"Sun-Yat-Sen" - monitor of the Russian and Soviet fleet, belonging to the "Shkval" type; one of seven monitors of this type.
History of the ship
The ship was laid down in 1907 at the Baltic Shipyard in St. Petersburg as an armored river gunboat under the name Shkval. The ship was transported in parts to the Far East, where it was assembled and in June 1909, in the village of Kokuy on the Shilka River, it was launched.
The ship entered service on October 3, 1910 and became part of the Amur military flotilla. In 1920, the "Shkval" was taken by the Japanese invaders to Sakhalin, but on May 1, 1925, it was returned to the Soviet Union. In 1927, the ship was restored and on February 15, renamed "Sun-Yat-Sen" in honor of the Chinese revolutionary Sun Yat-sen, and on November 6, 1928, it was reclassified as a monitor.
From the beginning of the 1930s, the future admiral of the fleet Nikolai Sergeev served as an artilleryman on the monitor. In 1935, he was appointed assistant in command of the ship.
In 1937-1938, a major overhaul with modernization was carried out. Since 1937, the monitor was commanded by Captain 3rd Rank Viktor Korner (1912-1984), Hero of the Soviet Union (09/14/1945)
The monitor met the beginning of the Soviet-Japanese war as part of the 1st brigade of river ships in the Srednyaya channel near the mouth of the Sungari. The ship took part in battles on the Songhua River, landed and supported infantry troops with fire in the area of \u200b\u200bthe villages of Tusike, Honghedao, Fujin and Sanxing cities. On August 16, the ship was damaged from the hit of a medium-caliber shell, and on August 30 she was awarded the rank of guards.
| "Sun-Yat-Sen" | |
| "Shkval" (until 15.02.1927), "Suchan" (from 19.07.1947) | |
| Service: | Russia the USSR the USSR |
| Class and type of vessel | Monitor |
| Manufacturer | Baltic plant, St. Petersburg |
| Construction started | 1907 year |
| Launched | june 1909 |
| Commissioned | October 3, 1910 |
| Main characteristics | |
| Displacement | 1000 t |
| Length | 70.98 m |
| Width | 12.8 m |
| Draft | 1.61 m |
| Crew | 152-156 people |
(1866-1925), the leader of the revolutionary movement in China, which overthrew the monarchy in this country in 1911. Born in Guangdong province, near Canton (Guangzhou). According to a number of sources, he is known under the names Sun Wen and Sun Zhongshan ("Central Mountain") - the latter is the Chinese analogue of his Japanese pseudonym "Nakayama". Sun Yat-sen's homeland was one of those places in China from which a large flow of immigrants came. Thanks to his older brother, who moved to Hawaii, Sun was able to study in Honolulu and then in Hong Kong, where he completed a course in Western medicine in 1892. Already from his youth he was oriented towards the West and "modernization" and later received considerable support from huaqiao (Chinese living abroad) and merchants who settled in open ports in China. Conversion to Christianity created additional conveniences for him in establishing close friendships with foreigners. At the same time, a burning hatred of Western imperialism and admiration for the success of Japanese modernization prompted him to look to Japan, where he found shelter, friends, followers and, eventually, support for the implementation of his plans. After completing his studies, Sun spent some time practicing medicine in Macau, where he met members of secret political societies. In 1894 he made a trip to North China and tried unsuccessfully to outline his modernization program to the Manchu governor Li Hongchang. In 1895, after the disastrous Sino-Japanese war for China, Sun Yatsen made the first attempt to organize an uprising in Canton. This uprising, like a dozen subsequent ones, was suppressed. Sun emigrated to Japan, where, having switched to traditional Japanese clothing, he began to live under the name Nakayama. He later moved to London and here he barely managed to save his life after being ambushed and handed over to the Chinese embassy. Firmly believing that the main purpose of his life was the successful implementation of the revolution in China, he nevertheless returned to the East. From that moment until the 1911 revolution itself, he traveled widely, collecting funds and supporters from among the Chinese living abroad. Some of his more ambitious uprisings were prepared with foreign aid, one based in Japanese-controlled Taiwan and the other in French Indochina. After Japan's victory over Russia in 1905, the revolutionary movement entered a new phase. In the same year in Tokyo, where thousands of Chinese students were studying, Sun Yatsen organized the "Revolutionary League" ("Tongmenghui"). The main goal of the League - the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty, so overshadowed all other goals that the members of the movement did not pay attention to the lack of unity in their ranks. In 1911, when Sun Yat-sen was in the United States, a group of revolutionaries