The XVI century - century of lifting the socio-political thought, reflected in publicistic essays. But we most often know them - if we know - only in late copies. Until now, not a single autograph of Ivan Grozny was found at all, and the contemporaries wrote that he was "in science of book teaching and a multi-self-member"!
Russia XVI century! How often do we involuntarily try to replace these words by others: "Russia Ivan Grozny". The figure of the Grozny Tsar, half a century who occupied the throne, as if he had deployed the Russian Society of the XVI century. Even the books about Russia of the XVI century were often called "Ivan Grozny", although not the biographies of the first Russian king were devoted, but the history of Russia as a whole.
Saturated with dramatic events life of Ivana was interested in many historians. Karamzin wrote in 1814 on his work on the "Russian State History": "Obading Vasilla Ivanovich and mentally looking at the Terrible. What a nice character for historical painting! Sorry if I give up a story without this curious reign! Then she will be like a peacock without a tail. " Ivan himself is a mysterious figure. The sovereign, so much made to strengthen the centralized state, for the release of Russia in the international arena, the patron of typography, and the writer himself, he destroyed his own hand, pursued those talent and whose mind was obliged to be state transformations and victories over the enemy.
The historian of the XVIII century Scherbatov wrote not without confusion: "Ivan IV only in different kinds seems to be often not a single person." And in the works of art dedicated to the Grozny, a frank desire to show something out of the series outgoing: the king is the culprit of the death of his daughter (in the opera Roman Corsakov "Pskovtyanka" on the drama of the Maya), the king at the corpse of the son killed by him (in the picture of Renin), The king, reading a waste prayer in the coffin of his wife and immediately revealing state treason (in Drama A. N. Tolstoy). Both in scientific works, and in works of art, as it were, the controversy of Ivan the Terrible and Boyar Kurbsky, which fled from the royal anger to Poland and sending the king of accusatory messages, and then writing a pamphlet "The History of Great Prince of Moscow". Ivan IV responded to frantic "bustardous words" - a message in which the main provisions of the ideology of "self-adjustment" were formulated. The dispute is natural, and stubbornness, even the fierce of it is understandable - but didn't these more important riddles pushed out of us, more significant problems of the history of the Russian XVI century?! Soviet scientists in recent decades have done a lot to identify these problems.
After all, the XVI century is the time of the unusual expansion of the state. In the XVI century, the word "Russia", "Russian", which appeared at the end of the previous century, conquers a place in official documents, is used in the royal title. Gradually, "Russian", as academician M. N. Tikhomirov clarified, becomes the definition of nationality, "Russian" means belonging to the state. Was this state already at the turn of the XV-XVI centrals centralized or centralization - a long process, by no means ended with the association of Russian lands at the end of the 15th century? We know that "class struggle, the struggle of the exploited part of the people against the exploitation underlines political transformations and ultimately solves the fate of such transformations." We are well known for these provisions formulated in Leninsky works. But they are known to us - people of the XX century, enriched with the creative experience of Marxism. In the XVI century, the story was reduced to the history of the sovereigns and the state, in the official annals, the facts of the massive struggle were blurred, they were silent, the independent role of the actions of the masses were simply not recognized. How to identify, summarize data on popular discontent? How many people were popular uprisings? What are their scope and features? What are their consequences?
The XVI century is like a minor. This is the Middle Ages, but also the run-up of a new period. The reforms of the elected Rada (a circle of the approximate king Ivan, in fact the former one-time government) identified for many decades ahead of the domestic policy, and the victories of the middle of the century over the Tatar khanshes and the successful beginning of the war for the Baltic States - the external policy of the Great Power.
For the 16th century, raising crafts, the allocation of particularly thin and complex handicraft professions, the development of local markets, the growth of cities, the involvement in the market ties of the village is undoubtedly. But is it possible to consider it a sign of already capitalist relations?
In the XVI century in Russia, there are quite a few heretics that are cruelly pursued. In the XVI century, individual advanced thinkers find acquaintance with foreign humanistic thought, express judgments other than official dogmas. But is it possible to talk about the development of humanism as a certain ideological direction of public thought in Russia of that pore? Is the socio-economic conditions matured for its intensive development? After all, humanism is accompanied by the growth of bourgeois relations, and is there any serious foundations to see them in Russia of the XVI century?
The XVI century - century of lifting the socio-political thought, reflected in publicistic essays. But we most often know them - if we know - only in late copies. Until now, not a single autograph of Ivan Grozny was found at all, and the contemporaries wrote that he was "in science of book teaching and a multi-self-member"! In the XVII century, they were not shy to rende the text when rewriting, to make their interpretation, eliminate incomprehensible and unpleasant - for no wonder in academic publications, these works are published with abundant, sometimes mutually exclusive by each other in meaning of divergences! About the writings of the noble ideologist Pereshardov still argue: what is it - the heartfelt draft of the bold political thinker, who managed in 1549 to anticipate the most important reforms and foreign policy measures for the reign of the Terrible, or the later attempt to justify and explain the deed, bonded by the name of a little-known adulub?
Historian Klyuchevsky claimed: "The celebration of historical criticism is from what the people of the famous time say, to overhear what they were silent." But what to do if they often just do not speak? The people are silent for the historian in the literal sense of the word - the literacy owned still not enough, and it was not enough to write about everyday, ordinary, but to express in writing discontent with the existing building rarely decided.
We learn about the feudal farm mainly from the monastery documentation - not a single archive of the secular feudal. On the life of the peasants, they judge predominantly on the documents on the so-called protein vehicles (that is, unqualted) peasants, and even from the northern regions of the country, and after all, the majority of the peasants lived and the central regions, and most of it was to some degreely fixed! As a result, we are weakly present the life of the workers of the citizens (Posal population) and peasants, we know little about what the born was expressed in practice (how many days a week, the peasant worked on the land of feudal, who belonged to the cattle and tools, which the land of feudal was treated The peasant scarf was equal, how many money was paid the peasant feudal). Widely quoted words of the then publicists: "Ratayev (peasants) of the same torment of Srebbr" - the right, but not a specific evidence of the severity of oppression.
And whether so few documents came to us on us! It is worth remembering at least how many times Moscow and in the XVI and in the XVII centuries ... so you have to talk about the riddles, the riddles of "personal" related to the fate of prominent people of the time, and about the riddles of public life.
Secrets of the last sovereign from the genus Ivan Kalita
Much unclear, mysterious even in the biography of the last Rurikovichi in the Moscow throne.
We very clearly imagine the image of Vasily III, as if moved from a large historical arena, shaded by loud acts of his father and son - Ivan III and Ivan IV. But the observation foreigner, an educated humanist, the Ambassador of the German Emperor Herberstein argued that Vasily reached the power greater than any of the modern sovereigns to him. During the years of his rule (1505-1533), the Russian Great Principality, Pskov Earth, was finally included in the Russian state. These are years of large stone construction (it was then that the main ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin was completed), years of recovery of translation activities (the famous thinker and scientist, an expert of ancient languages \u200b\u200bof Maxim Greek were invited to Moscow) and political journalism. Alas, the time of the reign of Vasily III is not dedicated to a single serious monograph, and perhaps we just consider this time as a twilight gap between two bright reigns?! What was he, Vasily III? Who he more reminded - his wise, prudent and rigid father, whom Marx metkaly described as "Great Machiavelist"? Or or temperamental, fondant, frantic and unrestrained son - the first Russian king Ivan the Terrible?
However, was Ivan the Terrible legal heir and son of Vasily? Ivan's birth was accompanied by a strange rumor, ambiguous hints, gloomy predictions ... Vasily III, "Zada Beschadia", in the name of the continuation of the kind, twenty years after the wedding, he decided to divorce - in violation of church rules - with his wife Solomon. The Great Princess has long and vigorously resisted her husband, accusing him in his infertility. But she was touched by the nuns to the nun and sent to the Pokrovsky monastery in Suzdal. And the Grand Duke soon, in January 1526, married the daughter of the Lithuanian native, the young Princess Elena Glinskaya and even retreating from ancient customs, ripped his beard sake of a young wife. However, the first child from this marriage, the future king Ivan was born only on 25 August 1530. The second son, Yuri, until the end of the days of his remaining half downegenerate, was born in two years. Four years continued frequent "driving" of the grand mining couple in the monasteries - it can be assumed that Vasily III prayed for Chadorodia. And in Moscow, in the meantime, rumors crawled in Moscow, as if Solomonia, tonsured under the name of Sofia, became a mother. Urgently dressed up the investigation; The mother announced the death of a baby, which was buried in the monastery. But the boy allegedly saved the "faithful people" and, already according to other legends, he became the famous robber Kudyar (the treasures of which were recently wanted near Zhiguli). The boring of the boy's birth, which seemed, as historic N. N. Voronin writes, is an unexpected archaeological confirmation. In 1934, in the Pokrovsky monastery, the tomb of Solomonia was discovered by the tombstone of the XVI century, under which a semi-satiest rag washed in a small wooden deck - a skillful doll, dressed in a silk shirt, and a swivel-shied with pearls (these things now can be seen in the Suzdal Museum). No wonder, it can be seen, Tsar Ivan requested after 40 years the materials of the investigative effect on non-viasonia from the royal archive.
The answer to the late marriage of Vasily III was the predictions that the Son from illegal marriage would become a state truck. They wrote about it and later, during the years of Okrichnin: "And born in the law-exposure and in the culture of Lutosti." And when after the death of Vasily III, Elena became a reserve at a three-year-old son, rumors crawled out about the fact that Ivan IV's mother was in an intimate connection with the boyarian, Prince Ivan Fedorovich Ovchina-Tvetnev-Obolensky, who was now actually by its co-advocate. This Boyarin worry immediately after the death of Elena in 1538 (also - on some lime - dead not with his death, but from poison). And randomly that young Ivan in January 1547 brutally dealt with the son of this boyar - ordered him to put him on a stake, and cousin brother cut off his head on the ice of the Moscow River?! Did the sovereign from people who knew about the dangerous details of the court life too much?
