In the new philosophy, the issue of freedom of will is of particular importance in spinosis systems, Leibnitsa and Kant, to which shelling and Schopenhawer is adjacent in this regard, on the one hand, Fichte and Meng de Biran - on the other. Spinoza worldview is the type of the purest "geometric" determinism. The phenomena of the physical and mental order with the conditioned necessity are determined by the nature of the extended and thinking creature; And since this creature is truly one, then all in the world exists and occurs due to one common need, any seizure of which would be a logical contradiction. All wants (discussion: instinct) and human actions need to flow out of its nature, which itself has only a certain and necessary modification (modus) of a single absolute substance. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe freedom of will is only a deception of imagination with a lack of true knowledge: if we feel freely at the time and arbitrarily active, then the stone, with the mechanical need to fall on the ground, could consider yourself free if he had a health ability. Strict determinism, excluding any accident in the world and any arbitrariness in man naturally demanded a negative assessment of ethical affects related to the idea that something that happened could not occur (regrets, repentance, feeling of sinfulness). - Leibniz, no less spinosis rejection freedom of will in his own sense, or so called. Liberum Arbitrium Indifferentiae, argues that everything is completely determined by the will of God due to moral necessity, that is, voluntary election of the best. With all possible worlds prisonered in the mind of Overall, the will, led by the idea of \u200b\u200bgood, elects the best. This kind of inner need other than the geometric or general of the intellectual need for spinozism, inevitably requires the highest perfection of the divine action: Necessitas Quam Electione Optimi Fluit, Quam Moralem Appello, Non Est Fugienda, Nec Sine Abnectione Summae in Agendo Perfectionis Divinae Evitari Potest. At the same time, leibants insists on that that does not have a significant value of thought, which despite the moral necessity of this choice, as the best, remains the abstract possibility of another, as no logical contradiction, and that, consequently, our world, absolutely, should Be declared random (ContingenS). In addition to this scholastic distinction, Leibnic determination differs significantly from the spinozymism by the fact that world unity, according to the author of monadology, is implemented in the aggregate multiplicity of single creatures that have their own reality and the extent of independently participating in the life of the whole, and not subordinate to this whole, as an external necessity. Moreover, in the very concept of a single being, or the monad, Leibniz put forward a sign of an active desire (Appetitio), as a result of which every creature ceases to be a suffering gun, or a conductor of the overall world system. The freedom allowed by this view comes down to the natural nature of each creature as a vital, from itself organically developing its content, that is, all physical and mental potency ingenected to him.
Thus, it goes here only about the will of the creature as a reason (Causa Efficies) of its actions, and not about its freedom in relation to formal and final reasons (Causae formales et c. Finals) of its activities that in the leibher with the unconditional The need is determined by the idea of \u200b\u200bthe greatest good in the representation of the monad itself, and in the mind of the absolute - the idea of \u200b\u200bthe best coordination of all past, present and future activities (pre-installed harmony).
Will Freedom in Kant
Top new production Gets the question of freedom of will at Kant. According to him, causality is one of those necessary and universal forms of representation, according to which our mind is building the world of phenomena.
Under the law of causality, any phenomenon may occur only in the form of a consequence of another phenomenon, as its causes, and the whole world of phenomena seems to be a set of rows of causes and consequences. It is clear that the shape of causality, like all other, can be valid only in the field of legitimate use, that is, in the conditioned world of phenomena, outside of which, in the sphere of being breathtaking (noumena), the possibility of freedom remains. Nothing is theoretically known to us about this inexpensive world, but practically the mind opens to us by his demands (postulates), one of which has freedom. As beings, not a phenomena only, we can begin a number of actions not as necessary, an empirically outresting motivation, but by virtue of a purely moral imperative, or from respect for unconditional doubt. The theoretical arguments of the Kant on freedom and necessity are characterized by the same ambiguity as its view on the transcendental subject and on the connection of the latter with the subject empirical. To put the teachings of Cant on freedom of will on a certain metaphysical soil and bring it here to clarity, W. Shelling and Schopenhauer tried to clarity, which thoughts on this subject can be understood and evaluated only due to their own metaphysics (see Schelling, Schopenhauer). Ficht, recognizing the supreme principle of a self-interactive, or self-adequate, I, claimed metaphysical freedom, and he, unlike Kant, insisted on this freedom more as on creative strength, rather than on an unconditional moral norm. French Fichte - Meng de Biran, carefully examined the active and volitional side of the mental life, redeem the psychological ground for the concept of will of the will as a generating cause (Causa Efficies) of human actions. - From the newest philosophers of Lausanne Prof. Charles Secretan argues in his "Philosophie De La Liberté" Primates of a volitional beginning over mental and in man, and in God, to the detriment of the Divine Mention, from which the secretan eliminates the knowledge of free human actions to their commit. Final formulation and solving the issue of freedom of will - see philosophers; There's literature.
Freedom of will is the ability of a person to self-determination in their actions. In the context of earlyregary culture in the concept of S.V. Not so much philosophical and categorical, as much as legal significance. A free person is a citizen of the policy, the one who lives on the ground of his ancestors. The opposite of him - a prisoner of war, taken to a foreign land and turned into a slave. The source of individual freedom - polis, his land (solon); Free from birth living on Earth polis, where a sensible law is established. Therefore, the antonym of the term "free" is not so much "slave", how much "Negreb", "Barbarian". In the Homer Epos, the concept of freedom reveals another meaning. A free person is one who acts without coercion, due to their own nature. An extremely possible expression of freedom - in the actions of the hero, overcoming the fate and the fact that compares with the gods.
Theoretical background of the scientific and philosophical formulation of the issue of S.V. It consists in the thinking of the sophists opposed to Fusis (the only possible, generic order itself) and "NOMOS" (the order of life, independently established by each people). Socrates emphasizes the decisive role of knowledge in the implementation of freedom. Genuinely free, moral act is possible only on the basis of the clear concepts of good and valor. No one can act badly by goodwill, a person strives for the better in his actions, and only ignorance, ignorance pushes him to the wrong way. Plato connects the concept of S.V. With the Being of God as the highest "idea". Fortunately consecrates the order that acts in the world as an order is suitable. It is free to act, it means to act, focusing on the ideal of the good, coordinating personal aspirations with public justice.
Aristotle considers the problem S.V. In the context of moral selection. Freedom is related to the knowledge of a special kind - knowledge-skill ("Fronesis"). It is excellent of knowledge - "techno", which ensures the solution of tasks according to the known pattern. Moral knowledge-skill launching the way freedom focuses on choosing a better act in the context of ethical selection. The source of such knowledge is a specific moral intuition, which is brought up in a person with life tests. Stoicism develops its vision of freedom, recognizing the priority of providence in human life. Independent value of the personality of the Stoiki see in compliance with duties and debt (Paniai). At the same time, providence can also be considered as the law of nature, and as will in a person (position). The will in the latter case acts as an instrument of fight against fate, and as such requires special education. Epicur examines the question of S.V. In its atomistic physics. The latter is opposed to the deterministic atomistic of democritus. Physics of Epicura justifies the possibility of S.V.: As its physical model, the epicuric indicates the possibility of free deviation of the atom from the straight trajectory. The reasons for such a deviation are not external, it occurs completely spontaneously. A special stage in the formulation of the issue of S.V. Masted Christian ideology. A man is designed to implement his essence in unity with the Divine, teaches the Bible. The problem, however, is to combine the universalness of God's Will, on the one hand, and the moral force of a person who has not yet reached (and in essence never reaching) compounds with the deity - on the other.
Christian literature concerning this problem can be classified on the basis of emphasising this or the other side of this interaction. So, Pelagii (5th century) justifies a fairly broad interpretation of the Christian idea about the participation of the will of the person in the design of his fate, unwittingly adjusting the significance of the redemptive sacrifice of Christ. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe versatility of providence in controversy with this point of view is defended by Augustine. The implementation of good in human activity is possible only with the help of God's grace. Moreover, its action Augustine does not associate with the conscious appeal to it from a person. She manifests itself independently of him. Thomas Akvinsky sees the sphere S.V. In the choice of goals and means of achieving good. According to him, only one right path leads to the goal. A reasonable creature needs to seek good, evil, as the result of rational choice is impossible. The variety of positions is manifested in the era of the Reformation, Erasmus Rotterdam protects the idea of \u200b\u200bS.V. Luther protrudes against her, insisting on the literal reading of the dogma about the divine predestination. God initially called on some people to save, others sentenced to eternal flocks. The future fate of man remains, however, unknown himself. Luther pointed to a special sphere of being, "testing" which the personality is able to consider the election signs that appear in it. We are talking On the sphere of human daily and primarily about professional activities, the successful implementation of which is a sign of the viability of (chosenness) of the person in the face of the world and God. Calvin, who believes that the Will of God is entirely programming by the Being of God.
