When considering an object as a whole, the eye perceives its geometric shape and structure. Almost all visible elements are limited on all sides by shells or planes different shapes. This means that each element, each object has a certain spatial form. The primary elements of the spatial form of objects are geometric appearance, size, position in space, mass, texture, texture, decor, color and chiaroscuro.
Geometric view. This is a property (element) of the form as a whole and its parts, determined by the ratio of its dimensions in three coordinates of space, as well as the nature of its surface (straight or curvilinear, broken line). Depending on the predominance of one of the three dimensions, the following types of shape are distinguished: volumetric, planar and linear. The volume view is characterized by three sizes. A planar view is characterized by a sharp decrease in one of the dimensions. In a linear form, one dimension prevails over the other two, even though they are relatively small.
Form lines. It is human nature to relate emotionally to the phenomena and objects around him. The idea of peace and movement, light and heavy, passive and active, a person associates with various types of lines, their slope and character (Fig.).
The horizontal line, for example, is associated with the concept of rest, static, passivity. She promotes visual reduction figures vertically.
The vertical line - energetic and hot - expresses the desire to rise, visually lengthens the shape.
The sloping line is associated with instability, falling, and the closer it is to the horizontal, the more it is associated with confidence and calmness.
Otherwise, a diagonal line is perceived. It acts as a force that overcomes passivity, expresses movement, dynamics. Distinguish between right and left diagonals. They are perceived differently. The right one is the ascending diagonal, the left one is the falling diagonal. Diagonal is typical for asymmetrical clothing, soft and hard draperies, etc.
A wavy (smooth) line characterizes the uniformity of movement, softness, fluidity. Smooth lines are used in clothes of complex styles.
A broken line is associated with uneven movement, abrupt changes in events, with ups and downs.
The spiral is associated with the concept of rotation, and the arc is associated with overcoming some obstacles and subsequent take-off.
To create the shape of products, the designer uses geometric lines in a complex, i.e. in various compositional subordinations, combinations. In this case, one of the lines should play the role of the main, leading one, on the basis of which the whole composition is built.
Form size. This is the extent of the form and its elements along three coordinates. The size of the form is determined in relation to the size of a person, the size of products of other forms or individual elements the same form. When comparing forms, their equality or inequality is seen. The size of the form can visually increase or decrease when comparing large and small. Small details in a large form emphasize its size, while large ones, on the contrary, reduce it.
position in space. This is a property of the form, determined by its location among other forms, as well as relative to the observer in the system of frontal, profile and horizontal planes. An object whose shape approaches a rectangular parallelepiped having two equal dimensions can occupy three typical positions with respect to the observer: frontal, profile and horizontal. A cube with all three dimensions equal has only one type position. The same can be said about objects whose shape approaches these figures.
The mutual arrangement of forms in space in relation to each other and the viewer can also be considered on another basis - according to the location relative to each other or the viewer is closer, further, higher, lower, left, right. In relation to the horizon line, forms can be located above, below or at its level.
Mass of the form. This is the visually perceived amount of material of the whole object or its parts, which can fill the space within the geometric shape. The mass of the mold depends on the size of the object. A larger form visually corresponds to a large mass. The perception of mass also changes depending on the geometrical form of the form. The greatest visually perceived mass is possessed by forms approaching a cube and a ball, and all those whose dimensions in three coordinates are equal or close to equal. Forms approaching linear have a minimum mass, therefore narrow and long clothes always seem less massive than short and wide ones.
The perception of mass changes depending on the degree of filling of forms. As the degree of filling increases, objects appear more massive. The most massive objects in which there are no voids. The change in the visually perceived mass of the form depends, in addition, on the color, texture and texture of the material from which it is made, and on the size of the objects adjacent to it. The visually perceived mass of the form increases if there are smaller objects next to it. If their sizes increase, then the mass of this form visually decreases. All these illusory changes in the mass of forms are often used in product design.
Texture(lat. factum - processing, structure). Texture - the visible structure of the surface of the form. The texture is smooth, shiny and glossy, matte and rough, coarse or fine-grained, etc. Each material (metal, glass, fabric, paper, sand, stone, etc.) has its own texture. Its perception depends on the distance of the viewer to the surface under consideration, the nature of the lighting (if it is lateral, then the roughness is clearly visible).
The volume and mass of the shape of products depend on the texture of the material. Strengthening the texture of the surface increases the volume and mass of products. A smooth and shiny surface, on the contrary, gives lightness and visually reduces volume. The texture of the material can even influence the perception of the proportional relationship of the form.
Texture(lat. texturg - fabric, connection, structure). Texture - signs of internal structure visible on the surface of the material. For example, products made of wood, stone, and leather have an expressive texture. Various textures are used as a decorative tool that reveals the aesthetic originality of the material.