Brahubiy, oath, cruel execution accompanied the activities of hardly most of the medieval sovereigns (remember want England of the XIV-XVI centuries, if not even a textbook, then according to the famous Shakespeare Drama-Chronicles of the times of Richards and Henry!). Makiavelli, who raised above all "state interest", clearly formulated the provision at the beginning of the XVI century that "the sovereign needs to use the receptions and the beast and man." But the scale of the bloody affairs of the first Russian king was struck by imagination and contemporaries and descendants. The executions of Grozny, "Lutness", who entered the legend that this is the usual phenomenon of Kanun of absolutism, a kind of historical pattern? Or is the consequence of the painful suspicion of reached the uncontrolled power of the Tsar Sadist? Whether we dare, appreciating the activities of the Terrible, to abandon the firmly learned by our moral ideas, to bring the thought, so clearly pronounced Pushkin: genius and evils are incomprehensible?
Historian R. Yu. Vipper wrote: "If Ivan IV died in 1566 at the time of his greatest success on the Western Front, his preparations for the final conquest of Livonia, the historical memory would give him the name of the great conqueror, the creator of the world's largest power, similar to Alexander Macedonian. The wines of the loss of the Baltic region conquered by him would have fallen on his successors: after all, Alexander only premature death got rid of a direct meeting with the disintegration of the empire created by him. In the case of such an early end in the 36th year of life, Ivan IV would remain in the historical tradition surrounded by the glory of a wonderful reformer, the organizer of the military-serving class, the founder of the administrative centralization of the Moscow power. His vices, his executions would be forgiven to him just like the offspring forgiven Alexander Macedonian his depravity and his atrocities. "
The life of the Terrible-king was the tragedy, he was tormented by others, and tormented himself, tormented from fear, loneliness, from remorse of conscience, from consciousness of impossibility to make a conceived and irreparability of errors committed ...
The tragic was the fate and sons of the king. The eldest son, Dmitry, drowned in infancy, fell out of the hands of a nannika while crossing the river. Ivan born after him (character, apparently, similar to his father) was killed Grozny in 1581, this resembles the famous film of Repin. Killed by chance, the king was forgotten in anger, or deliberately? Contemporaries explained this murder in different ways. Some believed that Tsarevich wished to stand at the head of the army, defeated Pskov from the troops of the Polish king Stephen Batory, and reinforced the king in cowardice. The king thought about the world and was afraid to trust the army dangerous heir. According to others, Grozny demanded that Tsarevich divorced the third wife with a faithful mother-in-law.
The Third Son, Fedor, unexpectedly reaching the throne, tried to remove from public affairs. Tsar Fedor "On the worldly careless care is not having, Tokmo about mental salvation." But in the years when he was king (1584-1598), decrees on the reassignment of peasants are published, they are united in Cossack colonies on the southern outskirts of the country, trying to oppose themselves to a centralized state, the naive dream of the Menzitsky kingdom led by the "good" king " , Cities-fortresses in the Volga region and near the southern and Western borders are erected, the economic development of Trans-Ural lands begins. And we, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, are still more submitted by A. K. Tolstoy Drama than in modern historical sources. Unabled to Tsar Fedor to government activities, weak reason? Or, on the contrary, was the smart enough to be afraid of power? What to explain that this god-fearing king did not have time to take before death, according to custom, schima and buried in royal closure, unlike his father, laid in the coffin in the monastic robe (so dying Ivan Grozny hoped to redeem his sins)? Did Fedor died by death?
Finally, the younger son is also Dmitry (from the last, seventh wife Ivan Mary Nagya) died in Uglich in 1591. Died at nineteenth age in strange circumstances. Whether he was lying around himself at the knife during the game or the attack of Paduchi, was it killed? If killed, who and why? To bring Lee Godunov to achieve the throne? Or, on the contrary, those who wanted to interfere with Godunov in his intentions, spreading the version about the killer rule and clearing the path to power? And if Dmitry was killed or he was killed, like the son of Solomonia, and then turned out to be a toy of foreign and domestic political adventurers? All this takes not only artistic literature masters, but also historians!
Was there an evil locality?
Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin asked this question.
Salted! The word firmly entered into our conversational language. Who does not know what to sell - it means to oppose the narrow-human interests with common, private - state? But in the XVI-XVII centuries, the locality regulated the official relations between members of the serve names at the courtyard, on the military and administrative service, was a feature of the political organization of Russian society.
The very name of this happened from the custom to be considered "places" in the service and at the table, and the "place" depended on the "Fatherland", "Otcheech", who was well-known from two elements - pedigree (that is, the origin) and the service career of the most serve man and his ancestors and relatives. Seruble man was supposed to "know a measure to himself" and make sure that he was not "counting" to "honor", calculating, lowering whom he is "instead," who he is "in the mile", that is, "Roven", and to whom In the fatherland, "there was lack of places. This calculation was made according to the previous recorded "cases", and each local "find" increased all the birth of a person's servant, and each "loss" lowered them all at the local staircase. Unhappy with the appointment "beat the person sovereign on the ground," "was looking for a fatherland," they asked them to give them "Defense". That this was written by Pushkin in the passage from the satirical poem "Pedigree My Hero":
"Gordney was famous for Boyarskaya;
For the dispute with that, then with another.
With great dishonor remove
Because of the tsar's meal,
But again went under the royal anger
And died, Sitsky Redean. "
The historians could not pass by the locality of the historians, "this phenomenon is too rushing when meeting the history of Russia XVI-XVII centuries! - But they judged on locality, as a rule, only on the basis of a few surviving facts of local documentation or even arbitrarily selected examples. The idea of \u200b\u200blocality, enshrined by the authority of Kleevsky, as about the "fatal hereditary arrangement" of serving people, when "the official position of each was predetermined, did not win, did not deserve, but was inherited." And on the locality of the XVI century, when hereditary aristocracy was standing in power, transferred the representations of the end of the XVII century, when many noble childbirth already "without a residue were passed." Planterity was assessed as a purely negative phenomenon, always interfering to the centralization of the state. But then why didn't Ivan III fought with him seriously, nor Ivan IV?
Yes, because for them, it was not so much the enemy as a gun. The locality helped to weaken, divide the aristocracy: what the "prosperous of the people of people" and the executions of the Officials did not manage to weaken the disintegration of the boyars and the executions of the Officials. For locality, it was not characteristic of a birth, but a tribal seniority - a noble origin was to be combined with the merits of ancestors: the names, even the most significant, representatives of whom did not receive official appointments for a long time or "lived in opals", turned out to be "in checker." Treason, "rebellion", official "loss" of one member of the genus "miles in the fatherland" and forced themselves pronounced to hold back each other. The service admitted more valuable rock. Acted according to the proverb "Whose genus is loved, that kind and snacks." And "Family" is a sovereign!
Not contrary to localism, and thanks to him, people like Alexey Adashev and Boris Godunov rose. Recall that the "places" - even the most deserved and born - humbled themselves to the king of hills: "In his Holophech, the sovereign is free to whom that he will complain," "God is in that Vain God; Whom is great and Mala teaches. "
Does the historians do not happen in the minds of the antiquity of antiquity and novelty? Do not they bring the concepts of honor and dignity that came to us with the "century of enlightenment" in the representation of Official contemporaries?
The locality was not only the defense of the aristocracy from the central government, as V. O. Klyuchevsky believed, but in the XVI century, even greater the defense of the autocratic central power from the strong then aristocracy. It contributed to the statement of absolutism and it became no longer necessary to absolutly approved.
In the XVII century, locality is outdated not only from the point of view of the central government. There were even ordinary seruners, even the devil, and for aristocracy, it became humiliating and painful for the aristocracy. It is not by chance that one of the initiators of the cancellation of the local industry spoke a more profitable Boyan Prince Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn, so well remembered to us all by the novel by A. Tolstoy "Peter First".
Russian history is essentially waiting for a researcher.
Against Ivashek and Mathek
In childhood, we learn that in December 1564, Ivan Grozny suddenly left Moscow, heading "unknown to" together with his family and a big retinue. And in a month, two royal diplomas came from Alexander Sloboda (in a hundred verso to the north of Moscow). One - Metropolitan, the other - merchants and "all Orthodox Christianity of the city of Moscow". In the first of them, "the betrayal of Boyarsky and Verovodskiy and all sorts of orders."
The delegation went to the king in response, and then many people to pray the king to return to power.
Ivan descended to requests with the condition that henceforth edited "IKO SHIP himself." (And here you will surely remember one of the most famous scenes of the famous picture of S. M. Eisenstein "Ivan Grozny": in the snow stretches to the royal residence in the dark chain of Muscovites, and in the windownice above them - the predatory profile of the king.)
All this information is taken from quite official sources of that time. But ... did it all happen?
Let's start with the fact that the crowd's excited and frightened departure was simply couldn't penetrate the Alexander Slobod: Ivan locked there, as in a military camp, and the guard immediately did not immediately admitted to him even two senior sacred clerks.
And the king was addressed with his message either not to the whole "Orthodox Christianity". Just on the eve of the administration of Okrichnina, the Zemsky Cathedral was created - he was, apparently, the addressee of the message.
Sudden departure? But the king before that two weeks came around Moscow monasteries and churches, selecting values. In advance, the lists of people whom the king took with them.