Protestantism practically reduces the freedom of will to the minimum value. The fundamental paradox of Protestant ethics is, however, in the fact that by postulating the passivity of human will in the implementation of God's grace, she, forcing a person to search for "ciffers" of elect, thus managed to raise the activist type of personality. With Protestantism, Iesuit L. de Molina (1535-1600) (1535-1600) (1535-1600): Among the various kinds of all-life of God, his theory has allocated a special "average knowledge" about what can happen at all, but specifically will be implemented in compliance with a certain condition. This is the condition of Molina and tied with a living human will. This look got his further development Suarez, who considered that God informs his grace only to the actions of a person, during the commission of which the help of God does not suppress S.V. The teachings of K. "1585-1638), in fact, revives the ideas of Calvin and Luther - a man of war choosing not between good and evil, but only between various types of sin. A similar look was also developed by mystic M. De Molinos, who argued the idea of \u200b\u200bthe passivity of the human soul in the face of God (see Quietism). Topic S.V. Detects yourself in the philosophy of the new time. For Gobbs S.V. It means primarily the lack of physical coercion.
Freedom is interpreted by it in an individually natural dimension: the person is all the more free, the more opportunities for self-development opens in front of him. Freedom of a citizen and "freedom" of slave differ only in quantitatively: the first does not possess absolute freedom, one cannot say about the second that he is completely incomprehensible. According to Spinoz, only God is free, because Only its actions are determined by internal law, the person as part of nature is incomprehensible. Nevertheless, he is committed to freedom, translating inadequate ideas into distinct, affects - to rational love for God. The mind multiplies freedom, suffering reduce it, "said Leibniz, distinguishing freedom negative (freedom from ...) and positive (freedom for ...). For Locke, the concept of freedom is equivalent to freedom of action; Freedom is the ability to act in accordance with a conscious choice. It was S.V., opposed to reason, acts as a fundamental definition of a person, is the opinion of Rousseau. The transition from natural freedom, limited to the forces of the individual himself, to "moral freedom" is possible through the use of laws that people prescribe themselves. According to Kanta, S.V. It is possible only in the sphere of moral patterns, anti-inflammatory patterns of nature. For Ficht, freedom is a tool for the implementation of moral law.
Schelling finds its solution to the problem of S.V., counting the actions are free if they stem from the "inner need of the essence", the freedom of a person stands at a crossroads between God and nature, being and non-existence. According to Hegel, Christianity contributes to the consciousness of a European person an idea that history is a process in the awareness of freedom. Nietzsche considers the whole history of morality - the story of delusions regarding S.V. According to his appearance, S.V. - Fiction, "misleading all organic." The author's self-effectiveness implies its purification from moral ideas of freedom and responsibility. Marxist philosophy saw the prerequisite for the free development in the fact that the associated manufacturers are able to rationally regulate the metabolism between society and nature. The growth of society's productive forces creates material prerequisites for the free development of individuals. The kingdom of genuine freedom threw in Marxism as communism, destroying private property, operation, and thus the very basis of coercion. S.V. - one of central concepts Fundamental ontology of Hydegger.
Freedom is the deepest definition of Genesis, the "Basis of Fundament", placing an existence in a permanent selection situation. Similarly, for Sartre, freedom is not the quality of an individual or its actions, it is rather a sufficant definition of human nature. Freedom, the choice and the situation is the same, the philosopher believes. In Russian philosophy, the problem of freedom, S.V. Specially designed Berdyaev. The world of objects, where suffering and evil, opposes creativity, designed to overcome the conservative forms of objectives. The results of creativity will inevitably be objectified, but the creative act itself is equally inevitably free. Perhaps the dominant trend in the interpretations S.V. (especially in the 20th century) acts point of view, according to which a person is always worthy of what happens to him. Find grounds for justification can be only in the "border" cases. (See transgression.)
A.P. Zhdanovsky
The newest philosophical dictionary. Cost. Gitsanov A.A. Minsk, 1998.
FREE WILL- The concept of European moral philosophy, finally generated by I.Kanta in the meaning of the intelligent ability of the individual to moral self-determination. In retrospective terms, the term "freedom of will" can be viewed as a historical and philosophical metaphor: its historically fixed connotations are significantly wider than the possible normative value of the term, in which the meaning of the concept of "freedom" is emphasized, and "Will" can be replaced by a "solution", "choice" etc. equivalents. However, for many centuries, the substantive "kernel" of metaphors demonstrates a high degree of invariance of the main problems: what is a moral action; Does the charge implies freedom of will? In other words: should there be moral autonomy (as a moral condition and as an ability to generate out-natural causality) and what is its limits, i.e. How does Natural (Divine) determinism relate to the intellectual-moral freedom of the subject?
In the history of philosophy, two main ways of deduction concept of freedom of will can be distinguished. The first (Aristotle, Thomas Akvinsky and Hegel adhered to him, is reduced to the analytical deduction of the concept of freedom of will from the very concept of will as the ability of the mind to self-determination and the generation of special causality. The second method (traced from Plato and Stoics through Augustine and most Scholastov right up to Kant) - postulation of freedom of will as independence from the external (natural or divine) causality and, by virtue of this, as an ability to self-determination. For the second way there are two types of justification. Firstly, theodice (known since the time of Plato and found the completion of the Leibnitsa), where the freedom of will is postulated to proof the innocence of the Divine in the world evil. Secondly, opposite by the initial premise (denial of all the theoties), but similar to the principle of a Cant method of proof, where freedom of will is postulated by the morally legislative reason. These two evidence are similar in the sense that they do not depend on the meaningful definition of the will: rather assumptions of some size, which ensures the formal correctness of the "moral equations". That is why "freedom of will" is equivalent here "Freedom of choice", "solutions", etc.
"Freedom of will" in the ancient and medieval thought (Greek. Τὸ ἐφ 'ἡμῖν, αὐτεξούσιον, αὐὐτεξουσία, less often προαίρεσνς, αὐτονομία; lat. Arbitrium, Liberum Arbitrium). Greek moral reflection originated in a universal cosmological paradigm, which allowed to explain the moral, social and cosmic order through each other: morality performed as one of the characteristics of the inclusion of the individual during space events. The Law of Space Retreat, acting in the appearance of rock or fate, expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bimpersonal compensatory justice (clearly formulated, for example, Anaximandr - in 1): not subjective wines, but the need to compensate for damage to any "culprit" or "cause " Thesis dominates thesis: responsibility does not imply the freedom of will as an indispensable condition (for example, II. XIX 86; HES. Theog. 570 SQ.; 874; OPP. 36; 49; 225 SQ.; Aesch. Pers. 213 -214; 828; Soph. Oed. Col. 282; 528; 546 SQ.; 1001 SQ.).
Socrates and Plato opened new approaches to the problem freedom both responsibility: imputation is more sustainably associated with the arbitrariness of solutions and action, morality is understood as the epiphenener of the highest moral good, and freedom is like the ability to good. The responsibility of Plato does not yet become a fully moral category, but there is no longer the problem of the violation of the cosmic order: a person is responsible because it has knowledge of moral and proper (parallels at Democrita - 33 C; 601-604; 613-617; 624; Lurie). The virtue of the action is identified with his reasonableness: no one fires voluntarily (ὐὐδεὶς ἑκὼν ἁμαρτάνει - gorg. 468 CD; 509 E; Legg. 860 D SQ.). From the need to justify the deity of Puton develops the first theedecy: every soul selects his lot and is responsible for the choice ("This is the wines of the electoral; God is innocent" - (rep. X 617 e, cf. Tun. 29 E SD.) However freedom For Plato, it is not concluded in the autonomy of the subject, but in ascetic condition (in involvement of knowledge and the breathtaking higher good).
Platonov's theory is a transitional stage from archaic schemes to Aristotle, with which the important moment of thinking of freedom of will is associated: an understanding of the "volitional" as the self-determination of the mind, which allows to talk about the "spontaneity" of the arbitrariness and analytically withdraw the concept of the independence of the mind decisions from the concept of the decision itself; The determination of voluntary as "what depends on us" and the indication of the unconditional connection of imputation with the voluntariness of the act. The mind is first understood as a source of specific causality other than other types of nature, the need, the case, habits (NIC. ETH. III 5, 1112A31 s.; Rhet. L 10, 1369 A 5-6); arbitrary - as something, the reason for which is in the action performing (NIC. ETH. III 3, 1111 A 21 s.; III 5, 1112 A 31; Magn. Mor. I 17, 1189 A 5 SQ.), or "then What depends on us "(τὸ ἐφ 'ἡμῖν) - imputation makes sense only in relation to the wise-arbitrary actions of NIC. Eth. III 1, 1110 B 1 S.; Magn. Mor. I 13, 1188 A 25 s.). The concept of "guilt" gets, so on, subjective and personal meaning. Aristotle outlined the future semantic circle of the terms "Will", "Choice" ("Decision"), "Arbitrary", "Purpose", etc. All the terms were perceived by the costs, and they moved through it to the Roman authors and in the patristic. The conclusions of Aristotle are extremely productive, but often submitted to them in the social context (moral of free citizens).