Color. This is the property of bodies to cause certain visual sensations in accordance with the spectral composition of the light reflected, transmitted or emitted by them. There are physical, physiological, emotional and psychological properties of color.
The physical properties of color include hue, brightness (lightness), and saturation. Hue is what makes it possible to distinguish one color from another: red, green, blue, etc.
Brightness, or lightness, is characterized by the amount of reflected or transmitted light. Each color has a certain lightness. Orange is lighter than red, blue is darker than blue, brown is darker than pink, etc.
All colors are divided into achromatic and chromatic. Achromatic - white, gray, black - do not have selective absorption and differ from each other in lightness. Chromatic - spectral and mixed - are distinguished by color tone, lightness and saturation.
Saturation is the percentage of a pure spectral color in a given color. It is defined as a percentage. The saturation of the corresponding spectral color is taken as 100%, and white or another achromatic color is taken as zero. Thus, spectral colors have saturation, equal to one, and achromatic - to zero. The most saturated colors are the main spectral and magenta. They are called clean, open, intense. The colors located between the main spectral ones are intermediate (yellow-green, blue-violet, orange-yellow), less saturated, they are called complex, calm, restrained, soft. The saturation of any color decreases when white or black is added to it. Colors, the saturation of which is reduced by adding white, are called bleached (pink, lilac, etc.). Colors that have been reduced in saturation by adding black are called tinted.
The physiological properties of color is its ability to influence human body, For example:
intense red color causes too much excitement, increases blood pressure;
green promotes the expansion of capillaries, lowers blood pressure, relieves visual fatigue, soothes; yellow stimulates brain activity;
blue and violet have a beneficial effect on the lungs and heart, increasing their endurance;
gray and black colors can cause an oppressed, depressed state.
The emotional and psychological properties of color are associated with physiological effects and all sorts of illusions and associations. So, according to the nature of perception, all colors are divided into warm and cold. Warm colors - red, orange, yellow, yellow-green - are associated with the sun, fire, warmth. They are bright, catchy, dynamic, increasing the size and volume. Cold colors - blue, blue, violet, green-blue - are associated with water, ice, cold. These colors are calmer, less prominent.
Distinguish colors light and heavy. All light and cold colors are classified as light, dark and warm colors are classified as heavy. Colors are divided into "protruding" - light and warm and "retreating" - dark and cold. The properties of color to bring closer or remove, to make objects lighter or heavier, to increase or decrease their volume are widely used in fine and decorative arts. In particular, the spatial properties of color make it possible to create a visible depth of the image on a flat canvas of the picture.
Due to the associative nature of perception, colors evoke different feelings and sensations in a person, special emotional moods, evoke some images:
red is perceived as exciting, hot, the most active and energetic, courageous, passionate, the color of valor, strength, power;
green - calm, moderate and refreshing - gives the impression of softness, pleasant and beneficial peace; a symbol of spring, fertility, youth, freshness, joy, hope, memories;
yellow - exciting, revitalizing, cheerful, cheerful, fussy, flirtatious, somewhat daring, the color of fun and jokes, a symbol of sunlight, warmth, happiness;
orange - hot, cheerful, cheerful, fiery, cheerful;
blue - light, fresh and transparent; white - light, cold and noble, a symbol of purity.
Color perception is affected whole line factors that can change the apparent color of bodies. The change in their color is often associated with the spectral composition of light sources. So, in the light of incandescent lamps, there are more yellow rays than in sunlight, therefore yellow colors become more saturated, reds become brighter, the hue becomes yellow, blues darken, lilacs become yellow, and violets become red. The color of the material also depends on the texture of the surface. Colors on glossy shiny surfaces appear lighter, on matte surfaces they appear darker (satin and velvet).
The perception of color also depends on the phenomena of contrast. Distinguish between simultaneous and sequential contrasts. In turn, the simultaneous contrast can be a contrast in lightness and color, or chromatic. Simultaneous contrast in lightness is that colors located on or near a dark background lighten, and darken on a light background or next to it. White on a black background is especially bright, while black on white is a deep black. The same gray pieces of fabric on a black, white and gray background will look different. On a white background, the fabric seems darker, on black - lighter, on gray it will hardly change.
A variety of contrast in lightness is also due to the marginal, or borderline, contrast. On the border of light and dark, light becomes even brighter, and dark darkens, which creates the impression of unevenly colored areas. To destroy the edge contrast, the planes are separated contour line.
Simultaneous chromatic contrast is a change in color depending on another color surrounding it. The color always changes in the direction opposite (complementary) to the surrounding color. For each chromatic color, another chromatic can be found, which, when mixed with the first in certain proportions, gives an achromatic. These two chromatic colors are called complementary. On the color wheel, complementary colors are located at opposite ends of the diameters. Additional pairs of colors are: red and bluish-green, orange and cyan, yellow and blue, green and magenta, etc.