in Hankow, fearing the failure of their organization, gave the signal to start an almost unprepared uprising. To the surprise of the revolutionaries, the military units went over to their side, and the officials of the monarchical administration did not dare to carry out the order to suppress the rebellion by force. The Manchu dynasty was deposed, and Sun Yatsen returned to his homeland as a triumphant. He was immediately elected President of the Republic of China. Nevertheless, the commander of the imperial army, Yuan Shikai, still had considerable forces to defeat the Republicans in the event of a military confrontation. That is why Sun Yat-sen gave up his post in favor of Yuan Shikai. Believing that the revolution's gains would be duly protected by the new constitutional mechanism, Sun agreed to deal only with economic planning and formulated ambitious programs for the development of railways and industry. To his disappointment, the leaders of the new republic were far from unity on the issue of political strategy, and Yuan Shikai (who sought to take the imperial throne), resorting to violence and international financial assistance, dashed all hopes of the supporters of liberal parliamentarism. Sun tried to fight the Yuan, proclaiming the beginning of a second revolution in 1913, but failed and left for Japan again. Over the next few years, his chances in politics were quoted as low as ever. During the period of the domination of local militarists, which followed the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, Sun Yat-sen tried to negotiate the creation of a coalition with Chen Junming, who seized power in Guangdong: without an army, Sun could act on the political scene only under the conditions set by the military. Gradually, he began to restore his high status as the tribune of the people, using a new wave of nationalism that arose as a result of dissatisfaction with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles among students, merchants and workers in the coastal cities of China. His denunciations of Western imperialism contributed to the growth of his authority. In 1922, after an unsuccessful attempt to outplay the Cantonese militarists, Sun moved to Shanghai. Here he met with the agent of the Comintern A.A. Ioffe, who was sent to China to look for possible allies in pursuing a pro-Soviet policy. In 1923, having reached an understanding with Ioffe, Sun was able to obtain broad support from Russia in the creation of the United Front, although he did not allow himself to be persuaded to recognize the communist path of China's development. In accordance with the instructions of the Russian adviser M.M. Borodin, the Kuomintang, the political brainchild of Sun Yat-sen, was reorganized according to the principle of "democratic centralism" adopted in the communist parties, which provided for the concentration of all power in the hands of a small group of leaders. Armed detachments were equipped and trained; The Chinese communists, who in accordance with the agreement joined the Kuomintang, began to carry out propaganda and organizational preparations for the military action of Chiang Kai-shek, who was faced with the task of ending the rule of the militarists in the provinces. During this period, Sun gave a series of lectures, which eventually took shape in a revolutionary program that became the development of his "Three People's Principles" ("San Min Zhu Yi"), first proclaimed in 1905. Of Sun's three principles, the first is "People's Rule" ( often translated as "nationalism") - has long been the main thing in his thoughts and appeals. This principle emphasized the importance of restoring China's equality with the Western powers that had turned China into their collective colony, and called for a willingness to live in common thoughts with the nation. The second principle - "people's powers", often interpreted as "democracy" - accumulated Sun's ideas about the organization of power. Sun Yat-sen believed that the people, even after gaining independence, were still unable to dispose of it, for which the national elite, the Kuomintang, should have prepared them. Borrowing Western theories in free form, Sun was ready to give the people four instruments of power - elections, agitation, legislative initiative and a referendum. Formed from trained specialists, the government was supposed to consist of five branches: legislative, executive, legal, civil-administrative and censorship. Finally, developing the third principle - "people's vital property", which is sometimes translated as "socialism", Sun turned to the ideas of G. George and some other theorists and tried to prove that a differentiated land tax could become the basis for solving fiscal and agricultural problems in China. ... In late 1924, Sun Yat-sen went on a trip to North China in the last hope of fruitful negotiations with the military leaders of the provinces, but soon fell seriously ill.
