FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
"KEMEROVSK STATE UNIVERSITY"
Department of Biology
Specialty geography
DIRECT AND INDIRECT HUMAN IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT
ESSAY
Completed by: Postnikova V.S.
Checked:
Kemerovo 2011
Table of contents:
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...3
1. Human impact on nature: intentional, unintentional, direct and indirect…………………………………………………………………….4
2. Impact of mining………………………………………………5
3. Impact on the hydrosphere……………………………………………………….7
4.Impact on animal world……………………………………… …………9
5. Impact on the earth's crust………………………………………………….10
6.Impact on climate…………………………………………………………..12
7.Impact on marine ecosystems…………………………………………...13
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….15
References…………………………………………………………………16
Introduction
Each of us, each of those who consider themselves a part of world humanity, must know what impact human activity has on the world around us and feel a share of responsibility for certain actions. It is man who is the cause of his own fears about nature, as a house that provides food, warmth and other conditions for his normal life. Human activity is a very aggressive and actively destroying (transforming) force on our planet. Man from the very beginning of his development felt himself the master of everything that surrounds him. But, as the proverb says: "Do not cut the branch on which you sit." One wrong decision and it may take tens or even hundreds of years to correct a fatal mistake. The natural balance is very fragile. If you do not seriously think about your activity, then this very activity will certainly begin to stifle humanity itself. This suffocation has already begun to some extent, and if it is not stopped, it will instantly begin to develop at an incredibly fast pace.
However, the first steps towards nature are already being taken, nature is beginning to be respected, cared for and maintained in elementary order. Although more and more pollution comes in, a huge number is eliminated, but this is not enough. Pollution should not be eliminated, but prevented.
We need a worldwide unification, a long, well-coordinated and purposeful activity of the driving and producing forces of the planet.
But, initially, in order to fight against the influence of man on surrounding nature it is necessary to find out the influence of human activity on separate sections of nature. This knowledge allows mankind to study the problem more deeply, to find out what causes the violation of the natural balance and the deterioration of the ecological state. Also, a deep study of the sections of nature allows you to develop optimal plans for correcting the situation on the globe in a shorter time.
The solution to the problem of the natural environment - if we take into account the costs of research, the creation of new technologies, the re-equipment of production and the restoration, at least partial, of the destroyed natural systems - grows into perhaps the largest, largest and most expensive program.
1. Human impact on nature: intentional, unintentional, direct and indirect.
Impact- the direct impact of human economic activity on the environment. All types of impact can be combined into 4 types: intentional, unintentional, direct and indirect (indirect).
Intentional impact occurs in the process of material production in order to meet certain needs of society. These include: mining, construction of hydraulic structures (reservoirs, irrigation canals, hydroelectric power stations), deforestation to expand agricultural areas and to obtain timber, etc.
The unintended impact occurs as a side effect of the first type of impact, in particular, open pit mining leads to a decrease in the level ground water, to pollution of the air basin, to the formation of man-made landforms (quarries, waste heaps, tailings). The construction of hydroelectric power plants is associated with the formation of artificial reservoirs that affect the environment: they cause an increase in the level of groundwater, change the hydrological regime of rivers, etc. When energy is received from traditional sources (coal, oil, gas), the atmosphere, surface watercourses, groundwater, etc. are polluted.
Both intentional and unintended impacts can be direct or indirect.
Direct impacts take place in case of direct impact economic activity man on the environment, in particular, irrigation (irrigation) directly affects the soil and changes all the processes associated with it.
Indirect impacts occur indirectly through chains of interrelated influences. Thus, intentional indirect impacts are the use of fertilizers and a direct impact on crop yields, while unintended ones are the impact of aerosols on the amount solar radiation(especially in cities), etc.
2. Impact of mining.
Impact of mining on the environment - manifests itself in a variety of ways in direct and indirect impact on natural landscapes. The greatest violations of the earth's surface occur with open-pit mining, which in our country accounts for more than 75% of mining production.
Currently total area lands disturbed during the extraction of minerals (coal, iron and manganese ores, non-metallic raw materials, peat, etc.), as well as occupied by mining waste, exceeded 2 million hectares, of which 65% are in the European part of the country. In Kuzbass alone, more than 30 thousand hectares of land are currently occupied by coal pits, in the area of the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly (KMA) - no more than 25 thousand hectares of fertile land.