As a result of chromatic contrast grey colour on different backgrounds acquires an unequal apparent color. So, on a red background, the gray pattern turns green, on green it turns red, on blue it turns yellow, etc.
Sequential contrast occurs when two colors are viewed not simultaneously, but alternately. The second color will appear to be a complementary color to the first.
Color is not only an element of form, but also an important means of unifying and harmonizing its other elements. The color of industrial products is chosen taking into account their functional purpose and methods of operation, design, material, composition.
Chiaroscuro. It is a consequence of the different angle of incidence of light rays from the light source onto the form and is characterized by the distribution of light and dark areas on its surface. The formation of light and shade effects depends on the shape of the object, the relief and texture of the material, the direction of incidence of rays from the light source. Chiaroscuro on clothes, for example, is largely due to the relief of the form. The relief is created by folds, overlays, seams, tails, drapery, etc. The abundance of details and draperies overloads the form with chiaroscuro effects and increases its volume. If chiaroscuro is formed by rare vertical lines, the volume of the form visually decreases: the effect of visual illusions operates.
Decor(fr. decor, lat. decoro - I decorate). This is an element of the form of products in the form of an ornament or pattern.
Ornament(Latin ornamentum - decoration) - a drawing (pattern) built from organized elements. There are two main types of ornament: geometric and pictorial.
The geometric ornament is built from abstract geometric shapes (squares, triangles, rhombuses, circles), as well as strokes, dots and lines, which, alternating in a certain order, allow you to get patterns from the simplest to the very complex. Geometric ornament is widely used to decorate modern products made of glass, ceramics, fabrics and other materials.
The pictorial ornament reproduces specific objects of the real world - plants, animals, things. Fabrics, knitwear, glass, ceramics, etc. are widely decorated with pictorial ornaments.
Texture is the structural features of sedimentary rock, determined by the way space is filled, the location constituent parts and their orientation relative to each other. The texture of the rock is formed from the stage of sediment accumulation. Primary textures that emerged during sedimentation reflect the state of the environment at the time of accumulation of sedimentary material and the results of its interaction with sediment. They can transform into post-depositional stages. Secondary textures arise in an already formed rock during the processes of catagenesis, metagenesis and hypergenesis.
Textures largely predetermine the physical properties of rocks, including strength, compressibility, filtration capacity, etc., which are not the same in different directions. Textures are studied mainly visually - in outcrops, pits, core samples, sometimes under a microscope.
Distinguish textures of the surface of the layer and intralayer.
Layer surface textures
Occur on the sediment surface during a short-term change in the state of the sedimentation environment, during precipitation and the vital activity of organisms. Changing the state of the environment leads to their complete destruction, therefore necessary condition their conservation is rapid burial under new sediments.
Ripple signs are a system of parallel rollers perpendicular to the direction of water or air flows. They form on the surface of sandy, silty, clayey-calcareous and dolomite sediments. There are symmetrical and asymmetric signs of ripples.
Asymmetric - are formed in air and water environments under the influence of wind and currents, and symmetrical - arises as a result of unrest. The eolian ripples are distinguished by a significant predominance of the length of the cross section of the ridge over its height, while these values differ slightly in the ripples of the currents. The wave length of the ripple is 10-20 cm, but not more than 100 cm. Water ripples are formed at a depth of up to 150-200m, and the distance between the ridges varies from units to tens of centimeters, increasing with increasing depth.
Drying cracks are formed in clay or lime sediment accumulated in the aquatic environment during its subsequent drying in air. The crack cavities are filled with foreign material. In plan they form polygons, in profile they are wedge-shaped cavities extending downward from the surface. Penetration depth from fractions of a cm to a meter or more. Width on the surface - 3-5cm.
The imprints of raindrops and hailstones are rounded depressions with borders along the periphery. Diameter up to 12-15mm (more for hail), depth up to several mm. They are formed mainly on the surface of clay sediments.
Traces of vital activity of animals are preserved on wet, mainly calcareous or clayey sediments in the form of paw prints, footprints, slip marks, etc. They often persist even after the transformation of sediments into rock.
The signs associated with the deformation of the sediment surface are formed as a result of the activity of water flows, sea currents, etc. As a result, grooves, depressions, furrows, scratches and other formations appear on the surface. After their overlapping with fine-grained deposits, casts (bas-relief signs) are formed at the lower boundary of the new layer, which remain after the lithification of the sediment.
Bas-relief signs appear on the surface of the formation and are called hieroglyphs (or hieroglyphs), which means sacred writing, since the nature of many of them for a long time remained unrevealed.
If the bas-relief signs are the result of a purely mechanical effect on the sediment, then they are called mechanoglyphs. They often look like grape-shaped formations - the result of uneven erosion by a strong current or the accumulation of a semi-liquid sediment; or parallel cuts, hatching, linearly elongated beds, sometimes intersecting and very bizarre.