Sun Yatsen died in Beijing on March 12, 1925.
Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .
See what "SUN YATEN" is in other dictionaries:
- 孫逸仙 ... Wikipedia
- (Sun Yatsen) (1866-1925) One of the first leaders of the nationalist revolution in China. Born into a poor peasant family in the southern province of Guangdong. At the age of 13 he went to his older brother in Hawaii, studied in Western schools, from there he went to ... ... Political science. Dictionary.
SUN YATSEN (dialect version from Sun Yixian; Sun Zhongshan, pseudonym Sun Wen) Chinese revolutionary, first president of the Republic of China (1912), ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
Sun Yatsen - Sun Yatsen. Sun Yatsen. Sun Yatsen (: Sun Zhongshan, Sun Wen) () Chinese revolutionary democrat. In 1894 he created the Xingzhonghoi revolutionary organization, and in 1905 the more massive revolutionary organization Tongmenhoi. The leader of the Xinhai Revolution ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary "World History"
- (other names: Sun Zhongshan, Sun Wen) (1866 1925), Chinese politician. He created the Xingzhonghoi organization in 1894, and in 1905 the more massive Tungmenhoi organization. Leader of the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 13, the first (interim) President of the Chinese ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary
Modern encyclopedia
- (other names: Sun Zhongshan Sun Wen) (1866 1925), Chinese politician. He created the Xingzhonghoi organization in 1894, and in 1905 the more massive Tungmenhoi organization. Leader of the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 13, the first (interim) President of the Chinese ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
- (other names: Sun Zhongshan, Sun Wen) (1866 1925) Chinese revolutionary democrat. In 1894 he created the Xingzhonghoi revolutionary organization, and in 1905 the more massive revolutionary organization Tongmenhoi. Leader of the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 1913 ... ... Historical Dictionary
Sun Yatsen - (other names: Sun Zhongshan, Sun Wen) (1866 1925), Chinese politician. He created the revolutionary organization Xingzhonghoi in 1894, and in 1905 the more massive revolutionary organization Tongmenhoi. Leader of the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 13, the first ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary
SUN YAT-SEN
(1866-1925) - Prominent Chinese revolutionary democrat and statesman. JV Stalin characterized him as "the organizer of the national liberation struggle of the workers and peasants of China for the freedom and independence of the Chinese people, for the unity and independence of the Chinese state."
S. was born into a wealthy peasant family near Canton. He received his primary education at a missionary school in the Hawaiian Islands, and his higher (medical) education, first in Cantons and then in Hong Kong. After graduating from the Medical Institute in 1892, S. worked for some time as a doctor on about. Macau, but later became a professional revolutionary.
In 1894, S. founded the Renaissance Union among Chinese emigrants in the Hawaiian Islands, with the goal of overthrowing the Manchu dynasty. In 1895, after the failure of the first revolutionary action by the Union in Canton, S. was forced to emigrate. Abroad, S. continued his revolutionary activities. In 1905, he organized in Tokyo the "Chinese Union of Like-Minded People" (Zhongguo Tongminghui), the program of which was the "three popular principles" worked out by S. and 3) egalitarian redistribution of land ("people's welfare"). S. then did not yet propose to wage a direct struggle against foreign imperialism. He harbored illusions that the Western powers, in particular the United States, would voluntarily abandon their policy of conquest in China. While in exile, S. more than once unsuccessfully appealed to some statesmen in the United States and England with an appeal to help the Chinese people free themselves from the rule of the Manchu dynasty.
