegetative rapprochement with rootstocks.

Since then, I have observed a similar picture more than once and became convinced that the best rootstocks for Siberia and the North are local wild species. I am sure that the blossoming of Sayanogorsk apple trees is associated with these rootstocks.

(If you graft the best of the branches that have taken root on it again on the same rootstock, compatibility will increase. If you repeat this technique for a few more years, the scion "becomes akin" to the rootstock - it will vegetatively converge. For details, see the chapter on selection adaptation).

The worst case was with cultivated pears. I went the same way: I found an abandoned garden and there are dozens of old wild Ussuri pears with crazy annual harvests. He began to grow on the Ussuriisk "northern" table varieties bred for the Non-Black Earth Region. The result exceeded all expectations. Young pear garden- the third-fifth generation of re-grafting to Ussuriika - passed the exam perfectly. Most varieties "did not notice" the penultimate forty-degree winter - they bore fruit as usual.

For Russian cherries and sweet cherries, a frost-resistant stock was also found.

They turned out to be the descendants of, apparently, Vladimirskaya - the famous Russian tree cherry, introduced by the first settlers. Generally I call them “Siberian standard cherry” for their powerful growth. As a frost-resistant stock for vigorous trees, it has no equal.

Having said "cherries", I did not make a reservation. In Bryansk, M. V. Kanshina has already bred cherries with frost resistance up to -35 ... -37 ° C. My result is not yet impressive: one small crop in the last five years. But all the work is still ahead.

A gift from God I call the early-growing semi-wild Manchu apricot. The seedling got hold of twenty years ago from our most authoritative gardener A. D. Levitsky. In addition to frost resistance, huge growth and large yields, he gives me bones.

Thanks to the old lady neighbor! We now have reliable rootstocks!

Gradually, authority has emerged among gardeners. People started asking for help. I had to visit dozens of problem gardens. It was there that I made a really important discovery for myself - I saw the cause of the massive death of trees. A typical picture: a dead ten-year-old apricot. Planted strictly according to science: in a bowl-shaped depression 20-30 cm deep. I kneel down and see: the bole near the soil, as if "girded" with white rings. And this is not the first time I have seen them ... But these are traces left by the level of water and ice! The frozen soil does not absorb melt water, and the man-made "puddle" dries out for a long time - two or three weeks. During the day, the bark is saturated with water, and at night it freezes. But ice breaks even the most durable metal!

As the years passed, I examined hundreds of dead trees. My head was filled with more and more facts and observations. Basically such: snowless or severe winter has come - seedlings from European Russia, seedlings from southern seeds and Central Asian seedlings "from Barnaul" are dying for almost everyone. There were more and more conclusions. The harmfulness, destructiveness for Siberia of many generally accepted, read - European agricultural practices was evident. It was impossible to remain silent further - I rushed to write to newspapers and magazines.

(Alas, not all editors dared to publish my "anti-scientific" truth. And separate isolated articles did not solve the problem. That's when I realized that I would have to write a book).

WHEN IT'S CLOSE IN THE COTTAGE LAND

To say that everything went smoothly for me is to twist my soul. Traditional book agrotechnics made it difficult to see the obvious, and the lack of knowledge, on the contrary, did not allow generalizing the data and pushed to be categorical. And then came the "revolutionary" 1992. For the first time in the history of Soviet Russia, future farmers were given free land! So, all of a sudden, “perestroika” also happened in my life.

They gave, of course, disagreements. And we, the townspeople, were not considered people at all, they were sent to collective farms - to negotiate ourselves. Well, "agreed". Then they demanded that I, a metallurgist, pass the gardening exams. I ran to the library, covered myself with books for universities and technical schools.

It turned out: you need to start with growing protection from the wind - a living wall of wild plants. This is how many years it takes! Then you need to apply a full set of mineral fertilizers, then plow all five hectares to great depths. Then get necessarily zoned grafted seedlings, and certainly in state nurseries ...

As a result, I passed the exam, got five hectares of "waste" land, but I did everything in my own way.

My partner and I did not apply fertilizers: the soil is alive - why poison it? They didn't plow: why cripple her? Even then, “seditious” thoughts appeared that the health and frost resistance of trees not least of all depend on the naturalness of the soil, on the activity of the entire soil life. A cart of earth, poured out directly on top of the turf, and already in it a small hole strictly according to the size of the spread roots - this is our planting hole. In autumn, 1650 ready-made 2-3-year-old rootstocks of local Siberian Siberians were brought from the neighboring taiga. I had to take it with bare roots: the forest soil did not keep a lump. They were immediately put in their permanent places. In the spring of next year, they were all vaccinated. We also planted a nursery for growing a replacement: insurance in case of inevitable theft and other "joys in life."