The stoics cleared the "metaphysical" core of the problem from social "husk" and closely approached the concept of "clean" subject's autonomy. Their theotice, or rather cosmodice, developed the ideas of Plato: if evil can not be a property of cosmic causality, it stems from a person. Applicability requires independence of moral solutions from external causality (CIC. AC. Pr. II 37; Gell. Noct. Att. VII 2; SVF II 982 SQ.). The only thing that "depends on us," - our "consent" (συγκατάθεσις) to accept or reject this or that "representation" (SVF I 61; II 115; 981); On this basis, the idea of \u200b\u200bmoral molding was based. The stoic scheme of free freedom, was, so., Is conceived with a double "safety margin". The solution of the mind is a source of spontaneous causality and, by definition, cannot but be free (the Aristotelian thoughts). Secondly, it should be free to imputation to be fundamentally possible (conclusions from Platonov type theodice). At the same time, such autonomy did not fit into the deterministic picture of stoic cosmology.
Developed by a little earlier, an alternative concept of epicuris proceeded almost from the same parcels, striving to free the arbitrariness (ὸ ἐφ 'ἡμῖν) from external determinism and associate imputation with arbitrary action (DIOG. L. X 133-134; Fatis Avolsa Voluntas - Lucr. De Rer. Nat. II 257). However, by replacing the determinism of rock as much as global random determinism, the epicurus lost the opportunity to explain the final basis of the moral decision, and its concept remained marginalized. So, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe moral autonomy and the unconditional relationship of freedom and the oppositeness of action was the dominant no earlier than 3 V. BC. And found its paradigmatic expression in the dam (ENN. VI 8.5-6). At the same time, the internal responsibility in the ancient understanding is distinguished by a strong legal tint: for ancient consciousness, the difference between morality and the right did not have that principal nature, which it acquired in the era of Christianity, and especially in a new time. The universal imperative of antiquity can be formulated as follows: The goal is its own perfection and the right of the neighbor. Regulatory terms transmitting the concept of freedom of will in the texts of non-Christian authors were Greek. τὸ ἐφ 'ἡμῖν, less often προαίρεσις (mainly in epithect), even less often ὐὐτονομία and αὐτεξουσία (including derivatives, for example, EPICT.' DISS. IV 1.56; 62; Procl. in rp. II p. 266,22; 324 , 3 kroll; In Tim. III P. 280.15 DIEHL), LAT. Arbitrium, Potestas, in Nobis (Cicero, Seneca).
Christianity 1) radically transformed the moral imperative, announced the purpose of the benefit of the neighbor and separating the scope of ethics from the right of law; 2) modified theoeoticine, replacing the impersonal cosmic determinism of a unique divine causality. At the same time, the problematic side of the question has not changed significant changes. The current semantic field and the tested moves of thought are invariably present in the Eastern Patristic from the Clement Alexandria (Strom. V 14,136.4) and Origen (De Pr. I 8.3; III 1.1 SQ.) To Nememia (39-40) and John Damaskina (exp. Fid. 21; 39-40); Along with the traditional τὸ ἐφ 'ἡμῖν, the term αὐτεξούσιον (αὐτεξούσια) begins to be widely used. Rising Nememia's Aristotle "Mind - something free and self-abuse" (ἐλεύθερον ... καὶ ὐὐὐὐξξύσιον τὸ λογικόν de nat. HOM. 2, p.36.26 SQ. Morani) typical for a large period of Christian reflection (Wed Orig. In EV. IOAN, FR.43).
At the same time, the issues of freedom of will increasingly became the property of Latin Christianity (starting from Ternullian - Adv. Herrn. 10-14; de ex. Cast. 2), finding your climax from Augustine (It uses the technical term Liberum Arbitrium, regulatory and for scholastic). In his early works - Treatise "On Free Decision" ("De Libero Arbitrio") and others - a classical theotice was developed, based on the idea of \u200b\u200brationalistly understood world order: God is not responsible for evil; The only source of evil is the will. So that morality is possible, the subject should be free from external (including supernatural) causality and capable of choosing between good and evil. Morality is in the following moral debt: the idea of \u200b\u200bmoral law itself acts as a sufficient motive (although the content of the law has a sorrowful character). In the late period, this scheme is replaced by the concept of predestination, which reaches the completion of anti-pelagian treatises ("On grace and free decision", "On the predetermination of saints", etc.) and leads Augustine to the final discontinuity with ethical rationalism. Altagonists of the late Augustine, Pelagii. and his followers, defended the same classical theory of freedom of arbitrariness and imputation (in the form of "synergies", i.e. the interactions of the human and divine will), which Augustine developed in the early essays.
The medieval issues of freedom of will in the main features dates back to the tradition of Augustin "De Libero Arbitrio"; Intermediaries between Augustine and Scholastics are Boethations (Cons. V 2-3) and Erien (DE PRAED. DIV. 5; 8; 10). Early Scholasticic - Anselm Canterberian, Abelar, Peter Lombardsky, Bernard Clervosky, Gogo and Rishar Saint-Victorovsky - Sustainably reproduced the classic scheme, focusing on the Augustinian version, but not without some nuances. In particular, Anselm Canterbury understands Liberum Arbitrium not as a neutral ability of arbitrariness (later its Liberum Arbitrium Indifferentiae), but as freedom to good (de lib. Arb. 1; 3). High scholasticism sets out a classic tradition with a noticeable peripatetic accent: at 13 V. The basis of the argument becomes the Aristotelian doctrine of the self-deviatingness of the soul and the self-determination of the mind, while the Augustinian theotice with the postulation of freedom of will is moving into the background. This position is typical for Albert Great and especially for the Thomas of Aquinsky, using direct borrowing from Aristotle, in particular STH. I Q.84.4 \u003d ETH. NIC. III 5,1113 A 11-12). Liberum Arbitrium is a purely intellectual ability close to the ability of judgment (I Q.83,2-3). The will is free from external necessity, since its decision itself is a necessity (I Q. 82.1 CF. Aug. Civ. D. V 10). The key aspect of the problem of free freedom is imputed: the act is charged on the grounds that a reasonable creature is capable of self-determination (I Q.83,1).
Literature:
1. Verweyen J.Das Problem Der Willensfreiheit in der Scholastik. HDLB., 1909;
2. Saarinen R.Weakness of the nill in mediaeval thaught. From Angusfme to Buridan. Helsinki, 1993;
3. Pohlenz M.Griechische Freiheit. WESEN UND WERDEN EINES LEBENSIDEALS. HDLB., 1955;
4. Clark M.T.Augustutine. Philosopher of Freedom. A study in comparative phone Philosophy. N. Y.-P., 1958;
5. ADKINS A.Merit and Responsibility. A Study in Greek Values. Oxf., 1960;
6. DIE GOLDENE REGEL. Eine Einführung in Die Geschichte der Antiken Und Früchristüchen vulgärethik. Gött., 1962;
7. Holl J.Historische und Systematische Untersuchungen Zum Bedingungsverhältnis von Freiheit und Verantworthlichkeit. Königstein, 1980;
8. Pohlenz M.Griechische Freiheit. Wfesen und Werden Eins Lebensideals, 1955;
9. Clark M.T.Augustine. Philosopher of Freedom. A study in comparative phone Philosophy. N. Y.-P., 1958.
A.A.Stolaarov
Renaissance with anthropocentric characteristic for him and the Reformation gave the problem of free will of the Will special sharpness. Pico Della Mirandol saw the dignity and originality of a person in freedom of will as a gift of God, thanks to which it is possible to be creative participation in the conversion of the world. God does not predetermine the place of a person in the world nor his duties. By his will, a person can rise to the level of stars or angels or go down to the Skotian state, for it is a product of its own choice and effort. The initial sinfulness of human nature is moving into the shadow.