It is estimated that when mining 1 million tons of iron ore, up to 640 hectares of land are disturbed, manganese - up to 600 hectares, coal - up to 100 hectares. Mining contributes to the destruction of vegetation cover, the emergence of man-made landforms (quarries, dumps, tailings, etc.), deformation of sites earth's crust(especially for underground mining).
Indirect impacts are manifested in changes in the groundwater regime, pollution of the air basin, surface watercourses and groundwater, and also contribute to flooding and waterlogging, which ultimately leads to an increase in the level of morbidity. local population. Among the air pollutants, dust and gas pollution are primarily distinguished. It has been calculated that about 200,000 tons of dust are produced annually from underground mine workings; coal mining in the amount of 2 billion tons per year from about 4,000 mines in various countries of the world is accompanied by the release of 27 billion m 3 of methane and 17 billion m 3 of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In our country, during the development of coal deposits by the underground method, significant amounts of methane and CO 2 entering the air basin are also recorded: annually in the Donbass (364 mines) and Kuzbass (78 mines) 3870 and 680 million m 3 of methane and carbon dioxide are emitted, respectively. 1200 and 970 million m3.
Mining negatively affects surface watercourses and groundwater, which are heavily polluted with mechanical impurities and mineral salts. Every year, about 2.5 billion m 3 of polluted mine water is pumped to the surface from coal mines. In open pit mining, high-quality fresh water. In the quarries of the Kursk magnetic anomaly, infiltration from tailings impedes a decrease in the level of the upper aquifer of the horizon by 50 m, which leads to a rise in the groundwater level and swamping of the adjacent territory.
Mining production also negatively affects the bowels of the Earth, since they bury industrial waste, radioactive waste (in the USA - 246 underground disposal sites), etc. In Sweden, Norway, England, Finland, storage facilities for oil and gas, drinking water, underground refrigerators, etc.
3. Impact on the hydrosphere.
Impact on the hydrosphere- Man began to have a significant impact on the hydrosphere and the water balance of the planet. Anthropogenic transformations of the waters of the continents have already reached global proportions, violating the natural regime of even the largest lakes and rivers of the globe. This was facilitated by: the construction of hydraulic structures (reservoirs, irrigation canals and water transfer systems), an increase in the area of irrigated land, watering of arid territories, urbanization, pollution of fresh water by industrial and municipal wastewater. At present, there are about 30,000 reservoirs in the world, which are under construction, with a volume of water exceeding 6,000 km 3 . But 95% of this volume falls on large reservoirs. There are 2,442 large reservoirs in the world, with the largest number in North America- 887 and Asia - 647. 237 large reservoirs were built on the territory of the former USSR.
In general, while the areas of reservoirs in the world make up only 0.3% of land, but at the same time they increase river flow by 27%. However, large reservoirs have a negative impact on environment: change the regime of groundwater, their water areas occupy large areas of fertile land, lead to secondary salinization of soils.
Distinguish between direct and indirect impact reservoirs to the environment. The direct impact is manifested primarily in permanent and temporary flooding and land flooding. Most of these lands are classified as highly productive agricultural and forest lands. Thus, the share of agricultural lands flooded by the reservoirs of the Volga-Kama HPP cascade is 48% of the entire flooded territory, and some of them are located in the floodplain zone, which is characterized by high fertility. About 38% of the flooded lands were forests and shrubs. In the desert and semi-desert zones, three-quarters of all flooded land is pasture.
The indirect impacts of reservoirs on the environment have not been studied as fully as the direct ones, but some forms of their manifestation are evident even now. This is the case, for example, with climate change, which manifests itself in the zone of influence of the reservoir in an increase in air humidity and the formation of fairly frequent fogs, a decrease in cloudiness in the daytime over the water area and a decrease in the average annual precipitation there, a change in wind direction and speed, and a decrease in the amplitude of air temperature fluctuations during the day and year.
Experience in the operation of domestic reservoirs also shows that the amount of precipitation in coastal zone increases noticeably, and the average annual air temperature in the zone of large southern reservoirs somewhat decreases. There are also changes in other meteorological indicators. Climate change, together with flooding and reshaping of the coast, sometimes leads to a deterioration in the state of coastal tree vegetation and even its death.