And in the very first spring we planted a pine windbreak in three rows. Pines are needed here: they do not shed their needles for the winter. They planted it densely, a meter apart. The tight fit made our defenses grow rapidly upward.

Wind protection is the most important, the main basis of gardening in Siberia! But in our windswept Khakassia there are already dozens, and many villages have been “naked” for almost hundreds of years. Alas, over the past ten years, I only once saw the planting of a small forest belt - along the road near Shushenskoye.

There was no watering equipment, and for the first years we covered the trunks with pieces of old roofing material. It was damp under it in drought and warmer in snowless frosty days. But under it mice have divorced! I had to wrap the stems of the seedlings with pieces of the same roofing material. I regret that I decided to use fiberglass for this much later.

And then - no amateur performance, without the experience of professionals - nowhere! I went to get acquainted with the agronomist-gardeners of the Shushensky State Variety Site, the Baikovs. I come, and they have no time for me: a large harvest of plums is dying. Everyone runs around with boxes, and I wander around the garden with interest. I tried Severyanka pear - very good fruit! I looked in amazement at the huge harvest of Pepin's saffron apples: many branches were broken off by the weight of the fruit!

We returned here in winter. Seeing that we are now "real farmers" with documents and land, agronomical scientists offered help - cuttings of the best they had: apple trees Zhigulevskoye, northern Sinap and even Aport Alma-Atinsky, received for testing from the Sverdlovsk experimental station. I already knew about these varieties from the reviews of experienced gardeners, and made five hundred vaccinations each. Only the Alma-Atinsky Aport could not stand the winters of 2000/2001. He added apple trees already growing in Sayanogorsk - "Slava Michurinsk" and "Kutuzovets". He refused other varieties unknown to me: he could not take risks.

Like a paradise fairy tale, I dreamed of a huge collection, where each tree- another grade. But farming is an expense now, and income is somewhere far away. There were many problems to solve. A place was considered lost to a garden: an island! The most beautiful island adjoining the Shushenskaya side, a shady passing fish channel, and across the Yenisei in all its glory - Sayanogorsk. They dug a well. Hurrah! - six meters to the water, which means that rotting of the roots is not threatened. Ditches were dug along all the rows - the "irrigation ditch" system, since the water is nearby. I remembered from school: river water is alive, and well water is so-so.

The first years were plagued by the wind. The most powerful seedlings broke and fell, sometimes even with stakes. I was adapting. He grafted lower and lower, annually shortened the tops and skeletal branches. The trees turned out to be squat, stocky, with a thick stem and thick skeletal branches - like bushes. I noticed: the lower I plant, the more powerful, stronger and faster the seedlings are.

There were also mistakes - where without them! In the second year, the temporary fence of three rows of barbed wire could not withstand the pressure of the herd of bulls - they passed without noticing. Trampled over a thousand grafted seedlings. By that time, I had found better quality wild animals growing in dense soil in the Ochur forest. Having burned out, we threw out the broken seedlings along with the rootstocks. In the fall, they quickly brought in new Siberian birds, dug out with a lump. They planted them to complete exhaustion. The next spring they were all vaccinated.

The island also gave an unexpected compensation: thick frost - steam from the Yenisei. Covering trees in calm weather, it prevents them from drying out from the frost. So we waited for the harvest. And what!

2004 - a large harvest of selected apples. And this is without watering and maintenance. Half of the harvest was taken out by ten trucks. I sold in absentia, on my word of honor, just to save the harvest. The same number were stolen.

2005 promised an even bigger harvest. But two troubles came unexpectedly.

A partner, a talented engineer, made a career and moved to Moscow. And I completely lost interest in the commercial garden - the "sick" head was completely captured by the idea of \u200b\u200ba new selection method. I would like to hand over the crops, but I, obsessed, rented out ... a thriving garden for rent. The next spring it burned down - someone set fire to the grass while the tenants were sleeping in city apartments. All the spent savings, together with the future millions in income, were dispelled by ashes. There remained a hundred burnt, but still living trees. For several years without leaving and watering, they gave fantastic harvests of apples - twenty, and sometimes up to thirty buckets from one tree (photos 9 and 10). And what is interesting - namely large, perfect apples. I explain this by the fact that the roots have reached the aquifer.