The elevation of human freedom of will forced to return to the problem of its coordination with the omnipotence and the allocation of God. Erasmus Rotterdamsky (De Libero Arbitrio, 1524) insisted on the possibility of "synergies" - combining the divine grace and human freedom of will, subject to cooperation. Luther (DE SERVO Arbitrio, 1525) declared freedom of will to the "pure deception" of the "illusion of human pride": the will of a person is not free or for good, nor for evil, it is in unconditional slavery or in God or the devil; The outcome of all actions is predetermined God's will. In the spoiled fall of the human soul without divine grace, pure thoughts may not arise. An even more rigid position on the issue of predestination took J.Kalvin in the "Instructions of the Christian Faith" (1536): Even faith itself in Christ is the action of divine grace, people are extinctly predetermined to salvation or curse, and no act can not be made of grace, nor losing it.
So, the founders of Protestantism brought to the logical limit of the providencyalist point of view of the late Augustine. The consistent conduct of such "supranulestic determinism" led to the contradiction, if not to absurd. Luther and Calvin eliminated the possibility of free self-determination, but thereby negotiated the ability of a person to be a leader, subject, and not the object of action and was questioned by human godlybody. Trying to preserve at least the visibility of human activity (without any speech about wine and sin), Luther was forced to allow the freedom of the will of people in relation to the fact that they are lower than them, for example. to property, and say that they are sinning still in their will. Calvin deprives a person's ability to promote salvation, but allows you to make yourself worthy of salvation. But here there is any connection between the action and the result. Already Filipp Melanchton ("Augsburg Confession", 1531,1540) refused Luter's extremes, and the Arminine sent against the Calvinist predetermining the movement of repairs.
Post-Tident Catholicism took a more cautious position on the issue of freedom of Yulia: The Triedant Cathedral (1545-63) condemned the Protestant "slavery of the will", returning to the Pelagian-Erasmus idea of \u200b\u200bcooperation between man and God, the relationship of Acts and Retreats. Jesuita I.Layola, L. De Molina, P. Yes Fonsek, F. Saarez, etc. announced the grace of the property of each person, saving the same - the result of its active adoption. "We will expect success only from grace, but we will work as if it depends only on us" (I.Layola). Their opponents - Yansenists (K.yanseni, A.Ano, B. Pascal, etc.) leanned towards the moderately Augustinian version of the predetermination, proving that the freedom of will is lost after the fall. The Jesuit Apology of Freedom of Will and "Small Affairs" was often turned around by the arbitrary in the interpretation of moral norms (the doctrine "Probabibism" ), and Jansenistral moral rigorism bordered with fanaticism.
Theological disputes on freedom of will have determined the placement of positions and in the European philosophy of the new time. According to Descarte, in man the spiritual substance is independent of bodily, and freedom of will is one of its manifestations. Freedom of the will of a person is absolute, since the will can make a decision in any situation and even contrary to the mind: "Will in nature is free to such an extent that it can never be forced." This neutral ability of an arbitrary choice (Liberum Arbitrium Indifferentiae) is the lowest stage of will. Its level increases as the reasonable foundations of choice expands. Disease and sleep is fought by free will, clear reason contributes to its highest manifestation. Due to the Cartesian dualism, it turned out to be impossible to explain how the will invades the chain of changes in the bodily substance.
Trying to overcome this dualism, representatives okkazionalism BUT. Geylinx and N. Malbrush accented the unity of human and divine will.
At Protestant soil, supranatural determinism was transformed into naturalistic (T.GBBS, B.Pinose, J. Plisley, D.Gartley, etc.). Hobbes Divine Providence is moved to the beginning of a continuous chain of natural reasons, all events in the world and human actions are caused and necessary. Freedom of a person is determined by the lack of external obstacles to the action: a person is free if it acts out of fear of violence and can do what he wishes. The desire itself is not free, it is caused by external objects, congenital properties and habits. The choice is only the struggle of the motives, the "alternation of fear and hope", its outcome is determined by the strongest motive. The illusion of liberty freedom arises due to the fact that a person does not know the strength determined by his action. A similar position is reproduced by Spinoza: "People are aware of their desire, but they do not know the reasons for which they are determined" and the leibyman: "... In man, everything is known and determined ... And the human soul is in some way there is a spiritual automatic."
Moral concepts and motives are put in one row in natural reasons.
The ratio of freedom of will and causal determination is one of the central problems of Cant philosophy. As an empirical subject, a person is subordinated to immutable natural laws, and with the knowledge of all previous conditions for its actions can be predicted with the same accuracy as solar and lunar eclipses. But how "The thing in yourself" , not subject to the conditions of space, time and causality, a person has freedom of will - the ability to self-determination regardless of sensual motives. This ability of Kant calls a practical mind. Unlike Descartes, he does not consider the idea of \u200b\u200bfreedom of Will inherent: it is displayed from the concept of proper (Sollen). The highest form of freedom of will ("positive freedom") consists in moral autonomy, the intrinsication of the mind.
Fichte has sharply moved accent from being for activities, declaring the whole world ("non-I") product of free creativity I and completely subordinate theoretical mind practical, knowledge (Wissen) - conscience (Gewissen). Causal relationships become the alienation of target relations, and the world of natural dependencies is the illusory form of perception of products of the unconscious activities of human imagination. Freedom acquisition is a return to myself, awareness of it that it also produced unconsciously ascent from sensual attraction to conscious goaling, limited only to the presence of other reasonable me; Through the right freedom is implemented in society. Movement to freedom of will is the content of the Gegelian psychology of the Spirit, and the story appears in Hegel as the formation of subject forms of freedom: abstract law, morality, morality. In the culture of the Western world, which is born together with Christianity, the acquisition of freedom is understood as the purpose of man. The arbitrariness is only a step in the development of freedom, its negative rational shape (abstraction from a total of random), detecting freedom of will as an ability to self-determination. The highest detection of freedom of will is the moral act, its act coincides with the solution of the mind.
Schelling, perceiving ideas, I. Boyme and F. Baeder, focused in the concept of freedom of the will momentum of antinomicity. The human freedom of will is rooted not in the mind and its autonomy, but has a metaphysical depth, it can lead both good and sin, vocal: In the desire for self-affirmation, a person can consciously choose evil. This is an irrationalistic understanding of freedom of will excluded her interpretation as the domination of the mind over sensuality.
Marxism, following the hegelev tradition, sees the main content of freedom of will in the degree of practical awareness. According to F. Engels Formula, freedom of will is "the ability to make a decision with knowledge." A.Shopengauer returns to Spinozovsky interpretation of freedom of will as the illusions of the human reason: the attribute of freedom is not at the phenomenal action, but to the non-sub-existence (will as things in itself) and is practically reduced to its breathtaking nature.
In the 20th century In the "new ontology" N.Gartman, the concepts of freedom and activity, freedom and independence are disconnected. Lower layers of being - inorganic and organic - more active, but have less freedom, higher layers - spiritual and spiritual - more free, but do not possess their own activity. The relationship of freedom of negative (arbitrariness) and positive (reasonable value determination) is rethought: a person has freedom will not only in relation to the lowest physical and mental determination, but also in relation to God, in other words, to an objective hierarchy of values, the world of which does not have an immutable determinizing force. Ideal values \u200b\u200bare oriented by a person, but do not predetermine the mercy. To the Kantic anti-rope of freedom and natural causality, Hartman adds antinomy of the application: proper determines the behavior of the personality ideal, i.e. A spectrum of opportunities, but that the choice takes place, a real will is needed, which is associated with the autonomy of the person, and not the autonomy of the principle.
Ontological substantiation of freedom of will kept in the writings of such representatives phenomenology, like M.Sheler, Ryiner, R. Jigand). A kind of "idolatry of freedom" (S.A. Luitsky) presented existentialism , raisted antinomicity of human existence to deep tragedy - "Healthy Tragedy of Life" from K. Lespers or "Tragic Absurd" from J.-P. Sartra and A.Komyu. Religious existentialism interprets freedom of will as follows the instructions of transcendental (God), expressed in the form of symbols and ciphers of being, which are voiced by conscience. In atheistic existentialism, freedom of will is the ability to preserve itself, rooted in nothing and expressing in denial: Values \u200b\u200bhave no objective being, a person will construct them to fulfill their freedom. The need is an illusion that justifies the "escape from freedom", as the Neophreedist E. From. Absolute freedom makes the burden of responsibility so heavy that the "Sisifer's heroism" is necessary for his inconsistencies.
Russian religious philosophy of 20 century. (N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.O.lovsky, B.P.Vyshslavetsev, G.P. Fedotov, S.A.levitsky, etc.) comes from a combination of divine grace with the free self-determination of a person. The most radical is the position of Berdyaev, who considers after Y. Beeom, that freedom that rooted in the Soviet God "abyss" precedes not only nature, but also by being in general; A free creative act becomes Berdyaev Supreme and self-sufficient value. In a specific ideal-realization of N.O. Sloma freedom of will is declared by the essential attribute of "substantial figures", independently creating their character and their fate (including from his body, character, past, and even from God himself), independent of The outside world, since all the events essence for their behavior only reasons, not the reasons.