The indirect impacts of reservoirs should also include the appearance of territories that are becoming less suitable for economic use (for example, islands in the upstream, dry floodplains in the downstream, etc.). It is also impossible not to note the impact of the creation of reservoirs on fisheries. Two things must be pointed out here. On the one hand, the construction of a hydroelectric dam prevents the passage of fish to spawning grounds, and on the other hand, the requirements of the fish industry for the flow regime completely contradict the tasks of flow regulation, i.e. the purpose for which the reservoir is created.
In Russia, large reservoirs (90% of 237 in the former USSR), with a surface area of 15 million hectares, occupy about 1% of its territory, but of this amount, 60–70% are flooded lands. Hydraulic structures lead to the degradation of river ecosystems. V last years in our country, schemes have been drawn up for improving the natural and technical condition and beautification of some large reservoirs and canals. This will reduce the degree of their adverse impact on the environment.
4. Impact on the animal world.
Impact on wildlife- animals together with plants play an exceptional role in the migration of chemical elements, which underlies the relationships existing in nature; they are also important for human existence as a source of food and various resources. However, human economic activity has greatly influenced the animal world of the planet. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, since 1600, 94 species of birds and 63 species of mammals have become extinct on Earth. Animals such as the tarpan, aurochs, marsupial wolf, European ibis, and others have disappeared. The fauna of the oceanic islands has especially suffered. As a result of anthropogenic impact on the continents, the number of endangered and rare species of animals (bison, vicuña, condor, etc.) has increased. In Asia, the number of such animals as the rhinoceros, tiger, cheetah, and others has declined threateningly.
In Russia, by the beginning of this century, certain animal species (bison, river beaver, sable, muskrat, kulan) became rare, therefore, reserves were organized for their protection and reproduction. This made it possible to restore the bison population, to increase the number of the Amur tiger and polar bear.
However, in recent years, the animal world has been adversely affected by the excessive use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture, pollution of the oceans and other anthropogenic factors, all of which are indirect factors influencing the environment. Thus, in Sweden, the use of pesticides led to the death of primarily birds of prey (peregrine falcon, kestrel, white-tailed eagle, eagle owl, long-eared owl), larks, rooks, pheasants, partridges, etc. die. A similar picture is observed in many Western European countries. Therefore, with an increasing anthropogenic load, many animal species need further protection and reproduction.
etc.................
An indirect impact on a person is an impact that is not carried out through direct contact, but through a change in the abiotic and biotic environment.
An indirect effect is expressed in the fact that diseases can occur as a result of a violation of the natural balance.
So, with the latest insecticides In Africa, in the Sahel eon, large areas were spared from the tsetse fly, the carrier of the Nagant disease, which prevented the development of pastoralism. The number of livestock increased dramatically, which led to cattle overgrazing the scarce savannahs; then, when the drought came, hundreds of thousands of cattle fell victim to it, and people starved to death by the thousands.
Evaporation of dichlorvos is perhaps the most convenient method used to completely free living quarters from insects. Applied in household for textile pest control, tapes evaporating this substance are considered
The United States is toxic: they “cause birth injuries and death of embryos in rats, and therefore are unsafe for humans.”
Long-range transport of technogenic substances has an indirect effect on humans. In the Moscow region, the average pH value in precipitation is 3-3.5 (with a norm of 5.6). For example, acid precipitation, especially in the form of snow, is regularly observed in the Istra region. Such precipitation is dangerous for humans not so much by its direct action as indirectly. They worsen its physico-chemical properties and disturb the nutrition of plants, and therefore, adversely affect the health of animals, increase toxic effect other pollutants, etc.
The main pollutants, their classification. Terrestrial plantations as a means of human protection
Pollutant - the subject of environmental impact, the amount of which is higher than the natural level. Pollution can be caused by any agent, including the cleanest, i.e. pollution is everything that is in the wrong place, at the wrong time and in the wrong amount that is natural for nature, which brings it out of balance .
As already noted, by origin they distinguish natural and anthropogenic pollution . natural pollution occurs as a result of natural, as a rule, catastrophic processes. Anthropogenic pollution arises as a result of human activities, including their direct or indirect influence on the intensity of natural pollution.