So, now I have a non-standard experience, a lot of observations and alternative agricultural techniques. And since he did not die of a heart attack, there was only one way out - to take selection seriously.

NEXT STEP - BREEDING "IN ZHELEZOVSKY"

Recovering from the tragedy, he took an ax and a saw in his hands and drove to Krasny Khutor, to his half-abandoned dacha. I cut down almost all the old trees of the first generations - the varieties that were in many gardens. I removed about forty Chinese plums alone. He left invaluable "suppliers" of rootstock seeds: three Chinese plums, three Manchurian apricots, planted several Ussuri pears, chose the best layers of "Vladimirskaya" Siberian cherry. And he expanded the garden by another 10 acres. Since I am destined to remain poor, I will grow the best garden in Siberia!

He began with the main thing: he planted an unmeasured amount of seed-seeds and raised seedlings. Then I returned everything I had already worked with: I cut cuttings in the gardens of my friends, with whom I had previously shared. Then tough culling of already one-year-old seedlings. The rest are grafted. By the fall, he chose the best of the best - he left them in place forever. The rest again went through culling, sold the best or exchanged for cuttings of various new varieties.

The next fall I cut off the cuttings from the grown up selective grafts. Imi planted another school of seedlings, seeds for which he took from the same supplier tree. In the fall, he rejected or sold everything but the best of the best again. I also left them in place, and cut off cuttings from them for a new graft generation. He reasoned simply: the more "accumulate" the influence of frost-resistant rootstocks, the more frost-resistant the scions will become.

Re-grafting of the best trees to new rootstocks had to be repeated up to five to seven times. And each new inoculated generation became more and more resistant to climatic anomalies! These trees were increasingly producing sustainable yields. Later I realized: it's not only about the transfer and consolidation of frost resistance. In this way, I have brought to the limit the biological compatibility of the scion with the stock. In fact, I got compatible clones (Clone - vegetative offspring. Everything that grew from the buds and cuttings of the mother plant) Isn't it a method of selection adaptation for Siberia?

Eyes lit up! Sparing no expense, he wrote cuttings from the best Russian gardeners. I ordered only the best. At the same time he ransacked all the available gardens, took all the best from there. This went on for more than one year. Only at the beginning of the millennium, I went to Ukraine three times and, like a smuggler, secretly took out whole brooms of cuttings. I planted everything indiscriminately and looked. The varieties that were ordinary by my standards were simply destroyed.

Soon I realized: I'll overstrain! Re-grafting and selecting each variety every year is not a work for a loner. Made it easier: wait. The harsh winters did their useful job: in about half of the cases, it waited for fruiting, in half the trees died. Often he lost excellent, but not yet frost-resistant varieties: physically he did not have time to duplicate the seedlings.

In some cases, it was possible to get a harvest in the second year, and quite often in the 3-4th year. Here I have already acted on the result. If the fruits are smaller than expected (the rootstock also affects the fruits!), I cut off the grafted crown and grafted other varieties here, saving time and space. If everything is fine, I left the tree for further work. He did not let the selected forms stagnate: once in 3-4 years he again grafted onto the seedling - he supported the "frost-resistant genes".

What I am trying to do can be called "the third way of selection."

More precisely, this is a path of selective adaptation, quite effective and efficient precisely at the borders of the survival of fruit plants. Seedling local rootstocks were put at the forefront by Michurin and all the founders of Siberian and northern gardening. The influence of the rootstock on the scion has long been proven. Vegetative hybridization (If you graft the best of the branches that have taken root on it again on the same rootstock, compatibility will increase. If you repeat this technique for a few more years, the scion will "akin" to the rootstock - vegetatively converge. Details - in the chapter on selection adaptation), mentor method ( Mentor - “educator.” The grafted part or rootstock influences the plant, transfer part of its properties to it. More details on pages 238-239) and vegetative convergence are also recognized Michurin's methods. I began to reinforce and enhance these effects with multiple repetitions. After all, what did thousands of Sayanogorsk gardeners do? They constantly transferred both alien varieties and surviving branches from frozen trees to new seedling rootstocks. And what I call the "Siberian miracle" and "the Sayanogorsk phenomenon" happened. Well, I just studied this phenomenon, saw the essence and gave it a purposeful character.