Literature:
1. Windelband V.On freedom of will. - In the book: He isSpirit and history. M., 1995;
2. Vystevtsev B.P. Ethics of Transfigured Eros. M., 1994;
3. Levitsky S.A.Freedom tragedy. M., 1995;
4. Lossky N.O.Free will. - In the book: He isFavorites. M., 1991;
5. Luther M.About slavery of will;
6. Erasmus Rotterdam. Diatribibe, or reasoning about free freedom. - In the book: Erazm Rotterdam. Philosopher. . M., 1986;
7. Hartmann N.Ethik. V., 1926.
Will of man and her freedom: determination of will, her freedom, the intelligent-conscious orientation of human will
What is a person's will?
Under the will, you should understand the ability of the soul, the ability of a reasonable human personality to move into motion, fulfilling its decisions and ideas.This ability is manifested in total, combining the mind, feelings and will of a person. "Only being the function of the whole soul, the will flies in all its depth and strength," says Professor V.V. Zenkovsky.
How to understand freedom of will?
Freedom, as such, inherent in all the abilities of the soul: freedom of mindmanifests itself in its reasonable orientation, freedom feelings -in its diverse requests and expressions, free will- In her ability to meet the needs of a person, serve his reasonable self-determination.
What is the reasonable-conscious orientation of human will?
This focus is expressed in the fact that, when solving vital issues, a person is guided by the motives of the alleged case, listening to the votes of conscience, debt, responsibility and independently selects the most important of them for the adoption of the necessary reasonable solution and high-speed action.
3. Begin freedom of will and its completion
The beginning of the freedom of will and its completion: the motive, motives and their struggle, making a decision and determination to conduct this decision to live a real case, evaluating the completed case
Freedom of will in its implementation takes place the following volitional moments: prompting, wrestling motives perand vsthe upcoming action, the action itself and its assessment.
What is the urge?
Movement – this is a common, targeted reason for the commitment of any case. It is expressed in pre-configuration, in the installation of the soul, in the excitation of all its forces on the upcoming business. The urge arises inside a person, from his depth needs and most often manifests itself in vital actions. But every action is due to the struggle of the motives. perand vsthis action.
What are the motives?
Motives – this is a number of considerationsin favor of the upcoming case or against him. As a result of the inhomogeneity of motives in the field of self-consciousness, a person is played out fightmotifs. The whole person participates in this struggle. The reason analyzes the situation that has arisen, the mind evaluates. His voice applies to conscience, their pressure is a sense of duty, responsibility and everyday practical considerations and needs.
What is our role i In this struggle motives?
Our i combines all these voices and strength, guided not only to the motives as general reason, but also a high appointment of a person. The wrestling of motives usually ends by accepting a certain decisionby this issue and the emergence of determination to conduct this solution to life,having finished it real business.
What stages of development have freedom of the will of a person?
The will of a person, as the ability to introduce it into a real, practical connection with individual phenomena of the world, has the following steps: movement(General targeted reason for committing a case) wrestling motives(formal freedom) decision(advantage in favor of the case when choosing motives perthis case) determination(initial moment of real freedom) act(a business) evaluation of completed business using its fruits in the subsequent life of a person(Evaluation of Freedom).
4. Freedom types of will
Freedom types of will: the interaction of freedom of will with a high appointment of a person; Freedom formal, freedom is reasonable-conscious, real; Freedom moral, based on highly moral self-consciousness, choosing the best in the light of the truths of God, which has the fulfillment of the will of God in its foundation; Freedom is the ideal, an example of achieving the highest freedom, the achievement of its person who is in completeness of obedience to the will of God; Awareness of its freedom through self-surveillance and power of moral feeling
How is the freedom of will interact with a high appointment of man?
The will in its development passes through the following points: freedom formal, freedom real and freedom is estimated. Will is manifested by a versatile, because it is closely associated with a high appointment of a person. Its appointment consists of the nearest and more remote duties and tasks. This includes personal, family, public, production and labor. The degree of fulfillment of these duties depends on the degree of development of versatile human freedom. And freedom is formal and real, moral and ideal.
What freedom is called formal?
Formalthe freedom of experience is called a man to be disconnected to good or evil. Therefore, it represents a conscious act of self-determination, the decline of the will to good or evil, but not yet a statement in one of them, but only a stop in choosing on something one.
Such a state was at the prodigal son from the gospel parable when he dying on the side of the distanceit turned out to be in front of the choice: or die on a stranger, or with an endangered feeling to return to his father. It happens to each of us when we are standing before the need to choose: fulfillment or non-fulfillment of one or another intention or case.
What is a real, wise-conscious human freedom?
Usually the freedom of will does not stop on the formal preference of one motive to another or one action to another, but consolidates its choice realexcitement of all power and abilities of the soul to fulfill the elected action for reasons of life-practical goals and needs.In this case, the choice leads to decision making, to the accumulation of forces for the upcoming case and its most commitment. This will consist of real, reasonable-conscious human freedom.
What freedom is called moral?
Moral freedomit is formed in the sphere of internal highly moral self-consciousness of a person. Therefore, in the struggle of the motives of our i It manifests itself with full moral determination and strength. And the actions here may be really happen truly freealthough it is often preceded by self-encompassion, the breaking of their self, natural pride.
What motives moral freedom makes your choice?
The moral freedom enshrines its choice to the real excitation of all forces and the ability of the soul to the upcoming case, not for considerations of everyday life, but based on high moral self-consciousness, and manifests itself with full moral determination and strength.
What chooses a moral freedom for a person?
Lyubomadrie teaches that freedom manifests itself with the ability to wisely choose and impartially to do the best. Moral freedom therefore manifests itself as the active ability of the soul,not enslaved sin, not burdened by a condemning conscience; She chooses the best in the light of the truths of God and leads it the best in action with the help of God's grace.
What is the moral freedom seeking?
This freedom is not under the power to argue to anyone, for it has in its foundation the will of God. Moreover, not to the detriment of herself, for she strives for the execution of the will of God and has no need to spend human decree. The moral freedom completely agree to obey the law and legitimate power, because she herself wants what the obedience requires.
When does a person opens up his freedom perfect?
Perfect freedomopens when we live in God, good and truth and when, as a result, our the personality becomes free of its creature limitations.This freedom is still freedom triumphant.She is inherent in the devotee who won himself, his self, selfishness, pride, and thereby his opposition to God and people. There is no longer slavery sin, but slavery of righteousness(). In this "slavery" freedom prevails from sin and complete returns to obedience to love for God and people.In this freedom, angels and holy people are being established in God.
Who gives us an example of achieving the highest freedom of will?
Christ the Savior gives us such an example. He gave his life for the salvation of people and for the sake of love for them survived in Gethsemane boringmotives to excessive and unprecedented voltage - to bloody sweat,to enter into a complete obedience to the Heavenly Father (). Thus, he showed us how hardly the genuine, the highest freedom of will is achieved.
For what person is possible such freedom?
It is possible only for a person who is leading a constant struggle and a victory over himself, over sins and passions when "I still don't live, but Christ lives in me"(). With the finished freedom, people are not born. It is produced, he is spoiled by a sinful man in a grave struggle with his self and with immoral phenomena in the surrounding life. Each person must draw their freedom and deserve.
"If the flesh is not killed," Petr Damaskin teaches the priest, "and the person will not be the whole of God's spirit, he cannot perform the will of God without coercion. When the grace of the Spirit reigns in it, then there will be no will of his own, but everything that happens to him will be the will of God. "
Thus, the highest freedom of will is possible only for a person who elects for itself the highest principle of Christian freedom - the refusal of his limited human will through the entry into completeness of obedience to the will of God, good and saving.
Why do we not aware enough of our freedom?
This is explained by the fact that we are not always attentive to the rapid flow of our mental processes. Usually, only with large and responsible matters of life, we are serious in acceptance reasonable solutions. Most often in our consciousness, the inner stream of motifs comes in gravity. From here to our i necessary develop self-surveillanceclearly distinguish between free and unwitting, good and thin inner states and movements. It is also necessary to have clean and power of moral feeling,without which it is impossible to deal with sin, nor have the clear consciousness of his moral freedom.
5. Void
Void: Void - Compliance with the order of life established by God, the three meanings of the word "good", the perfection of the vastity, the beginning of a good deed and its development, an excellent alphabet of void, reading the internal law on the srices of his heart, a sustainable mood to do good, interaction with the grace of God
What do we call virtue?