Well, why did this accommodation himself need this departure? For a very long time, he was explained by the danger from the boyar. only if? 1564 - a year of crawling and fires, the year of the hardest military failures, a year of conspiracy against the king of the Crimean Khan with the Polish king. The royal commander Prince Kurbsky runs abroad. The boyars protested (though, timid) against the events began, and did not expect this Terrible to temporarily accept. This year Ivan thinks a lot about death and stands for his grave a special feature in the Arkhangelsk Cathedral. The painting of the facing, as established by the historian E. S. Sizov, allegorically conveys the biography of Grozny with pressure on his "resentment" from the boyars. And immediately suggest parallels between this painting and an angry response message of Ivan Prince Kurbsky.
In a word, the thought of the oprichnina matured a long time long, although it becomes more and clearer that not only the Terrible defined the course of events - he himself was scared by their social equal. Was the oprichnina needed? Has she served progress? To decide this, you need to find out against whom she was sent.
What a question! Of course, against rebellious boyars - feudal aristocracy - it seems to be clear ...
But then why during the years of Okrichniki, the worst enemies of this aristocracy are dying - the Deutic Top, who actually managed by all orders? But these "honey pisari" could not protect the boyars.
Known badly, but the top just survived; The most notable Rurikovichi is preserved - the princes of the Shui and the most noble Gediminovichi (the descendants of the Lithuanian Grand Prince) - the princes of Mstislavsky and Volskie.
Officon was opposed to the boyars of serving nobility? But in the scrambles there was a lot of very noble people, and under the opal fell a huge number of nobles.
Heavyly suffered from Okrichnina Monasteries. But it was unlikely that it was, so to speak, it is planned: in the first years, the monasteries received direct benefits from Okrichnina.
Ivan's associates and himself hesitated a lot of effort to embarcate in the annals and show that it would like to be widely supported. And many riddles associated with it are obliged to their existence of direct falsification. Others - the result of the incompleteness of documents. Third - perhaps can be explained by the inaution of the people of the 20th century to penetrate the spirit of the XVI century. But besides these mysteries, we have facts.
"... Ivashka is typical tortured, and his cattle was crushed, and the belly (property) of the battle, and the children were fled ... into the same village onion (unit of taxation) is empty Match Pakhomov, the matches are killed, and the cattle was crushed, the abdomen of the border , And the children escaped him unfortunately ... in the same village ... "and so on. This is from an official-inconspicable list of objects to be taxed, - inventory lands soon after the defeat of their scrambles. On the Kola Peninsula after the Ochrichnik, the Basargi "launched yards and seats yard empty and varnita and all sorts of land."
In the sixties of the XVI century, the road from Yaroslavl to Vologda was among the rich villages; In twenty years, roadside villages were empty.
See the Moscow Center and the North-West of Russia. And Ivashki da Matthews could not be involved in conspiracies.
He said his word about the scrambles and the people: in the twentieth century, the states called the royal punishers.
If Official and promoted the centralization of the country, then what price!
And, apparently, at least one of the associated dumping mysteries can be answered clearly: it brought Russia primarily harm.
Sigurd Schmidt
Source "ZS" No. 10/1969
War begins ...
Heinrich was looking for a reason to start the war against France. The main obstacle with whom he encountered was to temporarily combine the majority of other European countries in the Cebreic League. While the league does not disintegrated, any attack on France will mean immediate kara from the side of almost all of Europe. The desire of Heinrich to the war more than answered the interests of Venice, who wants to blow up the league before she decides itself. Despite the fact that Heinrich in 1510 confirmed peaceful treaties of his father with France and Scotland, the situation gradually changed in favor of Venice. Heinrich, as we said, strengthened his relationship with Spain, marrying on June 11, 1509 on the widow of his brother Ekaterina Aragon. He also put pressure on his sister Mary, so that she married the Great Duke of Burgundy Karl to create dynastic ties with the Netherlands and the Empire.
In February 1510, Venetsians, with the assistance of the English ambassador with the Papal Throne of Cardinal Bainbridge, concluded peace with dad. Julius II found that the invitation of the French in Italy became a brutal mistake. Within 1510 and 1511, dad, with the assistance of Swiss and Venetians, was unsuccessful tried to expel French troops from Italy. But they were alone not strong enough to do it and constantly attempts to expand the Union. A letter from the Senate of Venice to his ambassador in Rome illustrates diplomatic maneuvers:
"I suppose very desirable that the dad through the Archbishop of Yorksky prompted the decisiveness of the King of England, familiarizing him with the insitiousness of the French and their devilish acts."
On November 13, 1511, England joined the next (but far from the last) sacred league, originally compiled from Spain, Venice and Papal region under the auspices of Pope Julia II. Heinrich also signed an agreement with his test of Ferdinand Aragon, promising to attack France until the end of April 1512.
For the French, the preservation of the world with England would be beneficial, which would give them the opportunity to concentrate on Italy, but, realizing the inevitability of the war, France took steps for self-defense. As always, in such cases, everything starts with intelligence. The French king tried to find out where the British are planning to start a war: in Normandy or in Hyeniya. From this depended, where to send the best forces and artillery in advance.
In the meantime, the British were planned to attack France in two directions: the fleet had to sow the enemy forces on the northern coast of France, and the expeditionary forces are to land in Northern Spain, so that in conjunction with the Ferdinand army to capture land. In 1512, the step was important for our story: the king appointed Edward Howard to the post "Admiral of the Sea" for the period "Expedition, which will be undertaken against the French king in Hyenii." Sir Edward Howard ordered to keep the admiral flag on board Mary.Rose, whose captain was Thomas Wyndham. Interestingly, in the same royal decree also contained directives against the skirmishes between the marines and sailors, against the game in the bone and in the cards, etc. There are things that never change ...
Preparation for war was described by Bishop Durham in a letter to Lord Darcy:
"10 thousand people were sent to Geni ... preparation was prepared for their landing in Fontarabia. John Style writes that 10 thousand people who are directed by the King of Aragon should meet them there, of which half are riders. Sir Edward Howard came out in the sea with 5 thousand people. The French king is actively preparing for confrontation with these forces. "
The main source for us in the description of further events will be the Venetian historian Marino Sanuto Jr..
The first task of the English fleet was to achieve excellence at sea in the area of \u200b\u200bLa Mansha. Heinrich noted in a letter to Cardinal Bainbridge, dated May 6, that he "... has a fleet from 6,000 people in the sea, who has already captured 12 Breton and French ships ..." (Sanuto, XIV., 267) Venetians also activated the actions of the fleet ... "Thirty hard Armed ships hold La Mans, so no French ship dares to leave the port. " (Sanuto, Diarii., XIV, 336)
Ships with troops heading to Spain, June 3 sailed together with the fleet acting as an escort. However, the sailors did not observe the disciplines, each ship acted in itself. Taking advantage of the fact that the landing soldiers suffered from marine sickness, they plundered auxiliary vespers with all their reserves of the province.
The expedition ended in failure; The troops experiencing the lack of material support suffering from diseases, the fall of the discipline were forced to return home in October. Forest from this campaign only Ferdinand. Using the expedition of the English troops as a threat of a possible invasion of the French hypnosis, he captured Navarro, after which the world declared the world with France on this front.
Howard reached a certain success: Returning after the escort duties, he "burned the French port of Konka in Brittany ... and captured many ships with supplies and artillery sent by the French king to capture Flanders" (Sanuto XV., Diarii., 95)
After repair and replenish the reserves, Howard went to Brest. He managed to capture the French by surprise on an anchor parking lot and on August 10 to impose a merciless battle to them, perhaps the first sea battle in La Manche, in which ships with heavy artillery shooting through the ports in the sides. The French crossed the anchor ropes and tried to run, but Howard on Mary Rose The French flagship ship attacked, forcing him to get out of the battle, having on board 300 dead and wounded, probably from one volley who quit his mast. The battles arrived when the "400-ton ship" is probably Peter.Pomegranate., brought out the ship, which various chronicles call Carrackof.Brest.T. Queen.T. Marie.lACORDELIERE, (with displacement from 400 to 1500 tons) a volley from six of his heavy guns, leaving him to sink. REGENT. Developed this attack by taking to the board of Karrak. But as soon as the ships clung to the boarding battle, an explosion occurred, as a result of which about two thousand people died. Captain Sir Thomas Knevet, and Sir John Carew (John Carew) from the British. The death of ships is described in the diaries of the bathhouse in this way: when the French began to lose the battle, one of the sailors entered a torch in the Camuit Camera. (A similar story talk about the explosion on board SANSalvadorAt the time of the invincible Armada in 1588 and repeatedly repeated in later times. No exception to our fleet). The image of the described event is given at the beginning of the post (from the epic poem of the court poet Germain de Brie).
All the French. who avoided death, delivered a king. Another French ship, Admiralde., sank. The French fleet retreated to Brest, and the British for the next two days captured or destroyed another 32 French vessels, and also raised very valuable anchors, which the French left, retreating in a panic. The victorious fleet sailed into the dartmouth and Southampton for repair.
We will continue the story next time.
Russia in the 16th century
The feudal property has changed. Princely land tenure climbed with behavior. This process ended in the middle of the XVI century.
The faithful farm has expanded due to non-fouded sections - old feudal fauddies were smaller. The fund of victim lands decreased and due to the growth of the land tenure of the church. Such a hut and the monitoring of parts of the markers contradicted with government interests.
The creation of a single state has created opportunities for active foreign policy, and it required an increase in the armed forces.
Each warrior had to be land ownership.
Land distributions were needed in this setting. Noble estate and their difference from old Votchin. Feudals moved to new places, "used" there, called landowners, and their possessions are estates. The initial estate was not very little different from Votchin: they were inherited, and winks should also serve. The main thing - the estate was forbidden to sell and give. The first landowners were also supposed to serve.
First landowners- Small servants of great princes (keystics, psari, etc.). Soon the landowners began to hand out the lands of monotive peasants, which formally did not change their supreme owner - the Grand Duke. Development of the local system, which is by the first half of the third of the XVI century. It was already in all districts, led to a sharp reduction in the number of brushful peasants in the center of Russia, to the great population of the country's personal life and its peasants.