The uprising in Wuchang organized by Tongminghui in October 1911 was the beginning of the Chinese revolution. S. immediately left for his homeland. During this time, he visited a number of European capitals to induce the powers to withdraw political and financial support for the Manchu dynasty. In particular, he negotiated with the board of the "Banking Consortium of the Four Powers" to suspend the payment of money to the Manchu court on previously concluded loans and sought from the British government a promise of neutrality in relation to the outbreak of the revolution in China.
Upon arrival in Shanghai S. 1. I 1912 was elected by a conference of representatives of the rebellious provinces to the post of interim president of the republic. Ï3 in his presidential manifesto, S. appealed to the powers with an appeal to recognize the republic and provide it with support. But the imperialists were hostile to the republicans. S.'s appeal remained unanswered. Only the Bolshevik Party at the Prague Conference in January 1912 welcomed the Chinese revolution. The resolution adopted by the conference indicated the need to oppose the policy of the tsarist government, which, like other imperialist powers, was trying to take advantage of the Chinese revolution to further enslave China.
In February 1912 C, under pressure from the liberal bourgeoisie, who did not want the further development of the revolution, was forced to abandon the presidency in favor of Yuan Shih-kai(cm.). S. took this step also because he feared open intervention by the imperialist powers that supported Yuan Shih-kai; 25. VIII S. convened a congress of democratic and liberal groups, which established the Kuomintang party. However, soon, when Yuan Shih-kai launched an offensive against republican institutions, S. led the resistance forces. In 1913, S. became the head of an uprising that unfolded in southern China against Yuan Shih-kai. Although repressions against the republicans forced S. to emigrate, Yuan Shih-kai still had to abandon the plan for the restoration of the monarchy.
Upon his return from emigration, S. headed the forces of the liberal-republican bourgeoisie in the South, and in 1917 became prime minister of the government formed in Canton. S. hoped that he would be able to obtain from the powers the recognition of his government, created to counterbalance the reactionary Peking cabinet of the northern militarists. But S.'s hopes were in vain. The refusal of the Paris Peace Conference to recognize the equality of China and return it the territory of the Shandong Peninsula convinced S. of the need to fight the imperialists.
The Great October Socialist Revolution and the struggle of the masses against the semicolonial regime, which began in China, had a particularly great influence on the formation of Serbia's anti-imperialist views. Already in 1918 S. sent a telegram of greetings to V. I. Lenin. In 1920, in one of his official manifestos, S. openly accused the imperialists of interfering in China's internal affairs. He denied the Beijing government's right to represent China in Washington Conference 1921-22 (see) and announced that the Cantonese government did not recognize her decisions as valid. In a statement sent to all delegations at the Washington Conference, S. demanded the complete abolition of the semi-colonial statute of China.
In 1923, while in Shanghai, S. established contact with the diplomatic representatives of the USSR, who at that time were negotiating with the Peking government. Published 26. I 1923 communique stated the coincidence of the views of the Soviet government and C, seeking to establish friendly relations between the USSR and China. S. correctly assessed the policy of the USSR in relation to Outer Mongolia. He stated that "he does not find the immediate evacuation of Russian troops from Outer Mongolia either urgently necessary or in line with the interests of China, especially in view of the inability of the current Peking government to prevent a resumption due to such evacuation, intrigue and hostile actions on the part of the White Guards against Russia ..."
In order to reorganize the Kuomintang party and the army, S. invited Soviet instructors and advisers to Canton.
From that time on, S. pursued a firm policy of rapprochement with the USSR. In a speech delivered on 31. XII 1923 at a youth meeting in Canton, S. said: "From now on we no longer look at the Western powers, our gaze is directed to the East!"
After May 5, 1923, with the help of Anglo-American diplomacy in Beijing, Cao Kun was elected president, S. demanded that the powers do not recognize Cao Kun and recognize the Cantonese government. However, S. did not receive a response from the diplomatic corps.