Do good -it means to keep the order of life established by God. In the Bible, compliance with this order is called righteousnessby void. According to the word of the presented brand of the devotee, "the execution of the commandment is to perform the commanded, and the virtue happens when made consistent with the truth."
With virtue of closely connected real manifestation of free freedom.According to St. John the Districted, "the good militant gives rise to work, and the beginning of the work - virtue." The beginning of doing, he calls the "color" of void, and the "fruit" is constant. Delaining good needs to be constantly learning and acquired "skill", and it is rooted in good.
So in the word voidthe idea of \u200b\u200bthe activities of a person aimed at committing good - to comply with the order of life established by God.
How should I understand the word good?
In this word, the understanding of the human activity committed by a sense of duty,or follow conduct standardscreating free self-determination, or aspiration to the highest goal of life.
In the first sense good has what is good, which corresponds to its nature and appointment.In this sense, we understand the best works of art and all that wears the seal of perfection, a sign of high quality.
In the second meaning good is the norm of human behavior,determined by its moral feeling and built by free self-determination, that is, on the basis of the struggle of good with evil in the soul of man.
And in the third sense it should be considered good because there is objectively, independently, regardless of us,and what is good and benefit in itself. In this sense Good and good is only God. Live with himbased on human religious experience, and there higher goal Life, and therefore good in the third meaning of this word.
What depends on the perfection of virtue?
Version is universally, it concerns all aspects of human life and his activities. Where there is no good or not enough, the sinfulness, the sinfulness, and evil, evil.
Where it begins good deed?
Good deed begins with ideas about himand enshrines in the mind of a person through sustainable attention to the image of this good.Attention is caused heart sympathyto the alleged kind case and encourages a person mobilize domestic powers and external means on the implementation of the mind-expressed good. At the same time, they raise their voice and a sense of duty, and a sense of responsibility, as well as conscience, encouraging to the vast, seeing the fulfillment of the will of God. Under the influence of all this a wishreally raise the subject of thought develops into determinationhave and create it and then and in business.
Thus, the case begins with the idea of \u200b\u200bhim, with the idea of \u200b\u200bgood, and picked up active attention to him. The determination for the commission of good in a particular case and the most kind thing is the manifestation of the will of the person in the hope that it coincides with the will of God. As a result, the whole person participates in the commitment of all kinds of good things: it receives an experienced knowledge of good, the will calms down, fulfilling his desire, feeling feels satisfaction and joy from a perfect godly business.
What Rev. John the Distrownger calls the "excellent alphabet of void"?
Voting, says the Rev., is associated with certain internal experiences of man. At first, the affairs of good He is with difficulty, with the coordination of himself and even with the Hornie. But a few prospective, ceases to feel sorrow from them or it feels little. When the carnal wise will be defeated by him and taken in captivity to zeal, then the person makes them with joy and jealousy, with great desire and with divine help.
To the perfection of the vast man help to come timeand patience,for the holy virtues are similar to Jacob's rod. They are connected one on the other, correctly disposed of their freedom to be asked for the sky.
For a seemingly learning to assimilate himself, both the norm of behavior and thereby join the unity with God the Monk indicates the virtues, following each other, as letters in the alphabet: obedience, post, confession, silence, humility, vigil, courage, work, malustration, crushing , brotherly, meekness, simple and unlucky faith, simplicity with kindness and others.
What is the essence with the help of this alphabet man reads on the srices of his heart?
The assimilation of this alphabet gives a person the opportunity to read the internal law of his heart in all endeavors and in any lifestyle. The essence of the law is as follows: experience, are you true for God's sake doing your affairs?And the fruit is the test: for beginners - success in humility,for those in the middle of the way - termination of internal brandsfor perfect - multiplication and abundance of divine light.
How does the alphabet work for the highest goal of human life?
A novice Christian, when it looks at perfect, understands that they made them sustainable mood -constantly do good. It brought in them good skills and habits to do everything in his life so that made good to breed them with God and led to perfection.In this way, man is gaining in goodcorresponding to its nature, calling and appointment received from God; It is gaining in good as a norm of behavior due to the experience of the devotees of faith; She strives to get closer to good and good, to join the unity with which they are regarded as the highest goal of life. The Christian can achieve this only with a constant interaction with the grace of God, who gives his soul, jealousy about life-life. For it (jealousy), all the forces of human nature are going to do good, pleasing to God and useful to all members of His Holy Church.
6. Creation of good in family life
If a good deed begins with the idea of \u200b\u200bit, then family life does not do without a proper idea of \u200b\u200bhow it will leak.
The first period of family life
The first period of family life: the creation of the family of the Lord, the need to observe the Lord to be the center of the familiar family; Colding houses by blessed parent icons, introducing church orders in the family life, meeting families with the problems of the surrounding sinful world, the main condition of this period is the ability of her husband and wife to mutual spiritual love, unity and community of life of the spouses
Why is it important that the Lord makes the family?
What is the Christian family at this time?
She meets with complex problems of the surrounding sinful world. Family members united by faith, the law of God, the sacraments and priests, meet them together with God and his means overcome them. Thus, the family building can easily be captivated by the acquisition of material property, considering it extremely necessary in modern house. Such a passion for material concerns is increasing the newlyweds that they do not have enough time for each other, nor for the Lord. Do not hurry in this matter. Before marriage whole life. Do not waste time in reflections on new furniture, about the comforts of life that seem so necessary. It is much better to pay attention to the main thing: life on God's charters.
What is the main condition for family life during this period?
The main condition during this period is the ability of her husband and wife to mutual spiritual love. Everywhere, where it is found, the source of the strength and beauty of family life appears. In fact, a person is designed to see and love in his beloved woman (or respectively - in a man) not only a carnal beginning, not only bodily appeal, but also a soul - a peculiarity of personality, feature of character, heart depth. Only then acquires spiritual joy when she put the face of God and God's rays and measured a beloved person. In this, the deep meaning of the mysteries of the wedding, which opens up the path of spiritual fame and moral purity, lifelong and unprofitable communities before the spouses. The strength of the family requires people to wanted not only the uce of love, but also of responsible joint creativity, spiritual community in life.
What creates the unity and community of the life of spouses?
In marriage there is a new spiritual unity and unity of her husband and wife, giving them the grace of God's understanding of each other and the willingness to share the joy and grief of living together. For this, they are designed to perceive life and peace, and people. Such uniformity of spiritual estimates and creates the unity and community of life goal from both. In this case, the husband and wife will be able to truly perceive each other and believe in each other. This is the most precious in marriage: complete mutual trust before God's face. And with confidence is connected and mutual respect, and the ability to form a new vital spiritual cell of society, capable of implementing the spiritual education of children.
Second period of family life
The second period of family life: the growth of the family, the appearance of children, the departure of God in the house through the icons, putting in the chapter angle of their life of walking before the eyes of God, the perception of a small child of worship with eyes and ears, the perception of the lightest word of the church, the perception of the parent word, when "God Father's God ours "will be the God of my child; Children - heritage, award from the Lord; The importance of the parent house, where children live and grow up under the Senyu icons
What is the feature of this period?
The second period of family life is associated with the growth of the family. Children appear and live, first unconsciously feeling "primitive". Then he already consciously correlated with the presence of God's actions. God's presence through the icons is always dominant in the house. Reigns. Dictates. Teaches. Educates. And it reaches this with practically life of parents, adults who deliberately put in the chapter of their life constant walking before the eyes of God. Even in the most details of life - the ratio with God's law.And happy children who opened the first eyes to meet their parents who absorbed their light with the necessary vital energy And those who have found the first God's shine in these eyes, the first of God's presence. Happy children starting their lives in the church. Honor and praise mother, which from early childhood wears and leads his children to church very often. And the children of sissy absorb church. First, the eyes and ears, unconsciously, just the creature really absorb. "At first, the child perceives worship with his eyes and ears. Consciousness is connected later over the years. If the child is simply present in the temple - it is already very important, already very good, "says a spiritually wise shepherd. In the gospel, the Church of God is similar to a person who sowed grain, and how it germinates, rises, grows, he does not know. Feels "grain" of the soul, unconsciously, the sacraments of it, its strength, her breathing. And germinate. And constantly starts to reveal the eyes - and see.
Ears begin to listen to the already familiar from childhood, native, blood, the life-quality word of the church. And hear. It, the word, gradually increases, acquires "flesh" - meaning and strength can already bring up.
And then the heart speaks. Says: "God's father!", "Avva Father!", "My God!" My . "My Lord and mine!" And in this happiness. For through the parent heart, through the parent word at one mysterious moment of life "God, our Father" becomes God of my child, his heart, his love, his breath and life. It seems that this is the appointment and meaning of the family during this period.