As a result of the creation of a single state, the position of the peasants improved somewhat, as feudal crossbows ceased.
Strengthening state power
Fight feudal nobility for power. 1533 - Vasily III died, leaving the heir to the three-year-old son Ivan IV. The actual government was the young widow Elena Glinsky. 1538 - Elena Glinsky died.
Folk uprisings. 1547 - the occasion for the uprising was the fire, left without a bed and ruined most of Moscow residents. Following Moscow, I climbed Pskov, with a complaint about the actions of the governor to Ivan IV arrived a delegation of Pskovichi.
Results of folk performances.
To curb the folk uprisings and restore the proper work of the upset device, it was necessary to go on reforms.
Reforms of the 50s XVI in
January 1547 - Ivan IV shortly before the Moscow uprising, taking the title of king.
1549 - Folding the elected Rada, a government mug with Tsar led by Alexei Fedorovich Adashev. Participated in the government and priest of the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral of the Kremlin Sylvester. Metropolitan Macarium was influenced by the government's policy.
The basis of the new legal document of the Government of Adashev was the lawsuit was the Fair 1497, but the new lawnier was expanded and systematized.
The transition of peasants in Yuriev's day was confirmed, but increased the "elderly" (feudal fee during the transition).
The power of feudalists intensified. The legal position of the peasants approached the status of the Hall. Felling punishment. For the first time in this lawnier, punished for boyars and devils - bribes were introduced, the rights of governors and volosts were limited.
The emergence of new forms of management. The creation of the first functional management bodies - orders (for example: discharge, local, embassy).
Cancel feedings.
1556 - After the abolition of feedings, the population has passed from the payment of "feeding income" by governors and mossens to the payment of the national tax of the "Ferry Okup".
New local Russian management.
Cancellation of feedings - the final act of the long-term transformation process of local control. During the Glinsky began, and then a lifting reform continued. Its essence: nobles where LPGO was introduced, elected the lipstone from their environment, which should have struggled with the "scatteries" against the feudal state. After the abolition of feedings, they, together with cruise cradle (selected from local nobles), headed the county administration. This reform is a step forward on the way to centralization.
The state apparatus was not developed enough to ensure that the government could do without the participation of representatives of classes in management. Thus, Russia developed towards the estate-representative monarchy.
Results of reforms of the 50s. They meant a step forward in the direction of centralization and overcoming the residues of feudal fragmentation.
Accession of Kazan Khanate
Mid XIV century - The main direction of foreign policy is the Eastern, since there the Russian feudalists sought to get new lands, and merchants are a trading path along the Volga.
The king also counted on the income from Dani from the peoples of the Volga region. 1551 - preparation for the campaign. May - June 1551 - For 4 weeks at r. Fighting on the Volga (30 km. From Kazan) Wooden fortress was built - Sviyazhsk.
Island-Grad Sviyazhsk - Kazan Construction Manager - Fortifor Dyack Ivan Grigorievich Program. August 1552 - the beginning of the Kazan siege. The number of Russian troops is 150 thousand people, 150 guns. September 1552 - the underground explosion was destroyed by part of the city wall and on September 2, 1552 Kazan was taken.
Accession of Astrakhan Khanate.
1556 - Astrakhan surrendered without a fight. After that, the Nogai Horde (Northern Caspian and Urals) recognized the vassal dependence on Russia.
The results of the joining of Khanate.
After the accession of Kazan and Astrakhan, the possibilities for the aggression of the Crimean Khanate and standing behind his back of the Ottoman Empire were limited. The question of the prestige of Russia in the Caucasus.
The joining of the Volga region contributed not only to the development of the edge by Russian peasants, but also the development of crafts, agriculture and trade in this territory. At the same time, Tsarism distributed the land of the indigenous population to the feudal police and the peasants fell into dependence.
Increased (over time) Press the Orthodox Church, with the aim of addressing residents in Orthodoxy.
The religious and national retail between the nations was burned. The workers were tested by a double oppression of their rulers and Russian feudalists.
Accession of Western Siberia.
In the 60s. XVI in. Han of the Siberian Khanate (Western Siberia) The unit recognized himself with the vassal of Russia, but then the Khan Kuchum who came to power entered the fight against her. The task of joining Siberia. 1581 - 1582. "Consistent with the Solvychyodsky Solpmakers of Stroganov Cossack Ataman Yermak with a detachment of 600 people went hike to Kumacha, broke him and took the capital of the cough. Siberia became part of Russia.
Livonian War 1558 - 1588
Prerequisites of war. II half of 50 XVI in. - The main direction in Russian foreign policy has become the Western direction.
Russia sought to attach the Baltic States, to getting out to the Baltic Sea.
January 1558 - the beginning of the war. Livonia suffered defeat for defeat: Russians took Narva, Derpt (Tartu), Fedlin and Marshenburg fortresses. Almost all Livonia was busy. Master of the Master of the Order Fürstenberg was captured.
The results of military operations 1558 - 1580.
Livonian order was destroyed. The new Master Ketleler admitted himself to the vassal of the King of Lithuanian and Polish Sigizmund II of August giving him a lion, leaving himself Kurland. Northern Estonia was captured by the Swedes. Now Sweden, Denmark (which was the Isle Isle (Saarema) island and the Polish-Lithuanian state (1569 - the conclusion of the Lublin Union and the formation of the Commonwealth) were interested in the fact that Livonia did not become Russian. This circumstance and determined the course of the war.
Final stage of war.
Russians gave revolly (Tallinn), a truce was concluded with Sweden. 1575 - King of Polish became Transylvanian Prince Stefan Batorius. 1578 - Bator switched to the offensive in Livoni. 1579 - Resumption of hostilities by Sweden. The Magius (Denmark) moved to Poland.
1581 - Bator's besieged Pskov. Swedes captured Narva. The heroic defense of Pskov threw plans for the further hike to Russia.
Results of war.
1582 - a truce with Poland in Jame-Zapolsky: Polotsk, Veligi Russia lost. 1583 - truce with Sweden in Pliss. In terms of its terms, Russia has lost all its acquisitions in Livonia and Belarus. To Sweden, most of the coast of the Finnish Gulf passed: Narva, Yam, Koporye, Ivan city.
russia did not receive the exit to the Baltic Sea, but the Livonian Order was crushed.
Oprichnina (1565 - 1572) - the fall of the government of the elected Rada.
The disagreements of Ivan IV with its approximate. Selected Rada conducted serious reforms calculated for a long period. The king sought immediate results. In the underdevelopment of the apparatus of state power, the incompleteness of its formation, the rapid movement to the centralization was possible only with the help of terror. The elected glad was against it.
Official. Russian culture 16th century
January 1565 - The king's messenger announced the message on the Red Square that the king "put anger and opal to the top clergy and all the feudalists, for their unwillingness to fight against the enemies." After a few days, the king agreed to return to the throne, but with that condition to execute the "traitors" at his discretion and establish an official.
Okrichnina was called the lot, which was allocated by the widden princesses, "Occupy" (except for the whole Russian land).
Official purpose is to undermine the economic relics of the feudal aristocracy by eliminating its extensive patrimony land tenure due to the land of the nobility.
The whole country was divided into 2 partsand: Oprichnin(Pomeranian diets, important in the trade and industrial attitude of the land of Strogonovsky in the Urals; Some Slobods and the streets of Moscow, the central counties, where the votchins of the boyar) and the borrowing (land not allocated in the Ochrichnin). Feedals, not included in the oprichin, lost their land possessions. Their lands were distributed to crystals.
Cancel script.
1571 - Hang's campaign Devlet - Hire to Moscow. Okrichnikov who had to keep barrier on the mouth did not go to the service. A year later, Khan repeated raid. At the village of Milno (50 km from Moscow), the Khan army was divided by Zemsky and oprich shelves led by the CN. Vorotnsky. This victory showed the harm of the division of the country and the troops into two parts. In the autumn of 1572 - the abolition of oprichina.
Results of the Board of Ivan IV.
As a result of the Ochrichnina, no changes occurred in the structure of social relations, the situation of the masses deteriorated sharply. The result of oprichine is an economic crisis. Exit from crisis The government was looking for administrative measures. The response to the flight of the peasants was the fastener legislation. 1581 - 1582. - For the first time, Yuriev, the day was declared "protected" (the transition of peasants was banned). The remaining years were also "protected".
The deterioration of the economic situation of the masses has delivered Russia to the threshold of the first in its history of the peasant war.
Russian culture XVI in
Typography . Around 1553 is the first typography in Russia, but the names of the printer are not known. 1563 - 1564. - Dyack one of the Kremlin churches Ivan Fedorov and his assistant Peter Mstislavts in the printed courtyard were published the first book with the weekend ("Apostle"). By the end of the XVI century. The printing houses worked not only on Nikolskaya Street (now on October 25), but also in the Alexander Sloboda. But the printed book did not push the handwritten, as they were printed mainly by the liturgical books.
"Tale of the princes of Vladimir" - The work in which the idea of \u200b\u200bthe continuity of the power of the Moscow sovereign from the Byzantine emperors was emphasized.
Correspondence Prince A.M. Kurbsky with Ivan Grozny.On the paths and methods of centralization, the rigorous dispute of talented and political opponents - Kurbansky and Ivan IV were about the attitude of the monarch and subjects. 1564 - Ivan IV received the message of Prince Kurbsky from abroad (Lithuania), accusing him in tyranny.
Domstroy Top Sylvester (approximate Ivan IV), which translated into modern Russian means "home-based". This book contains both a church instruction, and tips on raising children and wives.
Architecture XVI century.
Throughout the century, the construction of Moscow fortifications continued. With Glinskaya in Moscow, the walls of China-city were built, which defended the central part of the pose.