Atmospheric pollutants. Air pollutants are mechanical, chemical, physical and biological.
Mechanical contaminants - dust, rubbish. They are formed during the combustion of fossil fuels and during the production of building materials. With this type of pollution, the most harmful are particles with a diameter of up to 0.005 mm. Many diseases are associated with dusty air: tuberculosis, allergic diseases of the bronchi, etc.; a high concentration of dust in the air causes atrophy of the mucous membranes of the nose, bleeding.
Green spaces purify the air of dust and weaken the effect of other harmful impurities. For example, a spruce plantation
collects from the air 32 tons of dust per 1 ha, pine - 36.4 tons, beech - 68 tons per 1 ha. The forest, being able to filter out annually up to 50-70 tons of dust on an area of 1 hectare, reduces the risk of disease as listed, and many other diseases.
Chemical contaminants - these are substances alien to it that have penetrated into the ecosystem or are present in it, but in concentrations exceeding the norm.
The most common toxic substances polluting the atmosphere are the following.
Carbon compounds: carbon dioxide CO 2 , which is not harmful in small concentrations; carbon monoxide (CO), highly toxic but diffuses rapidly in the atmosphere; unburned hydrocarbons or oxidized substances (aldehydes and acids).
Sulfur compounds: sulfurous anhydride (SO 2), which can turn into sulfuric anhydride (SO 3) and in the presence of water or its vapor forms sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4).
afforestation can serve both as a mechanical barrier to gas and as a protection against chemical pollution of the atmosphere.
One hectare of forest plantations absorbs in 1 hour all the carbon dioxide emitted during this time by 200 people, that is, 8 kg. One broad-leaved tree with a crown projection of 150 m 2 gives in 10 years the amount of oxygen needed for 2 years of the life of one person.
Physical contaminants - these are excess sources of energy entering the biosphere from technogenic causes.
One of the unfavorable factors of the urban environment is noise, which is random non-periodic sound vibrations of various physical nature. It has been established that noise within 30-40 dB is a comfort zone, above 120 dB is a pain threshold for a person.
Green spaces can provide protection from noise sources. More reliable protection from noise is achieved by installing noise barriers from noise sources.
Biological contaminants - species of organisms alien to the ecosystem. Contamination by microorganisms is also called bacteriological.
Particularly dangerous is the special or accidental pollution of the atmosphere. strains of pathogenic microorganisms
mov, created in the laboratories of the armed forces of some countries.
Ecosystem plants are able to fight alien species with the help of specific substances they secrete, which are called phytoncides. For example, 1 m 2 of air in a pine forest contains only 200-300 bacteria, that is, 2 times less than in a mixed forest.
Water pollutants. Situation with drinking water in Russia it is characterized as critical - it is a direct threat to the health of the population. The impurities on which the safety of drinking water resources depends are divided into the following categories.
inorganic chemicals, which include mercury, cadmium, nitrates, lead and their compounds, as well as chromium and copper compounds. Toxic substances in sewage are toxic to hydrobionts and often cause their death. For example, arsenic for planktonic crustaceans, daphnia and cyclops is lethal at concentrations of 0.25-2.5 mg/l, and for fish -10-20 mg/l.
organic contaminants may be of plant, animal or chemical origin. Vegetables include the remains of paper, fruits and vegetables, vegetable oils and other pollutants of animal origin - physiological secretions of people, animals, remains of fatty and muscle tissues, adhesive substances, etc. Organic chemical pollutants include oil and oil products, pesticides; wastewater; waste from leather, pulp and paper, brewing industries.
Bacterial and biological contaminants are various microorganisms, yeasts and molds, small algae and bacteria, including pathogens of typhus, paratyphoid, dysentery, as well as helminth eggs that come with human and animal secretions. Self-purification agents are bacteria, fungi and algae. It has been established that during bacterial self-purification, no more than 50% of bacteria remain after 24 hours, and 0.5% after 96 hours. The process of bacterial self-purification is greatly slowed down in winter.
Radioactive pollutants pose a great threat to the life of water bodies as ecosystems and human health. Their sources are tests of thermonuclear weapons under water, plants for the purification of uranium ore and for the processing of nuclear fuel for reactors, nuclear power plants, and locations of radioactive waste.