In an effort to strengthen its financial base, the government of S. in the fall of 1923 twice, through the British Consul General in Canton, turned to the diplomatic corps in Beijing with a request to restore the practice of transferring to the Cantonese government 13.7% of the surplus customs revenues remaining after payments on foreign loans, which had been established since 1919. Having received no answer, p. 1. XII 1923 announced that the Cantonese government would take control of the customs. Then Great Britain, the USA, Japan, France, Italy and Portugal held a naval demonstration in the waters of Canton on the 6th of the 12th 1923 and occupied the premises of the Cantonese customs offices with their troops. S. protested against the provocative actions of the powers and demanded the withdrawal of foreign warships. 12. XII 1923 the diplomatic corps refused. Nor did S.'s indignant telegram to the "workers'" government of MacDonald and his message to the American people lead to anything. However, S.'s struggle for the independence of his country contributed to the development of the anti-imperialist movement throughout China. His demands for the abolition of unequal treaties became nationwide.
During this period, S. formulated his "three principles" in a new way. "Nationalism" meant the demand for the liberation of China from imperialist oppression. "Democracy" and "people's welfare" became an extensive program of struggle against the semi-feudal system, as well as against the domination of monopoly capital in the country's economy. S. oriented his Kuomintang party to an alliance with the Chinese Communist Party, to support the workers 'and peasants' movement in the country, and to an alliance between China and the USSR.
S. warmly welcomed soviet-Chinese agreement of 1924(cm.). In the summer of 1924 British diplomacy organized a reactionary insurrection in Canton. When the S. government began to liquidate the rebellion, the British Consul General presented S. with an ultimatum threatening to bomb Canton if government forces opened fire on the rebels. Despite this pressure from the imperialists, China, with the active participation of the Chinese Communist Party, liquidated the rebellion and strengthened Canton as the base of the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal movement in China.
S. died on the eve of the Chinese Revolution of 1925-27. Before his death, he wrote a letter to the Central Executive Committee of the USSR and a testament to the Kuomintang.
In a letter to the Soviet Union, S. wrote: “I firmly believe in the invariability of support that you have provided to my country so far. Saying goodbye to you, dear comrades, I want to express the hope that the day will soon come when the USSR will welcome in a mighty, free China is a friend and ally, and that in the great struggle for the liberation of the oppressed peoples of the world, both allies will go hand in hand to victory. "
In his will to the Kuomintang, S. demanded a struggle for the implementation of his "three principles" and a policy of friendship with the USSR.
However, the Kuomintang betrayed the precepts of its leader. The reactionary leadership of the Kuomintang turned the party created by S. into an obedient instrument of the American imperialists, who strove to make China their colony.
Diplomatic Dictionary. - M .: State publishing house of political literature. A. Ya. Vyshinsky, S. A. Lozovsky. 1948 .
See what "SUN YAT-SEN" is in other dictionaries:
- (in the Chinese literary pronunciation of Sun Yi xian; other names: Sun Zhongshan, Sun Wen), Chinese revolutionary democrat. Was born in… …
- ... Wikipedia
- ... Wikipedia
- 孫逸仙 ... Wikipedia
SUN YATSEN - (in the whale lit pronunciation SunYixian, other names SunZhongshan, SunWen). , whale watered. and societies. activist In 1892 he graduated from the Medical Institute in Xianggang (Hong Kong), however ... ... Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia
See Sun Yat sen ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Sun Yatsen is revered among the people of China along with the names of Confucius and Mencius, and at the official level he was even awarded the title of "Father of the Nation."
And it is not surprising, because today's People's Republic of China owes a lot to this man.
Youth and the formation of Yatsen's political views
Sun Yat-sen was born in 1866 in Guangdong province to a peasant family. Unable to support the whole family, the slightly matured Sun Yat-sen is sent by his parents to his older brother in the Hawaiian Islands.
And it is thanks to this forced measure that the boy receives a good education, attending an English missionary school. This is where Sun Yat-sen's exceptional abilities were manifested.
Very quickly he masters an unfamiliar English language and discovers the world of European education, studies history and mathematics, gets acquainted with Christianity and European liberal social and political ideas.