End of the XVI century. - Fedor Savelievich Kon. / "Sovereign Master" of the Board of Boris Godunova, one of the few old-Russian architects, whose name is fixed by the sources elevated the ring of fortifications of the "White City" with a length of about 9.5 km with 27 tower (passed through the current Boulevard Ring). The Kremlin also built the Kremlin in Smolensk, he is attributed to the walls of Simonov Monastery in Moscow and Paftyev (in Borovsk) of the monastery.
Recent years XVI in - the creation of the last external line of fortifications of Moscow is "a breaker" (wooden wall on the earth shaft). "Sound" was held along the line of the current Garden Ring.
Second third of the XVI century. - The stone architecture penetrates from a wooden ball style. The masterpiece of this style is the church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomna (within Moscow). 1554 - 1561 - Architect, Yakovlev and Barm, built on Red Square Cathedral Cathedral, which is on the RW, in honor of the capture of Kazan.
The Church of the Ascension of the Lord, the estate ensemble Kolomenskoye Painting.
At this time, the tradition of Andrei Rublev continued in painting. Dionysiosiya frescoes were especially distinguished. The best of his paintings have been preserved in the Ferapontov Monastery in Belozersk Territory.
The second half of the XVI century. - The appearance of portraitism and images with a line of real similarity.
At the beginning of the XVI century. The son of Ivan III Vasily III (1505-1533) joined the Russian throne. With it, the union of Russian lands into a single state continued. In 1510, Pskov was attached to Moscow, in 1521 - Ryazan land. As a result of a number of wars with Lithuania, started by Ivan III, the Chernigovo-Seversk Land and part of Smolensk Land with Smolensky moved to Russia. Thus, the process of combining Russian lands into a single state ended. If at the time of Ivan III entry into the throne, the territory of the Moscow state was 430 thousand square meters. KM, then by the end of the board of Vasily III, it rose 6 times. A powerful state appeared on the map of Europe, which had an increasing impact on international politics, and with whom it was necessary to reckon.
After the death of Vasily III, his three-year-old son Ivan IV (1533-1584) became the Great Prince of Moscow (1533-1584). The regen with the small heir to the throne was announced his mother - Elena Glinsky. The Regent Council also acted, which entered the uncle of Queen Mikhail Glinsky and representatives of the most significant boyars. Soon Elena Glinsky managed to deal with the Regency Council and focused power in his hands. The policy of the queen was aimed at further strengthening state power. With Elena Glynsky began a lifting reform, measures were carried out to strengthen the army, monetary reform. At that time, the main coin in Russia was money, which existed in two versions: Moscow and Novgorodskaya. The monetary reform was aimed at creating a single coin system. In 1535, a new silver coin was minted - "Kopeika".
In 1538, Elena Glinsky unexpectedly dies - perhaps from poison. After her death in the country begins the period of boyars. It is characterized by a fierce struggle between various groups of nobility. Initially, these were shui and Belsky, then Mlinsky pushed them, but Zakhariani began to play a significant role. In the period of the Boyar government, state power in the center and on the ground weakened, but corruption intensified. There were dissatisfaction among the country's population. There is a need for new transformations.
Beginning of the Board of Ivan IV.On January 16, 1547, Seventeen-year-old Ivan IV was solemnly married to the kingdom. He became the first of the Great Moscow Princes, who accepted the title of king. This act pursued far-reaching goals in domestic and foreign policy. The adoption of the title, equal to the title of the Byzantine and German emperor, as well as the title of Khan Golden Horde, was intended to increase the authority of the ruler of the Moscow state, both in Russia and its turns, put Ivan IV over the rest of the Russian titled, and above the rulers of many states.
In the spring and summer of 1547, a number of fires occurred in Moscow. On June 21, the fire destroyed almost the entire city. Disaster strengthened the dissatisfaction with Muscovites by the authorities and served as a reason for the uprising on June 26. The situation was attempted to take advantage of the opponents of Glinsky, accused them in arson. The rebels defeated the yards of Glinsky, Boyarin Yuri Glinsky was killed, others disappeared. King Ivan went to the country residence - Vorobyevo village. On June 29, the armed crowd Muscovites moved to Vorobievo, demanding the issuance of Glinsky. With great difficulty, the king managed to persuade the rebels to disperse. At about the same time, there were performances in a number of other cities. The main cause of discontent was the abuse of the authorities. In the established conditions, it was necessary first of all to establish the normal operation of the administration in the center and on the ground, and for this it was necessary to conduct reforms.
Reforms favorites Rada. The resulting transformations were associated with the activities of the "Selected Rada" - a government circle, which established about 1549 around the young king. It consisted of Metropolitan Macarius, the priest of the Blagoveshchensky Cathedral of the Kremlin and the confessor of the king Sylvester, Prince A. Kurbsky, D. Kantyiv, M. Vorotinsky, the Dyack of the Embassy Order I. Viscous. He headed the elected Rada man of a relatively doubtful origin - Duma nobleman A.F. Adashev. Selected Rada held a number of important events that contribute to the country's political centralization.
Judgealier 1550Reforms demanded the development of a new Code of laws. He was the judiciary of 1550, called the "Faith Jewish IV" or "Tsarsky". The new arch was compiled on the basis of the judiciary Ivan III (1497), and changes were reflected in legislation for the period 1497-1550. The focus was paid to the problems of management and court, the role of central judicial bodies and the royal court intensified. For the first time, punishments were injected for boyars and devil-bribes.
The lawyer 1550 confirmed the right to transition of peasants only within two weeks (week before and week after Yuryev's Day), and increased the size of the "elderly", which even more difficult the peasant transition and strengthened the power of the feudal over the peasants.
Central and local reforms. As a result of the reforms of the central and local government in Russia, the process of folding the estimated monarchy was completed - i.e. Monarchy, in which elective representatives from various segments of the population are involved in the management of the state and address the most important issues of the Tsarist Power. The most important bodies of the estate monarchy in Russia were:
Boyarskaya Duma. The origins of the Boyar City Duma go to the times of Kievan Rus, when she was advice with Prince, who consisted of senior warriors. During the fragmentation period, the Duma turned into a knowledge board of noble vassals. From the end of the XV century. She has become a permanent law-friendly body at the Grand Duza Moscow. It was believed that the king rules the country together with the Boyarskaya Duma, which solved the basic issues of management, foreign policy, legislation with him. In the Boyarskaya Duma there was a special office work, the office, a certain bureaucratic bureaucratic apparatus was formed.
Initially, the Boyarskaya Duma was an organ of the informant boyars aristocracy. From the first third of the XVI century. A system of spiritual ranks - boyars and okolnichiy (they were below the boyars in their position). The composition of the Boyarskaya Duma was very small - 5-12 boyars and about as many rounded. Then the composition began to expand, and already under Vasilia III in the Duma included representatives of the top of the state bureaucracy - Duma Decias and representatives from the Moscow Nobility - "Duma Nobles".
Zemsky cathedrals – Higher estate and representative bodies. They played a large role in managing the state, they discussed the most important issues of external and internal politics. In case of termination of the royal dynasty, the elections of the new king took place at the Zemsky Council. Zemstvo Cathedrals did not have the legislative power, therefore, formally their decisions were not mandatory for the monarch, but in practice he could not not be considered with these decisions, as they expressed the opinion of the most influential layers of society.
There was no clear order of convocation of Zemsky cathedrals. They convened when there was a need for the king himself, or when he had to do this at the request of the estates. In the absence of the ruler, the estate could be assembled independently. Elections, the norms of representation from different estates were not regulated, the numerical composition of the cathedrals was not constant. At the meetings were presented a boyars, clergy, nobility, merchants, state apparatus. Only on the Zemsky Cathedral of 1613, representatives of the Cossacks and the protected peasants were attended. It should also be noted that the part of the participants of the Zemstvo Cathedrals was not elected - the Boyarsky Duma and the Consecrated Cathedral (the tops of the clergy) were present at all. Representatives from each class discussed all the questions set separately, and then their opinions were submitted to the king in the form of a petition. General decisions were made to the publication of a special document ("sentence"), which took the entire composition of the cathedral.
The first Zemsky Cathedral was convened in February 1549. He got the name of the "Cathedral of Reconciliation", since Ivan IV speaking on it, although he reproached the Boyar in abuses during the Boyar Board, "at the same time urged everyone to forget the offenses and act together for the benefit states. The last full-scale Zemsky Cathedral was convened in 1653
Orders - Central controls. Already from the end of the XV century. The sovereign "ordered" (entrusted) maintaining a certain circle of issues of any boyar, who created for this state from Dyakov and the attain. Gradually, these temporary orders turned into permanent, and order orders became orders of departments. By the middle of the XVI century. A rather branched ordinary system has developed in the country. A feature of the order system was that almost every order was performed not only by managerial functions, but also judicial. All orders can be divided into nationwide, territorial and palace.
Nationwide orders made certain issues throughout the state. So, the discharge order conducted the personnel of the boyars and noble cavalry. Streletsky - the affairs of the Strel Troops. Pushkarsky - artillery. The right order was engaged in land deeds of serve people, followed the distribution of places. The Embassy Order conducted foreign affairs. The robbery was the prototype of the central police body.
Territorial orders (Siberian, Kazan, Vladimirsky, etc.) were made by the affairs of individual territories.
Palace orders were engaged only by the affairs of the royal palace and economy. The order of the Grand Palace was called the palace lands, the catcher and Sokolniki - hunting, bedroom - royal bedroom, etc. All these palace orders clearly carried the features of the old palace-primary control system.
The order system was very confusing, often different orders dubbed each other's activities. The number of orders was uncertain, some orders were created, others abolished. To the outcome of the XVI century. They were numbered about 20.