Why does God call the children a heritage award from him?
"Here is a heritage from the Lord: Children; The reward from it is the fruit of the womb. That the arrows in the hands of strong, then the sons of young. Blessed man who filled his quiver! "(). This wonderful years, but at the same time requiring a lot from the financial side, and with physical. These years are full of surprises. It is often expanding our quiver, the number of children in the family. And each of the children God calls heritage, fruit, reward. God considers every child to be important, wanting in the family to be attached to them the same meaning. During this period, parents will be occupied and tired. But if their attitude towards children is correct, then they will be able to think not only about the invested work and the work done, but also will see potential opportunities in every child giving God.
Why is a parent home important?
When a child grows up, he is already in an adult state, he will begin to search and educate what he had in the family as a given a light gift, as defining the path. And it will exist with him as almost unattainable, but the goal.
And here again the word about icons. The house begins with them, and build house icons. Each room is arranged an angle. He becomes the center, he becomes for the house of Okom, testifying to the presence of another world, by nature of his extraordinarily close, initial, decent. A sense of the presence of the sky is born from them. Honor, rewarding icons, "on a primary dates back." Singles live under the canopy. Before God's eyes go. And in front of the saints of God, heavenly sitting them. First, happily unconsciously, but the heart of children always feeling them.
The parents build their home so that he stood firmly and was for children the whole universe, and the sky, and the ground promised. In such a house, children find everything.
Third Family Life
The third period of family life: the essence of him - the children grow up and become independent, thoughtful teenagers; Helping children from a family hearth to acquire the taste and flair for spiritual understanding of life, love to the homeland and church, the main thing for him - learn to love God and people; understand the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Motherland and Fatherland; meet the idea of \u200b\u200brank through the perception of the authority of the father and mother; bring up a healthy sense of private property and social expediency; The frankness and honesty of parents with their children - gifts of God; The house is a sacred and strong place, the front room is a hall where parents and children are going to celebrate the holiday, pray to God and read the gospel, where the soul is brought from the church, where "from excess hearts say mouth"; Then the main house becomes the main thing in the soul of a matured person
What is the essence of this period?
This period begins when small children grow up and become independent, thinking teenagers. By this time, parents, raising their children, laid the foundations of a spiritual nature in them, bring them to the ability to engage in self-education.
In a spiritually meaningful family focus, parents help children to buy the taste and flair for spiritual understanding of life, grow their faithful sons of their homeland and church, are preparing to create their own family.
What is the main thing in the life of a matured child?
By this time, the child, firstly, should learn to love God and people.Driven by love, he must learn to suffer, tolerate and sacrifice, forgetting about himself, and serve to those who are closer to him and the Mile. In a healthy family, the soul of a person from early childhood tears to relate to the near respectful attention and love,it is attached to a close home circle and with this life set comes out in an adult life.
Secondly, it should absorb and be able to transmit to another spiritual, religious, national and deceo tradition. If the family has become for him native placeon earth, then it is clear the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Motherland- His birthday and fatherland -the earth's nest of his fathers and ancestors. And on his future family, he begins to look at the School of Mutual Trust and jointly organized action.
Thirdly, in the family, the child learned the right perception of the authority of the father and mother. He met here with the idea ranki learned to perceive the highest rank of another person. In a healthy family, the teenager learned the conviction that the power rich in love is a benevolent force and that order in public life assumes the presence of the same organizing and commanding power. Having matured, the teenager is convinced that he found the way to inner freedom, learned from love and respect for parents to accept their orders and bans, voluntarily obeying them.
Finally, the teenager brought in himself a healthy sense of private property, learned to pierce his way in life with his own initiative and at the same time appreciate the principle of social mutual assistance. As a private person and independent individuality, the teenager mastered the basics of education: to appreciate and protect the Lono of family love and family solidarity; learned independence and loyalty - two main manifestations of spiritual nature; I purchased the skills to create a creative property, produce and acquire economic benefits and at the same time subordinate the start of the property of some higher social feasibility.
What kind of wisdom do parents need when communicating with their mature children?
While this is the main teenager will be guarded by himself, the family is experiencing some extraneous invasion of a safe first family. School, new friends, other people's philosophies, illnesses, accidents, complex questions - all this can lead to a family crisis. These are difficult years. Parents in this period should be frank and honest with their children, belonging to them as God's dimensions. And when they come and ask questions, the only right approach is to try to answer them frankly and honestly, asking for the Lord Wisdom.
How does the atmosphere of the house put a mature child mainly?
The home, the front room is always suitable in the family of the family. This is a place where parents and children are all celebrating a holiday together. Where guests meet. Where in the evenings are going to pray to God and read the gospel. Where the Christmas tree is decorated and the children are happily staying around her. In this room in the front corner dominates best icons Houses with lamps in front of them. And in each room at home there is a front corner with lamps in front of icons. The hall is also building, creating a specific atmosphere, a mood, center. And the power has centripetal. The hall transforms its visitors. It should be brought from the church the completeness of the soul, where the "excess hearts say mouth". Gidden after the service of the church, should speak and say, sharing the main thing, sharing the impressions, sharing the breathtaking of the soul, equalizing her and calming down - dividing it.
Amazing this place on Earth - House! He becomes for a person his place on Earth, Sacred and Strong, "Promised Land"! It takes joyful, festive events and sorrowful events, sorrowful, in solemn grief. It makes prayers in front of home icons - thankful, parting, at the beginning of all kinds of good deed. And the memories of more than once need to serve in it. Then the homework lives and acts. And the house accommodates and stores it.
The "main" house becomes then and the main thingin the soul of an adult: he is ready to create his own family, his own home.
Four family life
The fourth period of family life: his essence - parents stay together to live together the remaining years of their lives without close contact with their children, with joyful memories and consolation from meetings with them; Another concern is to prepare for the transition to eternity; Memory mortal, filling life with the highest meaning, every word - reverence and love, every gesture - greatness; Death - the beginning and the path to eternity, the moment of understanding: what a trace left the deceased person in our life, the testimony that a person made some light at the twilight of our world, and we must save it and multiply; Understanding and entering into eternity, where our departed, deep feeling of valuables belonging to the world, making them on their own too; The process of reconciliation with all when preparing for death to climb into eternity; The last kissing of the deceased is the moment when all the nodules are unleashed in the soul and can be said from the depths of the heart: "Forgive me!" And: "I forgive you, go in the world"
What is the essence of this period?
This period is similar to the first. Children rose and have their families. Parents stay together to live together the remaining years of their lives, but without closer contact with children. So it must be. The Holy Scripture argues that the marriage is not inspired and the relationship of her husband with his wife is inseparable, but this does not concern relations between children and parents. Communication "Parents - Children" in many ways temporary. God says: "Therefore, the person of his father and his mother will leave."The family, in the center of which the Lord, necessarily accompanies the blessing of God, giving the parents joy. There will be joyful memories, consolation from meetings with children and grandchildren, proximity to communicate with them.
But there will be another important concern - to prepare for the perception of death as a transition to eternity, to heal at the level of death requirements, to become more perfect, to become "properly in God".
What value does the mortal memory for spouses?
When people live without memory of mortalthey spend their current life as if they are absenteeo, carelessly write a draft of their lives, which once, in their opinion, will be rewritten. When there is a thought and memory of death, then the present life is given the highest meaning. The presence of death, ready to come to a person at any time, encourages spouses during this period of life fill one's wordreverence, beauty, harmony and love, which in the preceding time of living together have accumulated in their relationship.
The memory of death helps spouses to do with the greatness and meaning all that seems small and insignificant. For example, how you serve on a tray of a cup of those who are on a mortal apparent, what movement you correct him behind the pillow, with which filling your voice sounds - all this can and should become an expression of the depth of relationship.
Only the memory of death allows spouses to live in order not to face terrifying evidence, with terrible words: too late.Late to pronounce the words they could say about their kindness and attention, it would be late to make a movement that could be expressed by the depth of relationships, the depth of respect and love.