The influence of the rootstock on the scion leads to a partial "fusion" of their qualities. It has been proven that in this convergence, even the transfer of genetic material occurs. Details in the chapter on breeding adaptation.

THE MOMENT OF TRUTH

In practice, “global warming” turned into two terrible, almost snowless winters, when the frost lasted between thirty and forty for weeks or months. The first of these winters - 2009/2010 - the Sayanogorsk orchards survived with flying colors, they only missed the apricot harvest. My trees of very delicate European varieties, with the exception of apricots, gave almost normal harvest. I lost one tree at a time: a Golden Delicious apple tree, an Autumn Yakovleva pear, an Akademik apricot and a plum clone Souvenir of the East, grafted on a Manchurian apricot. Adult peaches are frozen. The rest of the trees turned out to be from absolutely healthy to frozen, but recovered with powerful growths.

And everything would have been in Sayanogorsk as before - numerous trucks, tens of tons of fruits. But after that an abnormally cold summer happened. And then - the second terrible winter in a row. 2010/2011.

She still finished off many trees, even apple trees, which had not yet healed their wounds. The worst of all was in mountain summer cottages, where it was down to -43 ° C. The minimum losses along the coast of the non-freezing Yenisei are up to -40 ° C. Here, mostly "exotic" froze: peaches, cherries, large-fruited pears and apricots.

For me, repeated frosts ruined the Central Russian pear, which I considered the most frost-resistant of the purely sweet ones. We finished off two more apricots Akademik and the oldest cherry.

Several more trees, about to die, pushed shoots out of the lower dormant buds. With my lowest vaccination, complete death does not threaten my trees, although there was snow - below the felt boot. Well, outwardly, losses in the garden are almost imperceptible. Young people are growing up, already by the beginning of July having given meter increments. She even bloomed a little, like many mature trees. But the harvest did not work: the flowers were covered with thick snow with a frost down to -3 ° C.

The most reliable crop, the steppe cherry, yielded the usual harvest. Felt and tree-like trees have a weak harvest, pears and plums have single fruiting, apple trees have a quarter of the usual harvest. I will modestly keep quiet about apricots until next year.

In general, after two disastrous winters and springs, our gardens are like that rooster from “The Bremen Town Musicians”: “pretty plucked, but not defeated”. Most of the "local varieties" are alive, and many are not affected at all. I use new material again - the most stable branches of my clones. It seems that nothing will be scary for these seedlings. Our gardens definitely have a future!

* * *

The history of the majority of Sayanogorsk "folk varieties" is already impossible to establish. Something is grown and successfully selected from seeds. Something has been re-grafted many times. I have adapted to the local rootstocks and the climate. Initially, these are well-known Russian varieties, but they are already different - modified, adapted. Trees grow and bear fruit as they recover from the harshest winters. Many local "clones" go beyond Khakassia. For thirty years, illiterate mass enthusiasm has done what science has not done,- made beautiful varieties grow where they, by definition, could not grow.

And there is no special secret here. One of the factors of our success is a dry climate with little snow and an abundance of sun. It is more favorable for stone fruits that are afraid of damping. The second reason is local frost-resistant rootstocks. And the most important factor is massiveness, and along with it incredible courage. The spells of science - to plant only zoned varieties - were ignored. Gardening clubs, lectures by masters and experts, thousands of attempts - and a miracle happened. The developed amateur gardening has arisen in some thirty years!

How long will it be? It now depends on us.

The fact that the North and Siberia cannot feed themselves with pure fruits and vegetables is wildness and delirium. We ourselves are to blame: we destroyed everything good that we had with our own hands. Perestroika is already in the distant past, and we live so indifferently, as if tomorrow the end of the world! Let us come to our senses, friends: the time has come for our grandchildren. This means that we must start all over again, even if from scratch - for their sake.

At the same time, I agree that the State Register is not at all a guide for an experienced gardener. And amateur gardening in Siberia is developing contrary to official recommendations. I think that the State Register was made by scientific officials, not by learned gardeners. They, too, are ashamed of the gift of national bread to eat.

I note that gardeners in the south of Kuzbass also use the Siberian apple tree as a rootstock, which Michurin rejected. But we believe that this is no longer the Siberian apple tree that Michurin had in mind, but hybrids of this species, i.e. Siberian apple tree, pollinated in a variety of semi-crops common in our gardens.

(G. Kazanin).

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