Soil contaminants. The main soil pollutants are:
pesticides, used to control weeds, insects and rodents - pests of agricultural crops;
fertilizers;
oil and refined products;
industrial emissions . Soils around large cities and large enterprises are colored and ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering, thermal power plants at a distance of several tens of kilometers are polluted with heavy metals, lead compounds, sulfur and other toxic substances;
landfills for household and industrial waste. A special problem in the urban environment, associated exclusively with a high population, is the elimination household waste, especially inorganic ones. Disposal of industrial and household waste to landfills leads to pollution and irrational use of land, pollution of the atmosphere, surface and ground water, increased transport costs and the irretrievable loss of valuable materials and substances.
Questions for self-examination
In what forms does the impact of biosphere pollution on the human body manifest itself?
What are the sources of pollution of the biosphere?
What is the direct impact of biosphere pollution on humans?
What diseases are caused by pollution of the biosphere?
What is the indirect impact of biosphere pollution on humans?
Give examples of the indirect impact of biosphere pollution on humans.
Name the main air pollutants.
What protective measures are used to reduce at-
atmospheric pollution?
Name the main soil pollutants.
What types of economic activities lead to soil pollution?
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Direct impact. |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Education |
Part.
Plan.
Topic.
Lecture by K.F. No. 3.
Stage 5. Formation of reserves for credit risks
The Bank on the date of the re-insurance of the reserve for the loan on an individual basis, as the amount of the transfer of the balance sheet value of the loan (without adjusting the amount of the previously formed reserve) over the current rate of forward estimated future penny flows for this loan, according to the following formula:
Rіnd \u003d BVk - TVk,
de Rind - the amount of the reserve for the loan;
BVK - the balance sheet value of the loan, issued by the bank in accordance with the normative legal acts of the NBU from the accounting form, without adjusting the amount of the previously formed reserve;
TVK - the current rate of early assessment of future penny flows for a loan, was approved by the bank in accordance with the normative legal acts of the NBU from the accounting form. The next hour is the date of the current variance of future penny flows for a loan and the previous assessment is based on the improvement of the indicator of risk-free assets and the coefficient of liquidity of security.
ʼʼPharmacodynamics of drugsʼʼ.
1. Pharmacodynamics of L.S. Concept.
2. Mechanisms of action of L.S.
3. Types of action.
3. The selectivity of the action of L.S.
4.Dose and dose regimen.
part 2.
1. Dosing principles;
2.Influence individual features organism;
3. Interaction of L.S.
4.Quality of life.
5. Adherence to treatment.
Section of K.F., studying the mechanics of the actions of L.S. (the essence of the processes of interaction of HP with tissues, cells, and subcellular receptors) and pharmacological effects (their features based on age, gender, nature and course of the disease, concomitant pathology).
In other words, F.D.-this is the interaction of L.S. with a living organism.
For this reason, the choice of L.S. for the treatment of a specific disease and a specific patient is based not only on knowledge of the mechanism of action, but also on knowledge of the features of the pharmacological effects of L.S. in pathological conditions characteristic of different age groups of patients.
Mech-zm action L.S.:
most L.S. in the body act by changing the physiological systems of the body.
Under the influence of HP the course of processes changes: inhibition, excitation, which leads to suppression or strengthening of the pathological ones that caused the disease;
impaired functions are normalized and symptoms regress.
Next mechanisms of action of HP-distinguish:
1. On specific receptors;
2. Influence on the activity of enzymes;
3. Physical and chemical action on membranes;
4. Direct, cytochemical action.
Let's take a look at each of these types:
1. On receptors:
Receptors are nerve endings that have selective sensitivity to certain chemical compounds.
Given the dependence on the effect on receptors, they are divided into:
agonists and antagonists.
Agonists: these are substances that excite or increase functional activity.
Antagonists:
in-va, blocking or interfering with the action of specific agonists.
Substances are both those and others (in one package). Then the result of the action will depend on the initial physiological, functional
receptor activity. The number of receptors is not the same on the surface of the body. And it depends: on age, on forgetfulness, and on damage
cells, as well as from the use of L.S.
2 .For enzyme activity:
L.S. inhibit or enhance the activity of intracellular or extracellular enzymes.