In the future, Sun Yatsen continued his education in Hong Kong, graduating in 1886 from the Central State School, and later from the College of Medicine. But the profession of a doctor did not really fascinate the future revolutionary. Most of all, he was interested in the ideas of the revival and transformation of China.
He is outraged by the social injustice and indifference of the ruling Manchu dynasty towards the common people, the backwardness and weakness of his once mighty homeland. A small circle of like-minded people is formed around Sun Yat-sen, called the "Four Bandits".
He even tries to convey his thoughts to the ruling elite by submitting a memorandum that exposes the most acute contradictions in Chinese society and outlines ways to resolve them. Sun Yat-sen believes that liberal reforms and democracy are exactly what will improve life in China and help restore its strength.
But the young patriot is faced with a bureaucracy that does not want to change something. The beginning of revolutionary activity. The last straw that forced Sun Yat-sen to reorient himself from liberal views to a more decisive revolutionary path was the defeat of China in the war with Japan in 1894.
In the same period, he created the first revolutionary Chinese organization, the Union for the Revival of China. Its goal was decisive action to overthrow the Manchu dynasty. The spontaneously flashing anti-government protests accelerated his intention, and in 1895. he leads the uprising in Guangzhou. But without receiving wide support among the population of the country, the uprising was quickly suppressed.
From now on, Sun Yatsen is forced to leave his native country. But he does not despair and begins to actively support the revolution in China, Europe and America. Trying to be as close to his homeland as possible, he settled in Japan, where in 1905 he created a more massive revolutionary organization "United Union", later transformed into the Kuomintang party.
It was during the period of work in this organization that Sun Yat-sen's three popular principles were formed, which he subsequently strove to implement. Three popular principles:
- Nationalism is the restoration of a sovereign Han dynasty to the Chinese throne, which will not be under foreign influence. Democracy - the establishment of a republican form of government, the division of power into five branches (legislative, judicial, executive, control and selective).
- The welfare of the people is the creation of equal opportunities for all. The first step towards the implementation of this principle was to be the redistribution of land among the peasants.
Revolution and the first steps towards the creation of a new China
From 1895 to 1911, Sun Yat-sen was very active in revolutionary work, organizing anti-government uprisings throughout China. 1911 was a decisive year, another uprising ended with the proclamation of the republic on October 10. Returning from exile in triumph, Sun Yat-sen was elected the first interim president of the Republic.
Sun Yat-sen began his reign with democratic reforms:
corporal punishment is prohibited;
canceled contracts for the purchase and sale of people;
freedom of the press proclaimed.
The young republican government did not yet have sufficient support, and Sun Yat-sen was removed from power by representatives of reactionary circles, and General Yuan Shikai was appointed the new president. But Sun Yatsen did not stop his political activities, but continued to actively promote parliamentary and economic reforms.
In 1913, under his leadership, the "Second Revolution" began, aimed at overthrowing the military dictatorship of Yuan Shikai. But the performances were quickly suppressed. Sun Yat-sen until the end of his life worked on the development of a new country, actively attracted specialists from the friendly Soviet Union. In 1925 he died of liver cancer.
Sun Yat-sen went down in the history of China as a man who brought this country out of medieval stagnation into a new modern world. Largely thanks to his activities, the national idea, self-consciousness and power of China were revived. In 1940. he was given the title of "Father of the Nation". And today, streets and avenues are named in honor of Sun Yat-sen, a mausoleum, museums and memorial complexes dedicated to his activities are still functioning.