Local control. Until the middle of the XVI century. There was no unified control system. The country was divided into the counties, and the counties - on the mills and parish. County managed the boyars-governors, mills and volosts - wipes. For the implementation of administrative and judicial functions, the governors and wipes were at their disposal court fees and part of taxes from the population, i.e. No matter how "fed" through the population of managed territories. Such a service was called "feedings". The governors and Volostelli were prescribed from Moscow. Feeding at their essence was remuneration for the past military service. Therefore, feeders tried to get from the population as many income as possible, and the arbitrariness from their side was quite common.
The state sought to limit feeding abuses, to weaken their power, putting their activities under control as "from below" - by the part of the elected representatives of the local population, and the "top" on the part of the central state bodies. The lawsuit 1550 established a compulsory presence at the court feeders of the local elder and clerks. In 1549, a decree of the seizure of the stateless landowners from under the trial was released - from now on, they were joined in Moscow orders. Finally, in 1555, the decree of the king on the cancellation of feedings was released. Power on the ground has completely passed into the hands of city custoders, lumps and Zemstvo Starost.
Craftsmen.The Institute of Customers appears in Russia at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. They were appointed central government, but from among local seruners. Initially, they were visited only by urban fortresses and were essentially military commandants. However, gradually their functions began to expand, and they were maintained by the construction of roads, bridges, the mobilization of the local population.
Lightheads. Light reform began with Elena Glinsky. The term "lip" has no one-to-one explanation. The district was called the district, whose territory was distributed by the power of the lip. Initially, this district approximately coincided with the parish, and from the middle of the XVI century. - With county. At the head of the lips, there was a lifting elder who was from among the local nobles and children of the boyars local landowners, clergy, pruners and palace peasants. Lifting Corolovnikov helped with a lipotone (i.e. the jury who kissed the cross during the oath), which the peasants were chosen. In Lamp, the office of the Lentaries was located, the office work was led by the electoral deque. The position of the Language Strength was not paid, so the luminous elders had to be selected from the number of wealthy people. Another condition was the literacy of the candidate. Light horses were created at the beginning as punitive organs: the heads supported the order, caught the robbers, tried and executed the perpetrators. However, managerial functions gradually began to place on them.
Zemsky headlights.Zemstvo reform was held in the middle of the XVI century, as a result of which self-government bodies were created - Zemstvo Izbi. The head of the hut stood the Zemsky Starright, which was chosen by the population - Posad people and prunery peasants. Under the Zemsky Strost, elected bodies consisted, as well as elected Zemsky deque. Only the population could be judged, since the servant landowners were suused in Moscow orders, and feudal-dependent peasants were subject to the court of feudal. The Zemstvo authorities were responsible for the layout and collection of filters, as well as for the execution of natural duties. In their activities, the Zemstvo authorities relied on the eased prunes-free peasants of the Sotskiy, Fifty, Ten.
Military reforms. Among the reforms of the elected welcome, military reforms were noticeable. The basis of the Armed Forces of Russia was the equestrian feudal militia, so the elected Rada took a number of measures to strengthen it. In 1550, the so-called "Favorites Thousand" - 1070 nobles were placed in the villages of the county. They had to be always ready for the departure of the Sovereign Service.
Of great importance was the restriction of locality during its appointment on command positions. Planterity was a system of posting positions depending on the knowledge and service merit of the genus. Meal disputes between serunel people have greatly prevented the formation and activities of troops.
In the 1550s. The state is making actions to ensure the services of the land and providing tax benefits. In 1551 Ivan IV raised the question of empowered people with the necessary number of land so that they could provide their access to the royal service. During the subsequent redistribution of land, a universal census of land was carried out. The tax system was also changed - instead of the historical was introduced.
In 1555, "Code of Service" was published. At the deposit, the owner of Votchina was obliged to carry the service on a par with the landlord. The owners of Votchin and the places were to be in the army "equestrian and miming", i.e. At horse, armed and with their people. The feudal service could start from 15 years, she was lifelong, and was inherited.
In addition to the equestrian feudal militia, which consisted of servicing people "in the Fatherland", i.e. By origin, the military service carried serial people "on the instrument", i.e. on the set. These were Pushkari, urban guards. They were close to the Cossacks who were attracted mainly to protect borders. In 1550, a shooting army was created in Russia. Sagittarius also belonged to serving people "on the instrument". For the service they received a monetary and bread salary, as well as land in collective use.
In Russian troops, the so-called "press" - a militia, recruited from among the pruneric monastic and landed people. "Sour" carried an auxiliary service - in the way, in road and fortification work.
Floor Cathedral. The implementation of state reforms demanded certain transformations of the church. In 1551, a church stallal cathedral was convened. It received such a name because its decisions were reduced in the collection, consisting of a hundred chapters. The stalloral cathedral adopted a number of important decisions, the purpose of which was the unification of the cult. The communional pantheon of the saints was confirmed, established uniformity of church rites, approved general canons (rules) for icon painting. Much attention was paid to the struggle of churches with various hairs and manifestations of paganism. The cathedral also took measures against the obscene behavior of monks and priests.
The fellow estate of the Cathedral was also raised by the issue of church land tenure, which continued to increase. Church in the XVI century. belonged to 1/3 of all feudal possessions. The state needed lands to distribute them to serve people. The king made an attempt to withdraw part of the land in the church, but the clergy led by Metropolitan Makarius was categorically opposed. As a result, a kind of compromise was achieved - church land ownership was maintained, but the state was returned all the lands of Boyar, the churches during the youngsters of Ivan IV, and in the future the acquisition of new land the clergy without the knowledge of the king was prohibited.
The fall of the elected glad.The reforms of the elected Rada contributed to strengthening state power in the center and on the ground, but they were calculated for a long period and could not give immediate results. In addition, reforms, strengthening the power of the king as a whole, nevertheless put it in certain framework - the king was forced to reckon with the decisions of the Zemsky Councils. It was not satisfied Ivan IV, who sought to strengthen his personal power.
In fact, at the end of the 50s - early 60s. XVI in. In Russia, the question of choosing the further path of development was solved. The first way is to continue the reforms, the strengthening and improvement of the institutions of the specified monarchy and on this basis - the centralization of the country, the elimination of the remnants of the specific time. The second way is forced centralization and immediate strengthening of personal, unlimited, power of the king. Since the state authority apparatus was not yet developed, it was possible to carry out this path of development only with the help of terror.
Ivan IV chose the second path of development. The choice was influenced by a number of reasons related to the identity of the king itself - a person is extremely unbalanced, painful suspicious and despotic. Delving the taste of power, Ivan IV began to be influenced by Sylvester and A. Adashev. After the death of Queen Anastasia Romanovna in August 1560, the influence of the king of its relatives, hostile members of the elected Rada intensified. The king even accused Adashev and Sylvester in the death of the queen. Finally, disagreements on foreign policy issues arose between the king and Adashev, the head of the elected glad was against the war in Livonia. As a result, in 1560 chosen Rada ceases to exist.
Oprichnina (1565-1572). The fall of the elected Rada was a kind of prologue to the new internal policy, called Okrichnina. The king received unlimited rights to expose the opal and execute any person who was disobedd from the point of view of the monarch. Officient (from the word "to" - except) in Russia called the lot, who after the death of the prince received his widow. Ivan IV demanded such a personal fleet for himself. In fact, it was about the creation of special education on the territory of the country with their laws and subordinate to the most exclusive king.
All lands were divided into oprichnin and the land. The Ochrichnin includes territories around Moscow, a part of the capital itself, land of the central regions of the country, on the borders with the Grand Durability of Lithuanian, Pomorie, and others, the Alexandrovskaya Sloboda became the center. Everyone enrolled in the Okrichnina Boyars and nobles (initially 1000 people, then 6000) were supposed to have estates and behavior in the rational counties. The same who was not enrolled in Okrichnin, evicted from these counties in the land. In Okrichnin, their own, special, "oprawn" orders were introduced, created his boyars and their army. The land was the land that were not included in the Ochrichnina, and they were preserved for the previous order. He managed the mortal boyars of the Duma, but the king constantly intervened in the affairs of the land and controlled it. In addition, the subject actually had to contain an oprichnin.
Oprichnina left a very deep mark in the history of the country and had a noticeable impact on its further development. Official policy was aimed at strengthening the personal power of the king and was accompanied by a forced centralization of the country in the absence of economic and social prerequisites necessary for this. The method of implementing this policy was terror. The king was created by the repressions apparatus, designed to create an atmosphere of universal fear. In fact, it was the first attempt to create a totalitarian regime in Russia.
Official policies could give quick, spectacular results, but its implementation was accompanied by the ruin of the country, the death of a large number of people, undermining the moral owners of society and the exacerbation of all public contradictions. Officer terror did not wear antiboyarsk. His victims became innocent people, including representatives of the clergy. Church hierarchs reacted negatively to Okrichnina. Metropolitan Philip Kolychev began to protrude with the chief of royal politics. For this, it was lowered and sharpened to the monastery, and then strangled with one of the recreamers close to the king - Male Skarahtov.
Apotheosis of Okrichy Terror was the campaign of the Okrich Troops led by Ivan Grozny to Novgorod. The reason for him was the denunciation that Novgorod was allegedly conceived to go under the power of the Polish king. The campaign began in December 1569. On the path of the Okrichniki defeated Wedge, Tver, Torzhok, many villages. In Novgorod itself, where the oprichny army entered in January 1570, the pogrom continued six weeks. After the Novgorod campaign, many officers who stood at her origins were accused of treason. After the brutal torture in the summer of 1570, they were publicly executed on Red Square in Moscow.