The action of many HP associated with effects on the enzyme: adenylate cyclase or phosphodiesterase (regulating cyclic adenosine monophosphate
3.On cell membranes:
action is to change the transmembrane electric potential, in result of the influence of hp transport of ions across the cell membrane.
This is how they work:
Antiarrhythmic means;
Weds for anesthesia and local anesthetics;
Anticonvulsants;
Changes in the conduction of nerve impulses through synapses; the electrical activity of the cells is suppressed. This is typical for the cells of the neuromuscular system.
Selective interaction with intracellular molecules or structures leads to disruption of cell vital activity.
So, for example: the action of antibiotics or anticancer drugs;
or antiviral agents;
Selectivity of action L.S. = SELECTIVITY! Is the ability to have a certain (desired) effect and not have an unwanted side effect.
No HP, only the desired effect.,ᴛ.ᴇ. acting only-selectively! on the receptor!
The higher the selectivity of the drug, the higher the effectiveness of the drug!
L.S. with low selective activity act on many tissues, organs and systems of the body, causing a lot of side effects.
For example, morphine
Excellent analgesic drug, but causes vomiting, constipation, bronchospasm, sedative effect, depresses breathing;
another example: antitumor drug: suppresses growth of tumor cells, but causes an overwhelming effect on bone tissue, k\brain; intestinal mucus, etc.
The selectivity depends on the dose of the drug: the higher the dose, the lower the selectivity!
eg:
acyclovir, at a therapeutic dose, is non-toxic, and at a higher dose, it is super toxic!
β-blockers - on the myocardium (in a therapeutic dose, and in a high dose, they will cause bronchospasm, sharp! Or bronchial vasoconstriction!
Direct impact. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Direct impact." 2017, 2018.
On the economy. First of all, this is a block of power ministries (Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Internal Affairs, Federal Border Service, federal Service counterintelligence, as well as the State Committee for Emergency Situations). The functions of these organizational structures are determined by constitutional requirements, and the object of regulation is not directly related to economic relations (with the exception of the work of military builders at civilian facilities and prisoners in the system of the Ministry of Internal Affairs). These industries have initially budgetary nature of financing. Their functions are stable, and the control mechanism is quite conservative.
The effectiveness of the functioning of the quality management system is initially represented by its structure, that is, the composition and interaction scheme of its constituent elements. The measure of its complexity must correspond to the complexity of the control object, that is, it must be able to generate optimal control actions on all factors that directly or indirectly affect product quality. It must be adapted to possible changes in quality requirements, the method of its change and control, technical and organizational support, and is susceptible to new management theories.
The process of destruction of diversity is an informational process based on the receipt and processing of information, the development of control actions, carried out using direct and feedback channels.
As is known from the history of civilization, social systems limited by rigid linear communications were doomed to gradual death. The traditional, still dominant approach to the management of natural and social processes was based on a simplified view of the functioning of the systems of nature and society. According to this idea, the result of an external control action is a directly proportional consequence of the applied efforts. The more energy and effort you put in, the higher (the result).
In some cases, the most effective way to avoid negative consequences or reduce the risk level of innovation activities are direct managerial impacts on possible manageable risk factors. Such as the
In the overwhelming majority of cases, private approaches suffer from significant one-sidedness, which is unacceptable. So, often, the problems of risk management are reduced only to the level of stabilization of the financial condition. Undoubtedly, the achievement of such a private goal is a success. But in the overwhelming majority of cases, the financial condition only indicates the presence of a problem, but does not demonstrate the deep causes of the realized risks. Thus, the problem of fighting the disease is actually replaced by fighting the symptoms. Obviously, there is a fairly wide range of management measures that, if properly applied, can provide the desired effect in relation to symptom management. But the causes of negative processes are not radically affected. This means that after the removal of the appropriate control action, there will be no reasons preventing a new manifestation of the problem. Moreover, the enterprise is such a complex organism that a new aggravation may be accompanied by other manifestations, unlike the previous ones. New tools will be re-invented to deal with them, but in the end, the actual cause will not be discovered (and, therefore, eliminated in a qualified manner). It is quite possible that the direct identification of the cause of the realization of risks and the implementation of measures to eliminate them will require much less cost resources of the enterprise compared to the sluggish struggle with its consequences. Such a radical treatment will contribute to better conservation the potential of the enterprise and more qualified adaptation to new, changed conditions of existence.