Sun Yat-sen and the Xinhai Revolution
The southern regions of China, where the colonialists first took root and the most favorable conditions for modernization and Europeanization were created, including missionary schools and colleges, gradually became the center for the formation of radical youth, future Chinese revolutionaries. One of the most famous among them was Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925), who studied as a young man in Honolulu, where his expatriate brother lived, and then received his education in mission schools and medical colleges in Guangzhou and Hong Kong. Well educated, widely erudite, having seen the world, Sun Yat-sen, like in his time Kang Yu-wei, tried to combine in his person and his teaching the traditions of classical China and the necessary innovations borrowed from the West. Created by him in Hawaii and then recreated in Guangzhou "Union of China Revival" at the end of the 19th century. united hundreds of members in its ranks; he set as his goal the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, the establishment of a democratic government in the country and the implementation of radical reforms in China. Attempts to get closer to the reformers met with misunderstanding on the part of Kang Yu-wei, and only after the defeat and flight of the reformers, already in Japan, in emigration (Sun Yat-sen was forced to emigrate after a failed attempt at an uprising in 1895), these attempts gave some results ( Sun Yat-sen's agreement with Liang Tsi-chao), but not for long. Soon the paths of the reformers and the revolutionaries led by Sun Yat-sen finally parted ways.
Another attempt to raise an uprising - in the midst of the Ichetuaia movement, in 1900 - was again defeated. But after the defeat of the Isetuan uprising and the second attempt at reform, the situation in the country, as mentioned, began to change. In and around China, in the emigration centers of Chinese students and others, unions and organizations began to emerge one after another, aiming at radical changes in the country. The organizations published newspapers and magazines, which outlined their programs of action, printed slogans and appeals, sometimes also serious analytical articles. In 1902-1903. Sun revitalized his union and created a number of new branches. It was at this time that the final formation of the foundations of his doctrine - the famous "three principles": nationalism (overthrow of the Manchu dynasty), democracy (republican-democratic system) and people's welfare belongs. Subsequently, Sun Yat-sen visited a number of countries and did a great job of rallying like-minded people, primarily among active emigrants. V. 1905t. he convened in Japan a constituent congress of members of various organizations, which created the "United Union" (Tongmenghui). Becoming the head of the union and starting to publish the Minbao magazine, Sun Yat-sen began to promote his ideas (three principles) and program documents of the organization, including projects for the constitutional structure of the future of China (largely on the European model) and the elimination of social inequality.
Calls for constitutional reforms did not pass the ears of the Pinsk government, which considered it good to get ahead of events and, in turn, raise the issue of a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. Promises on this score, at first vague, were then, under pressure from the reformers and under the influence of a powerful - in the spirit of the classic Confucian norm - petition campaign of 1907-1908, expressed in the form of a draft proposing the constitution in 1916. Few people were satisfied with this project, and the death of the all-powerful Cixi in 1908 sharply accelerated the course of events. The dispute was now openly about whether to lead things to revolution or not: the reformers believed that a revolutionary explosion would provoke the powers and lead to the partition of China; the revolutionaries, on the other hand, believed that the revolution would save China from destruction and unite its people.
Tongmenghui took a course to prepare for an armed uprising, counting at the same time on the support of numerous secret societies in China, which have long supplied numerous detachments of insurgents in times of crisis. The calculation was quite correct: the crisis phenomena in the country were making themselves felt more and more, and the peasants here and there took up arms. In response, the Qing authorities attempted to pursue a tougher policy. In particular, General Yuan Shikai, who had made a career after the betrayal of 1898, but who continued to be considered quite liberal, and enjoyed the support of the powers, was dismissed and dismissed. The tough policy sparked even more discontent and led to a new wave of mass protests. Unrest also began among the troops, where the Tongmehui agitators were active.
In a word, a revolutionary explosion was brewing in the country. In January 1911, the headquarters of the uprising was established in Hong Kong, headed by Sun Yat-sen's assistant, Huang Xing. And although the attempt to raise an uprising in April 1911 in Guangzhou failed, and Huang Xing barely escaped, the revolution was already inevitable. Attempts to prevent it by providing the agitated public with new concessions, in particular in the form of provincial Advisory Committees with limited powers (1908-1909), in the form of the formation of a new - on the European model - cabinet of ministers (May 1911), could no longer help. The October 10, 1911 uprising in Wuchang led to the overthrow of the imperial power. The Manchu dynasty collapsed like a house of cards. Power in the country ended up with local leaders. In the north of the country, it gradually began to consolidate in the hands of Yuan Shi-kai, who became prime minister in November and announced the convening of an all-Chinese parliament. On February 12, 1912, the day of Xin Hai according to the Chinese calendar, the monarchy was officially abolished. In the south of the country, Sun Yat-sen, who returned to China, was elected interim president of the Republic of China with the capital in Nanjing, but after the overthrow of the monarchy and in the name of the country's unity, he agreed to give up the presidency in favor of Yuan Shih-kai. A member of Tongmenghui Tang Shao-i was appointed prime minister under Yuan Shih-kai by the terms of an agreement with the revolutionary south.