FREE WILL
Freedom of will is the ability of a person to self-determination in their actions. In the contest of earlyregary culture in the concept of S. V., not so much philosophical and categorical, as much as legal significance. A free person is a citizen of the policy, the one who lives on the ground of his ancestors. The opposite of him - a prisoner of war, taken to a foreign land and turned into a slave. The source of individual freedom - polis, his land (solon); Free from birth living on Earth polis, where a sensible law is established. Therefore, the antonym of the term "free" - not so much "slave", how much "Negrek", "Barbarian". In the Homer Epos, the concept of freedom reveals another meaning. A free person is one who acts without coercion, due to their own nature. An extremely possible expression of freedom - in the actions of the hero, overcoming the fate and the fact that compares with the gods. Theoretical background of the scientific and philosophical formulation of the issue of St. It consists in the thinking of the sophists opposed to the "Fusis" (the only possible, generated by the nature itself) and "but-Mos" (the order of life, independently established by each people). Socrates emphasizes the decisive role of knowledge in the implementation of freedom. Genuinely free, moral act is possible only on the basis of the clear concepts of good and valor. No one can act badly by goodwill, a person strives for the better in his actions, and only ignorance, ignorance pushes him to the wrong way. Plato connects the concept of sv. With the Being of God as the highest "idea." Fortunately consecrates the order that acts in the world as an order is suitable. It is free to act, it means to act, focusing on the ideal of the good, coordinating personal aspirations with public justice. Aristotle considers the problem of St. In the context of moral selection. Freedom is associated with the knowledge of a special kind - knowledge-skill ("Fronesis"). It is excellent from knowledge - "tehna," providing solutions to the tasks according to the known pattern. Moral knowledge-skill launching the way freedom focuses on choosing a better act in the context of ethical selection. The source of such knowledge is a specific moral intuition, which is brought up in a person with life tests. Stoicism develops its vision of freedom, recognizing the priority of providence in human life. Independent value of the personality of the Stoiki see in compliance with duties and debt (Paniai). At the same time, providence can also be considered as the law of nature, and as will in a person (position). The will in the latter case acts as an instrument of fight against fate, and as such requires special education. Epicurus considers the question of St. In its atomistic physics. The latter is opposed to the deterministic atomistic of democritus. Physics of Epicura justifies the possibility of s. The epicurus as its physical model indicates the possibility of free deviation of the atom from the straight trajectory. The reasons for such a deviation are not external, it occurs completely spontaneously. A special stage in the question of the issue of St. Masted Christian ideology. A man is designed to implement his essence in unity with the Divine, teaches the Bible. The problem is however, it is to combine the universalness of God's Will, on the one hand, and the moral force of a person who has not yet reached (and in essence never reaching) compounds with the Divine, on the other. Christian literature concerning this problem can be classified on the basis of emphasising this or the other side of this interaction. So, Pelagii (5th century) justifies a fairly broad interpretation of the Christian idea about the participation of the will of the person in the design of his fate, unwittingly adjusting the significance of the redemptive sacrifice of Christ. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe versatility of providence in controversy with this point of view is defended by Augustine. The implementation of good in human activity is possible only with the help of God's grace. Moreover, its action Augustine does not associate with the conscious appeal to it from a person. She manifests itself independently of him. Thomas Akvinsky sees the sphere of St. In the choice of goals and means of achieving good. According to him, only one right path leads to the goal. A reasonable creature needs to seek good, evil, as the result of rational choice is impossible. The diversity of positions is manifested in the era of the Reformation, Erasmus Rotterdam protects the idea of \u200b\u200bSt. Luther protrudes against her, insisting on the literal reading of the dogma about the divine predestination. God, initially, called on some people to save, others sentenced to eternal flocks. The future fate of man remains, however, unknown himself. Luther pointed to a special scope of being, "testing" which the personality is able to consider the chosen signs that appear in it. We are talking about the sphere of human daily and primarily about professional activities, the successful implementation of which is a sign of the consistency (chosenness) of the person in the face of the world and God. Calvin, believing that the will of God is entirely programming by the Being of God. Protestantism practically reduces the freedom of will to the minimum value. The fundamental paradox of Protestant ethics is, however, in the fact that by postulating the passivity of the human will in the implementation of God's grace, she, forcing a person to search for "ciffers" of elect, thus managed to raise the activist type of personality. With Protestantism, Iesuit L. de Molina (1535-1600): Among the various kinds of all-life, his theory has allocated a special "average knowledge" about what can happen at all, but specifically will be implemented in compliance with a certain condition. This is the condition of Molina and tied with a living human will. This gaze received its further development from Suarez, who considered that God informs his grace only to the actions of a person, during the commission of which the help of God does not suppress St.. The doctrine of K. Yansenia (1585-1638) in essence revives the ideas of Calvin and Luther - a man of free to choose not between good and evil, but only between various kinds of sin. A similar look was also developed by mystic M. De Molinos, who argued the idea of \u200b\u200bthe passivity of the human soul in the face of God (see Quietism). Theme of St. Detects yourself in the philosophy of the new time. For hobbs sv. It means primarily the lack of physical coercion. Freedom is interpreted by it in an individually natural dimension: the person is all the more free, the more opportunities for self-development opens in front of him. Freedom of a citizen and "freedom" of slave differ only in quantitative: the first does not possess absolute freedom, one cannot say about the second that he is completely incomprehensible. According to Spinoz, only God is free, because Only its actions are determined by internal law, the person as part of nature is incomprehensible. Nevertheless, he seeks to freedom, translating inadequate ideas into distinct, affects - to rational love for God. The mind multiplies freedom, suffering reduce it, "said Leibniz, distinguishing freedom negative (freedom from ...) and positive (freedom for ...). For Locke, the concept of freedom is equivalent to freedom of action; Freedom is the ability to act in accordance with a conscious choice. It is St., opposed to the mind, acts as a fundamental definition of a person, is the opinion of Rousseau. The transition from natural freedom, limited by the forces of the individual himself, to "moral freedom" is possible through the use of laws that people prescribe themselves. According to Kant, St. It is possible only in the sphere of moral patterns, anti-inflammatory patterns of nature. For Ficht, freedom is a tool for the implementation of moral law. Shelling finds its solution to the problem of St., considering the actions to be free if they stem from the "internal necessity of the essence", the freedom of a person consists of a crossroads between God and Nature, Being and Neva. According to Hegel, Christianity contributes to the consciousness of a European person an idea that history is a process in the awareness of freedom. Nietzsche considers the whole history of morality - the story of delusions relative to St. According to his appearance, St. - Fiction, "Mooring of all organic". The author's self-effectiveness implies its purification from moral ideas of freedom and responsibility. Marxist philosophy saw the prerequisite for the free development in the fact that the associated manufacturers are able to rationally regulate the metabolism between society and nature. The growth of society's productive forces creates material prerequisites for the free development of individuals. The kingdom of genuine freedom threw in Marxism as communism, destroying private property, operation, and thus the very basis of coercion. Sv. - One of the central concepts of the fundamental ontology of Hydegger. Freedom is the deepest definition of being, the "basis of the foundations", placing an existence in a permanent selection situation. Similarly, for Sartre, freedom is not the quality of an individual or its actions, it is rather a sufficant definition of human nature. Freedom, the choice and the situation is the same, the philosopher believes. In Russian philosophy, the problem of freedom, St. Specially designed Berdyaev. The world of objects, where suffering and evil, opposes creativity, designed to overcome the conservative forms of objectives. The results of creativity will inevitably be objectified, but the creative act itself is equally inevitably free. Perhaps the dominant trend in the interpretations of St. (especially in the 20th century) acts point of view, according to which a person is always worthy of what happens to him. Find grounds for justification can be only in the "border" cases.
The newest philosophical dictionary. - Minsk: Book House. A. A. Gritsanov. 1999.
Watch what is "freedom of will" in other dictionaries:
The concept of European moral philosophy, finally arranged in I. Kant in the meaning of the intelligent ability of the individual to moral self-determination. In a retrospective plan (up or postcant theory), the term "sv." You can consider ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
The ability of a person to self-determination in its actions. In the context of earlyregary culture in the concept of C.B. Not so much philosophical categorical as legal significance is accentued. Free person is a citizen policy, one who lives ... ... History of Philosophy: Encyclopedia
Free will - freedom of will ♦ Libre Arbitre Freedom of desire, absolute and not deterministic; "The ability to determine ourselves, without being determined by anything" (Marseille Konsh, Aletorika, V, 7). This is a pretty mystical ability owned by strictly ... Philosophical Dictionary Sponville
The category that denotes the philosophical ethical problem is self-determining or determined by a person in his actions, i.e., the question of the conditionality of human will, in the decision of which two main positions were revealed: determinism and intenerism ... ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
The great reformers of the church were standing for non-free will, and Jesuitis for freedom of will, and however, the first founded freedom, the second slavery of conscience. Henri Amiel you call yourself free. Free from what, or free for what? Friedrich Nietzsche we ... ... Summary encyclopedia of aphorisms
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free will - See Will. Vocabulary practical psychologist. M.: Ast, Harvest. S. Yu. Golovin. 1998 ... Big psychological encyclopedia