I can be direct instructions and control over their implementation, a clear construction of the management apparatus and the definition of the duties of each employee correct use mechanism of interest, financing and lending in order to combine the interests of the state, the enterprise and the individual contractor. All methods are based on the use of the economic laws of socialism, but differ depending on the content and method of influencing the controlled object.
Organizational and administrative-legal methods of management, unlike economic ones, are not advisory, but mandatory, directive. These methods are expressed in a direct impact on the managed object and, as a rule, imply an unambiguous solution to the corresponding economic situation, which is binding on the performer.
In the organization, these methods serve as a means of direct influence on the production process and the work of workers, which makes it possible to coordinate the performance of individual functions or the solution of a common problem. It creates favorable conditions for the existence and development of the controlled system , has a targeted impact on the object of management . The characteristic features of direct influence include the direct connection between the leader and the subordinate. However, in general, direct influences ultimately lead to an increase in the passivity of subordinates, and sometimes to covert disobedience. Therefore, the most effective are indirect methods of influence, which are carried out by setting a task and creating stimulating conditions.
management decisions . All management decisions in the field of formation and implementation of investments are closely interconnected and have a direct or indirect impact on the final results of financial activity in general. Therefore, investment management should be considered as a complex functional management system of management decisions, each of which contributes to the overall performance of the enterprise.
We complete our graphical picture of the money market with three potential money supply curves, Sal, Sm2, and z. In all three cases, the money supply curve is a vertical straight line, indicating some fixed amount of money determined by the Fed's Board of Governors. Since the interest rate is set under the influence of monetary policy (and hence the money supply), the location of the money supply curve does not depend on it.
Organizational and administrative management methods are based on their direct impact on the managed object. They are prescriptive and mandatory. Based on such management relations as discipline, responsibility, power, coercion.
Keeping in mind the direct impact on the control object, which is characteristic of administrative methods, one can imagine production management as a system of decisions, actions, messages (information) that ensure purposefulness, coherence, economy (efficiency) of the operation of the managed object.
The complex nature of the formation of managerial decisions. All management decisions in the field of the formation, distribution and use of financial resources and the organization of the enterprise's cash flow are closely interconnected and have a direct or indirect impact on the results of its financial activities. In some cases, this impact can be contradictory. For example, the implementation of highly profitable financial investments can cause a deficit in the financing of production activities and, as a result, significantly reduce the amount of operating profit (ie, reduce the potential for generating own financial resources). Therefore, financial management should be considered as an integrated management system that ensures the development of interdependent management decisions, each of which contributes to the overall performance of the enterprise's financial activities.
MANAGEMENT - ways of influencing economic processes and phenomena through the interests of workers, labor collectives in order to achieve the results necessary for society. Unlike administrative methods of management, which have a direct impact on managed objects with the help of directive tasks and other methods, E. m. do not limit the independence and initiatives of the latter, contribute to a more complete combination of the interests of the state, the enterprise and each employee. To E. m. at. include economic calculation, economic standards, prices with a system of allowances and discounts to them, economic incentive funds, bonuses (see Bonuses), depreciation, credit, capital investments, fines and other sanctions, etc. (see also Economic levers and incentives). Increasing the role of E. m. is the most important direction of formation
Others strategic directions(objectives) can be the deployment of new projects, the introduction of new products, the adoption of certain growth rates (achieved, faster, slower than in the industry), achieving or maintaining leadership in cost and brand prestige, materializing competitive advantage, concentration efforts in a certain part of current operations, finding a specific segment or product niche in the market, returning positions previously handed over to competitors, etc. All this the sales manager must take into account and take into account when considering, from the point of view of sales management, the possible overall strategies of the company and their direct and indirect impact on sales dynamics, which ensures their practical implementation.
Characteristics organizational and administrative methods of management direct impact on the managed object, the mandatory nature of the implementation of instructions, orders, orders and other administrative decisions of higher authorities for subordinate (controlled) objects, strictly defined responsibility of subordinates for failure to comply with instructions, orders.