In April 1912, a provisional parliament was formed in Beijing from members of the Nanjing Assembly and deputies from the provinces. But this parliament did not manage to achieve the creation of a government responsible to it. Moreover, the Beiyang (representatives of the northern army group) generals forced the MPs to vote for the ministers elected by Yuan Shih-kai. It became obvious that Yuan Shih-kai preferred to rule without parliamentary approval and was leading the case towards the creation of a strong central government, even a dictatorship. Sun Yat-sen, at first resigned to this, began in the fall to create a new Kuomintang political party on the basis of Tongmenhui, which was necessary in connection with the elections to the permanent parliament scheduled for late 1912 - early 1913. But Yuan Shih-kai, ignoring the parliament convened in April 1913, began to prepare for the fight against the Kuomintang, for an armed campaign against the revolutionary republican south of the country. The Kuomintang, who constituted the majority in parliament, hindered him, and in November 1913 he dissolved the parliament, and at the beginning of 1914 also the provincial and local democratic institutions. In March of the same year, he openly opposed the Sunyatsen interim constitution adopted in Nanjing in 1912, and on May 1, 1914, he published a draft of a new constitution, according to which the president was granted almost unlimited rights, and many posts, titles and titles were restored only that the overthrown monarchy. In December 1914, dressed in imperial regalia, the president performed a solemn ceremony in the Temple of Heaven, which was supposed to symbolize loyalty to the imperial order.
In January 1915, Japan seized the territories in Shandong that had been captured by Germany in 1898 and, having strengthened itself on Chinese soil, presented China with 21 demands, the essence of which was to turn China into a state dependent on it. After bargaining, Yuan Shih-kai was forced to accept a significant part of these demands, which significantly strengthened Japan's position in China. In an effort to play on this, Yuan Shih-kai complained about the weakness of power in the new China, and he saw its strengthening in the rejection of the republican system, in the return to the monarchy. Having married his daughter to the last Chinese emperor Pu Yi, he was already preparing to proclaim himself the new emperor of China. But the campaign to restore the monarchy was met with strong opposition in the country. Regionalism reaffirmed itself: the generals who were masters in a particular province did not want to submit to the center. Yuan Shih-kai was forced to abandon his plans to restore the monarchy and died shortly thereafter in the summer of 1916.
The death of Yuan Shih-kai removed for a while the problem of restoring the monarchy in China (in 1917, Yuan's successor Duan Qi-rui tried to return to it, who planned to put Pu Yi on the throne, but his plan failed), and the main consequence of this was the weakening of power in Beijing and its gradual transfer, as mentioned, to the local militarist generals. As it happened more than once during the crisis periods in the history of China in the past, the military came to the fore in the country's political life again and for a long time. Parliament was dispersed and assembled again now in Beijing, now in Nanjing, but its role was already secondary: it could only authorize events that took place against its will, whether it was the appointment of a president, change or restoration of the constitution. The leader of the Chinese revolution, Sun Yat-sen, was in a similar position: either he was elected president, then he again lost this post, and almost everything depended on the will of the militarists who had real power in a particular region in the south of the country. In the north, for a number of years, the president was Duan Qi-rui, who relied on the Anfu military clique, with which the Zhili clique led by Wu Pei-fu rivaled. It was Duan Qi-rui who insisted that in 1917 China officially declared war on Germany.
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