Okrichnaya army, being the personal guarage of the king and punitive force, should also participate in military campaigns against the ingenians. However, the chicks were swept away and robbed than fought. This clearly showed the events of 1571, when the Crimean Khan Devlet-Gary made another raid on Russian lands. The ugly army, which should have kept the defense of the Oki's shore, could not have coped with his task. Devlet-Garya approached Moscow and set fire to the city. The capital burned down completely, many residents died. Ivan IV was very scared, negotiations began with Crimean Khan. In an effort to finally break the will of the Russian king, Khan decided to repeat the raid on Rus. However, Ivan IV also began to act decisively. He combined the Okrichnaya and Zemstvo army under the command of the experienced governor, the Opel Prince Mikhail Vorotnsky. In the most common battle, the villages of the Joint Russian army caused a crushing defeat by Crimean Tatars, after which their raids stopped. In the same, 1572 Okrichnina was canceled, and the mention of it was prohibited.
Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the XVI century.The main directions of Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the XVI century. were: in the south - protection against raids of the Crimean Tatars, in the south-east and east - the struggle against the Kazan and Astrakhan Khoneys and the promotion of Siberia, in the West - the desire to reach the shores of the Baltic Sea.
Kazan and Astrakhan Khanate bordered with Russian lands and constantly bought them frequent raids. In addition, these Khanate controlled the Volga trading path, preventing trade, and the territories of Hannies were fertile lands that Russian noblemen dreamed about.
Especially dangerous were the raids of Tatar Kazan, closer to others located to Russia. The fight against Kazan became the priority destination of the Russian policy of the first half of the XVI century. In this time, there were no unity in the ruling circles in the ruling circles, - one party was focused on Moscow, the other was on the Crimea and Turkey. By the middle of the XVI century. The Crimean Party intensified in Kazan, the representative of the Crimean dynasty was established at the Kazan throne. All this led to a decisive collision with Russia. The first trips to Kazan ended in failure. However, in August 1552, a large Russian army, headed by Ivan IV hesieved the Khan capital. Kazan garrison provided fierce resistance, the siege was delayed. Finally, on October 2, 1552 Kazan was taken by storm. Kazan Khanate ceased to exist, and the peoples of the Middle Volga region - Tatars, Marie, Chuvashi and Udmurts were attached to Russia.
Following Kazan, Astrakhan's turn came. In 1556, Russian army was sent there, Khan fled, and Astrakhan without a fight was joined to the Moscow State. Following the vassal dependence on Moscow recognized the Nogai Horde, nomaded in Northern Caspiani and the Ural. In 1557, Bashkiria was completed mainly.
The conquest of Kazan and Astrakhan Khanni significantly secured the Russian borders, but another fragment of the Golden Horde - the Crimean Khanate, behind which the Ottoman Empire stood, was still threatened with Russian lands. Many children of the selected Rada, first of all A. Adashev, advocated active actions against Crimekov. In 1556-1559. Intelligence paths in the Crimea were conducted and several campaigns were carried out. However, Ivan IV was against the war with Crimea, wanting to intensify the foreign policy in the West, so in the south of Russia, the defense was limited.
Joining Russia Volga region has created an opportunity for further advancement to the East - to Western Siberia, which was part of the Siberian Khanate. It was an extensive, but very fragile multinational state. Siberian Han after the capture of Kazan found himself for the benefit of 1955 to recognize himself by Vassal of Moscow. In 1558, the rich merchants and industrialists of Stroganov received from Ivan IV a humble diploma to huge territories on the Kame and Tobol rivers, the right to build fortified townships, to have artillery. Using fortresses as reference points, industrialists began to expand their possessions to the Urals and explode paths to Siberia. Meanwhile, serious changes occurred in Siberian Khanate - Khan Kuchum came to power, which broke the relationship with Moscow and even began to fight her.
In 1581, the Stroganovs were equipped with their own funds for the Urals Expedition of the Cossacks under the command of Ataman Yermak Timofeevich (600-800 people). Cossacks managed to penetrate into the Siberian Khanate. The decisive battle took place at the Khan capital, the city of Kashlyuk. The army of Kuchum was broken. Ermak took the cough and began to collect tribute from the local population (Yasak) with furs.
However, it continued not long: in 1585, Ermak fell into the ambush and died. The remnants of his troops returned to their homeland, and the cough was again captured by Tatars. Thus, the campaign of Ermak did not lead to the accession of Siberia, rather laid the path into it. From the 80s. The systematic conquest of Siberian lands begins. Founders and cities are based: Tyumen, Surgut, Narym, Verkhoturia. The main administrative center of Russian Siberia became Tobolsk, where Moscow was appointed by Moscow. Following the servants in Siberia, the colonization flows of the Russian peasantry moved, the development of new fertile lands began. Thus, Western Siberia in the 80-90s. XVI in. He entered into Russia. In the late 90s. The Kuchum, who did not cease to resist, caused a crushing defeat. After that, he fled to Central Asia, where he died.
Livonian war. In the second half of the 50s. XVI in. The main focus of Russia's foreign policy has become West. Its main purpose was to join the Baltic States and obtaining a convenient access to the Baltic Sea, without which it was difficult to establish connections with the countries of Western Europe. In this Russia, the Livonian Order of the Baltic Coast was observed. In war with the Livonian Order, both Russian merchants were interested, hoping to expand trade connections through convenient Baltic ports and Russian feudalists who expected to get new furnished lands with peasants.
The reason for the Livonian war was the question of "Yuryevskaya Dani". Under the terms of the contract of 1503, the Livonian knights were to pay Russian tribute for ownership of the city of Yuryev, but they did not fulfill the arrangement. In addition, in September 1557, the Order concluded a military union with the Polish king and the Grand Duke Lithuanian Sigismund II, directed against Russia. Therefore, in January 1558, the Russians invaded the Livonia. In just six months, Narva, Derpt and other areas in the east of Livonia were captured. Russian troops approached Riga, and then moved to Kurland and reached the boundaries of Lithuania. After such defeats, the Order was forced to ask for a truce, which was concluded in May 1559. This respite of the Order used to conclude a new agreement with Sigismund II August.
In 1560, military actions resumed. The Order again suffered defeat for the defeat and was actually defeated. As a result, Master of Orden Ketler in 1561 passed the Livonian lands to Sigismund II Augustus and recognized himself with his vassal, having received the Duchy of Kurland. Ezelian bishop sold his own ownership of Denmark, and Ezel island moved to the Danish prince Magnus. Northern Estonia with Revel went to Sweden. Livonian Order ceased to exist, but interference with Livonian events of Lithuania, Denmark and Sweden very complicated the situation. Now Russia has had to deal with a number of strong European states. War began with Lithuania, and a slightly later with Sweden. Russia's position was facilitated by the fact that Denmark and Sweden fought with each other.
In 1562, Ivan IV concluded a truce with the Swedes, which made it possible to focus every effort in war with Sigismund II. In February 1563, Russian troops under the command of the king managed to capture a strong fortress in Belarus - Polotsk. However, next year, two serious lesions followed: on the River Ule and under Ors. The domestic political situation in Russia has become more complicated. Many collections of the selected Rada were persecuted. The country began the repression, which touched on many famous military leaders. In 1564, fleeing from the king, the prince of Andrei Kurbsky fled to Lithuania. In 1565, an oprichnina began, negatively affected by the military power of Russia. In the 60s. Resume systematic raids on Russian lands Crimean Khan. It stopped supporting the Russians and the local population of Livonia, since the royal government began there to distribute land to Russian landlords, arranged over and standing the troops.
War in Livonia began to take a protracted character and walked with varying success. In 1569, the State Union between the Grand Dianess of the Lithuanian and Polish kingdom was concluded in Lublin. Both states united in a single issue compulovate. The union strengthened the main enemy of Russia, however, it was not immediately affected. In 1572, a childless Sigismund II August, the last king from the Yagellon dynasty. In the country began "nonsense", accompanied by the troubles. Using "Infevering", Ivan IV made a number of new conquests in Livonia. In 1575, a talented military leader Stefan Batori was elected new king of the Commonwealth. In 1578, he began active hostilities against Russia. In 1579, Sweden appeared against the king. In the same year, Stephen Batori captured Polotsk, and in the following - the great bows. In August 1581, his troops were besieged Pskov. After five months unsuccessful siege, the Polish king was forced to stop attempts to capture the city. This facilitated the position of Russia, but at the same time the Swedes seized the Narva and began to step in Karelia.
In January 1582, a truce with a response to a period of 10 years was concluded in Jame-Zapolsky. Under the conditions of the truce, Russia refused its acquisitions in Livonia and Belarus, and Stephen Batorius returned the Great Luki and other Russian cities. Russia also lost the city Veliya at the border of Smolensk Land. In May 1583, a plus truce with Sweden was concluded for three years. Russia was forced to give the Sweden of the city of Yam, Coporye, Ivangorod and the territory adjacent to them on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Thus, Russia not only did not acquire new ports in the Baltic, but also lost access to the sea through the coast of the Gulf of Finland.
The reign of Fyodor Johnovich (1584-1598). March 18, 1584 Ivan Grozny died. After himself, the king left a terrible heritage: the country was literally ruined by the Ochrichnina and Livonian War. The population was worried and ran from ruin taxes. The authorities, seeking to prevent the passage of the population, strengthened the reinforcement of the peasants. In 1581, "Reserved Summer" were introduced for the first time, the years in which the transition of peasants was banned even in Yuriev's Day (from the word "commandment" - a ban). In 1597, a decree was adopted about the cheek of runaway peasants. The so-called "urgent summer" was introduced - the term during which the state took on the functions of the search for runaway (initially the search term was determined at five years).
I did not leave after myself Ivan IV and a decent successor. In the heat of anger, the king killed his heir, the eldest son of Ivan (1581). Two more sons remained: the weakly 27-year-old Fedor and the two-way Tsarevich Dmitry - the Son from the last, seventh, the wife of Tsar Mary Nagga. Summing up the board of Ivan Grozny, it can be said that it was precisely the difficult period in the history of Russia as a troubled time.