The degree of regulation of impacts depends on the scale of the managed object, as well as on the qualifications and competence of the performers, their ability to work independently. In all cases, the leader must carefully consider which method of influence is most appropriate in a given situation. The head of the production unit (section, workshop, etc.) first of all takes into account the object and purpose of the impact. The object can be one employee or a group (team), respectively, the goal can be to determine and ensure the implementation of an individual or group (collective) task. In the first case, depending on the relationship with subordinates, taking into account their qualifications, the degree of discipline and consciousness, the manager chooses ways to communicate with them and control their work - from direct instructions (in documentary or oral form) to recommendations, advice, giving the employee independence in work and self-control. In the second case, the leader draws up a team work plan with the establishment of appropriate powers, responsibilities and rights.
For example, the interaction of the state and the market system is provided by flows of direct and reverse information links. This interaction circuit ensures the functioning of the socio-economic system and therefore can be defined as functional. Second-order feedbacks form a second interaction loop - dynamic, which ensures self-development of the entire system. In doing so, the following needs to be clarified. Management is often understood as a phenomenon opposite to self-organization, which, in turn, is understood as something that happens on its own, without a control action. From the standpoint of a synergistic view of the world, the control mechanism is the most important component of the self-organization process, and vice versa5. Between management and self-organization there is additional mechanism dialectical interaction. We have listed only some of the general principles organizational systems, which give an idea of the need to take them into account in the process of practical and research activities various types organizational systems.
The media have the ability to change the proportions of a real event, making it either more powerful or weaker. As an example, we can cite the statement of Guy Khanov, president of the agency "Publiity PR"1 "[B]o during one of the election campaigns, we almost artificially inflated the hype around one situation with the lack of hot water and heating. This situation was in fact, we did not come up with anything. But we organized a lot of publications about this in all local media, forced the candidate to abandon the election campaign until the problem is resolved. He put on a helmet, rubber boots, stood at the switchboard himself, answered direct calls from the "scene". Thus, the situation was resolved to the maximum short term, and a few days before the election, the candidate's rating increased, according to our calculations, by about twenty points. "Here is an example
The extinction of some and the emergence of other animal species is inevitable and natural. This happens in the course of natural evolution, with a change climatic conditions, landscapes as a result of competitive relationships. This process is slow. Before the appearance of man on Earth, the average life expectancy of a species in birds was about 2 million years, mammals - about 600 thousand years. Man hastened the death of many species.
Since 1600, when the extinction of species began to be documented, 94 species of birds and 63 species of mammals have become extinct on Earth (Fig. 2.). The death of most of them is associated with human activity (Fig. 1).
Rice. one. Reducing the number of whales
Rice. 2. Increase in the number of species of extinct birds every fifty years (from 1600 to 2000)
Man, by his activity, strongly influences the animal world, causing an increase in the number of some species, a decrease in others and the death of others. This impact can be direct or indirect.
Direct impact (persecution, extermination, resettlement, breeding) is experienced by game animals, which are hunted for the sake of fur, meat, fat, etc. As a result, their numbers decrease, some species disappear.
To control agricultural pests, a number of species are relocated from one area to another. At the same time, it is not uncommon for settlers to become pests themselves. For example, the mongoose, brought to the Antilles to control rodents, began to harm ground-nesting birds and spread rabies among animals.
The direct effects of humans on animals include their death from pesticides used in agriculture, and from poisoning. emissions industrial enterprises.
Indirect influence of man on animals appears due to changes habitat when cutting down forests, plowing steppes, draining swamps, building dams, building cities, towns, roads, etc.
Some species in a human-modified environment find favorable conditions for themselves and expand ranges. Thus, house and field sparrows, following the advance of agriculture to the north and east in the Palearctic, reached the tundra and the coast. Pacific Ocean. Following the appearance of fields and meadows, the lark, lapwing, starling, and rook moved far to the north.
Under the influence of economic activity arose anthropogenic landscapes with their characteristic fauna. Only in settlements in the subarctic and temperate zone of the northern hemisphere are found house sparrow, city swallow, jackdaw, house mouse, gray rat, crow, some insects.
Most animal species cannot adapt to the changed conditions, are forced to move to new areas, reduce their numbers and die. So, as the European steppes were plowed up, the number of marmots-babaks was greatly reduced. Together with the marmot, the shelduck duck that nested in its burrows disappeared. Steppe birds - the bustard and the little bustard - have disappeared in many areas of their distribution.