The successor of Ivan IV in the Russian throne was his weak Son Fyodor (1584-1598). Father perfectly understood that Fedor was not able to manage the state himself, so the Regent Council was created, which included five boyars. One of the guardians was boyar Boris Godunov, Shurin (brother of his wife) of the new king, who had a huge influence on Fedor John. Tsarevich Dmitry and his mother and uncle was sent to Uglich, given him to the lot, but in fact it was an honorary reference.
Almost immediately after the court of Fedor Ivanovich, a fierce struggle for power unfolded between members of the Regent Council. The victory in her got Boris Godunov, who gradually managed to eliminate all rivals. Godunov actually became the ruler of the country - in the late 80s. XVI in. He received the right from his own name to interchange with foreign states, and from the 90s. He was already officially called the "ruler."
Boris Godunov, undoubtedly, was a talented politician. Understanding the need for further rapprochement with the countries of Western Europe, he hired foreigners, and young Russian nobles sent to learn abroad. During the reign of Godunov, Russia has achieved notable success in foreign policy. It was possible to extend a truce with the responding speech. As a result of a victorious war with Sweden (1590-1593) in 1595, the Tankinsky world was concluded, according to which Russia returned to Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye, Korela. The defense system was improved on the southern borders, so the reflection of the raids of the Crimean Tatars was more successful. Also there was also a rather intensive development of the Volga region and Siberia. Of great importance for the country had an institution in 1589 of the Moscow Patriarchant. The first Russian patriarch was the priest Boris Godunova Job. Thus, the Russian Orthodox Church finally turned into an independent and equal to other Orthodox churches.
In 1591, under mysterious circumstances, without surviving up to 9 years, Tsarevich Dmitry died in Uglich. Tsarina Maria Nagaya and the townspeople accused the death of Dmitry Moscow administrators and dealt with them. From Moscow, the commission led by Prince Vasily Shuisky arrived to investigate. The Commission announced that Tsarevich Dmitry, who suffered from epilepsy, while the game was hammered in a fit and stabbed himself. But the people stubbornly walked rumors about the involvement of Godunov to the death of Tsarevich.
Russia sought to go to the Baltic since Ivan III. With it, at the beginning of the XVI century, Ivangorod became the main Russian port, through which maritime trade with Western Europe was carried out. About what events unfolded around trade in Ivangorod in the XVI century, read in this article. The text is taken from the book by Mikhail Shumilov "History of Trade and Customs In Russia of the IX-XVII centuries."
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The main Russian port, through which maritime trade was carried out with Western Europe, was made by Ivangorod. In order to attract foreign and Russian merchants Ivan III ordered to establish scales for weighing salt and wax. This turned out to be enough to the right bank of the Narrow at the beginning of the XVI century. We gained the Scandinavian merchants - Danes and Swedes. After the normalization of political relations with Ganza (1514), the trade relations of Ivangorod with Revel and Lyubotee, in the 20s - 30s with the Netherlands, were regularly. Thus, the role of Ivangorod as a transshipment base in the Russian-Western European trade was strengthened. Russian merchants, heading to the Livonia, had to first visit Ivangorod to get permission to trade with Narva, and those who wanted to go further into Revel (by sea) was to prophet from the marina of Ivangor, without stopping in Narva. At the same time, wax, flax, hemp, fish oil, burst, fur, fat, etc. were prevailed among the selling goods, the first place was the first place. Weapons and non-ferrous metals, gold and silver in the form of bars and coins, sulfur, alum. Although the importation of non-ferrous and noble metals increased markedly in the 20s - 30s, nevertheless it did not cover the needs of the domestic market in Russia.
A peculiar role in trade with the West was played by the village of Narovskoye, located at the mouth of the Varia when R. R. R. R. R. His inhabitants (at the end of the XV century. In the village there were 62 yard) were engaged not only by fishing and agriculture, but also kept the innings for trading people, carried the pilot service, meeting and spending merchant vessels. Tightly connected with Ivangorod, village Narovskoye in the first half of the XVI century. In fact, it was the sea gate of Russia.
In an effort to establish himself on the shores of the Baltic Sea, in 1557, a seaport was built on the low-lying right of the river the river, then the task of the conquest of Livonian harbors was put forward to the fore. At the very beginning of the Livonian war, the Russian troops seized the Narva, which at the time became the sea gates of Russia in the West. In an effort to create exceptional conditions for the Narva Waving, Ivan IV "provided the most broad privileges: the right of self-government, religion, the right to the duty-free purchase of basic goods in the markets of Russia."
The appearance of ships in the Narva margin from remote states of Western Europe threatened with Hanseatic cities in big losses. Therefore, the transition of the city in the hands of Ivan IV was carefully hidden by the latter. The British, who had a continuous connection with Riga and Revel, before 1560, did not know anything about Narva trade. In 1560, the ships of the Moscow company first visited Narva, "and since then the permanent intercourse of the British through this port with the most important trade cities of the Moscow state, which had to have had ships who came to Narva with their goods. What benefits received a company from this trade, one can conclude on the news of Her Hudson's trading trip, which in 1567 sailed to Narva with goods by 11,000 pound. erased; These goods consisted of cloths, karais and salt; When selling their company received 40% of profit. " Pretty actively traded the subjects of the French king in Narva: Normans (especially Ruangs), Bretonians, La Rochelle, Parisians and Orreans, who came for waxes, leishes, lard, flax, hemp and other goods.
Having prevented the marine trade of Russia, the Revel Pirates detained and captured trade vessels sent to Narva. Because the damage from these attacks was significant, Moscow governors often appealed to the Revel wagon, complaining of damages that Narva trade from those actions. No less danger was the robbery attacks of the Swedish and Polish pirates. Fearing the military strengthening of Moscow with the help of England, the Polish king with all their forces inspired by the English Queen about the foregoing of trade with Ivan IV and threatened to seize the ships sent to Narva. Knowing this, Hudson nevertheless urged the board of the company to send 13 ships in the spring of 1570 in the spring, pre-arming them with firearms. Indeed, English vessels met 6 ships of Polish capers and fought with them: one enemy ship was gone, the other was burned, "the remaining 4 were given in Narva and 82 people of prisoners were issued to the Moscow Governor." The seizure of the Swedes of Narva in 1581 in fact violated the trading ties in the Baltic Sea. It was especially strongly struck by the interests of France, prompting her to look for intercourse with Russia by the Northern Sea.
After the conclusion of the Tekzyn peace treaty with Sweden (1595), part of the southern coast of the Finnish bay with the cities of Yam, Coporye, Ivangorod, disheveled from Sweden back in 1590, as well as nuts, Korela and Neva mouth went to Russia. Under the conditions of the "Eternal World", the merchants from other states were forbidden to pester the Russian shore of the Gulf of Finland, in the mouths of the rivers of the meadow and Neva, as well as "seeker of the marine ... by other rivers and the place." They got the right to freely come for trading only in Vyborg and Revel (Kolyvan). Only Swedish and Russian subjects could trade in Narva (Ruge) and only for special resolution of the Swedish authorities - merchants of other European countries. In Ivangorod, the Russian trade with the submarines of the Swedish king and merchants from other countries prohibited at all. Russian merchants also got the opportunity "without delaying to ride in all places in Svaskaya, in Finnish and in Chyukhon land [Estlandia. - M.Sh.], where they themselves want to want, trading and producing the usual, as the exterior used. " At the same time, the free trade of Swedish merchants in Russia was envisaged. Other Europeans could freely come to Russia only with "patterned" goods, the suitable "his royal majesty to the treasury", but also those goods they had to "declare and write down" in a rive or in Vyborg. Thus, Sweden actually managed to establish a monopoly in Baltik in the trading mediation between Russia and the countries of Western Europe.
32. Khoroshevich A.L. Russian state. . P. 40 - 43, 61 - 62; Chepik G.S. Hourly prince. Brief historical essay. St. Petersburg., 1996. P. 8 - 10.
33. Kokochkin V.V. Russian military-defensive structures of the XVI century at the mouth of the Narov River // Brief reports on reports and field research of the Institute of History of Material Culture. M., 1953. No. 52. P. 26; Kazakov on. Russian-Livonian and Russian-Hanseatic relations. P. 304.
34. Skrynnikov R.G. Russian history. IX - XVII centuries. M., 1997. P. 286.
35. Klyuchevsky V.O. Delating foreigners. . Pp. 223 - 224. The British were brought to Narva and military goods, whom the government of Queen Elizabeth did not allow you to export from our country "to which other sovereign in the world" (Tolstoy Y. The first forty years of interchanges between Russia and England. St. Petersburg., 1875 . Appendix No. 33. P. 138)
36. Zhordancy Essays from the history of Franco-Russian relations of the XV and the first half of the XVII centuries. Tbilisi, 1959. P. 5 - 6
37. Cordt V.A. Essay of the Moscow State nonsense with the Republic of United Netherlands to 1631 // Rio Collection. 1902. T. 116. P. 15 - 16.
38. Gomel I. British in Russia in the XVI - XVII centuries. St. Petersburg., 1865. P. 83 - 84; Tolstoy Yu. For the first forty years ... Applications No. 9. P. 31 - 32; No. 13. P. 32 - 33.
39. Tolstoy Yu. For the first forty years ... Appendix No. 33. P. 138; Klyuchevsky V.O. The legends of foreigners ... pp. 224; Gomel I. British in Russia ... 43, 54, 105.
40. Zhordancy Essays from history ... P. 7 - 10.
41. Shashlysky I. P. Stolbovsky world of 1617 and trade relations between Russia with the Swedish state. M.; L., 1964. P. 25 - 27, 213 - 214; Floran B.N. Russian-Polish relations ... P. 61. The Tankin Peace Agreement was not ratified by the Russian side until concluded in 1609 in the Vyborg of the New Agreement between Russia and Sweden.