If the signs are the result of traces of organisms, they are called bioglyphs.
Among them, the most common are fucoids and chondrites, similar to plant twigs, or tangled strands of algae. These moves are in the form of rollers, and inside - curved sticks, flagella, threads. The cavity is filled with matter precipitating from solutions or sediments from the overlying layer. Sometimes they are filled with sediment processed by silt eaters and are lighter in color than the rock itself, or they may be filled with fecal lumps.
Intralayer textures
The most common are layered and massive textures, less often there are textures associated with the vital activity of organisms, with landslide and other phenomena.
Massive texture - characterized by a disorderly arrangement of its constituent parts in the rock. Due to this, the rock has the same physical properties in different directions. When split, fragments of irregular shape are formed.
Layered textures - due to the alternation of layers of several differences of sedimentary rocks. Layering can be caused by changes in the size of clasts, the orientation of sedimentary material, the content of nodules, accumulations of organic matter, shells, etc.
Based on the location of sedimentary material in the rocks, horizontal and oblique bedding are distinguished.
Horizontal layering is a typical texture of sedimentary rocks. In it, the layers are arranged parallel to each other and to the layering planes. It is formed by changing sedimentation environments in conditions of slow, uniform movement or in a state of relative rest. According to the thickness of the layers, they are distinguished: massively layered (more than 50 cm), thick layered (more than 5 cm), medium layered (2-5 cm), thin layered (0.1-2 cm) and micro layered (less than 0.1 cm) . Horizontal layering is characteristic of rocks of various compositions.
Periodic (rhythmic-cyclic) flysch layering is an alternation of layers or packs with a uniform set of rocks that only slightly change from pack to pack. The reason for this is that the course of sedimentation is due to a regular change natural phenomena, for the most part periodic. They reflect the progressive course of the process not in a circle, but in a spiral. The alternation of layers can be continuous, or discontinuous in case of different deposits or erosion. Sometimes this periodicity can be small (microstratification), more often the thickness of rhythms is measured in tens of centimeters or meters, and thousands of meters in large sections (systems, stages).
Wavy layering is characterized by the curvilinear shape of the layers, giving in the section a pattern of waves, sometimes more, sometimes less symmetrical. This type of layering is associated mainly with wave oscillations, less often with translational motion of the sedimentation medium.
Cross bedding is less common. It occurs mainly in sandstones, silty and carbonate rocks. Characteristics- the arrangement of the layers at an angle to the layering planes, and the orientation can change over a short distance.
False bedding (schistosity, Liesegang phenomenon, shelliness). The same factors that bring out an initially imperceptible reservoir separation may, over time, obscure it and create false layering.
If tectonic pressure in mountainous areas is directed at an angle to the bedding plane, then oblique splits (cleavage, schistosity) and, accordingly, separation are created. Or groundwater and solutions, spreading at an angle, and unevenly depending on the structure, texture and porosity of the rock, also create a bizarre false layering, and iron hydroxides most often fall out along the cracks. Repeated precipitation of matter along cracks, as a result of which the rock can disintegrate into "iron shards" nested in each other, has received the name "Liesegang phenomenon".
Submarine creep textures can form in a variety of non-solidifying sediments, but are most characteristic of finely interbedded sandy, silty, clayey, or lime deposits. Sliding can start at a slope of 1-3 0 . As a result, small folds are formed ranging in size from units to tens of centimeters, but often up to hundreds of meters.
Among the intralayer textures, there are post-diagenetic textures that arose in the already formed sediment. The most common are stillolite and funky textures.
The stillolite texture is perpendicular to the stratification in cross section, it appears as sawtooth seams that cut through the rock and are oriented mainly parallel to the stratification, although vertical and diagonal ones are encountered. The height of the teeth ranges from fractions to 2-3 cm or more. The seams themselves are filled with hardly soluble, finely dispersed clastic material, clay, organic charred matter, iron sulfides and oxides.
Such textures are characteristic of carbonate rocks, but are also found in clastic ones. There are several points of view regarding the genesis of their origin, however, most scientists believe that they arose as a result of selective dissolution of rocks under pressure, and insoluble components were concentrated in the seam cavity.
Funtik texture in some way resembles stillolite. This is a rare texture of the articulation of the underlying and overlying layers. On one surface there are protrusions of a conical shape, and on the second there are recesses of the same shape ("funnies"). Their height varies from fractions to several centimeters. Textures cover layers up to half a meter thick. They are characteristic of marls, argillaceous limestones and clays. They arise during recrystallization and a decrease in the volume of the rock under the weight of the overlying rocks. Formations of this type are found in deposits of various ages, where thin layers of limestones occur among clayey rocks.
Aesthetic, or architectural and artistic, properties building materials and products combine two groups of complex properties:
- the first, which characterizes the aesthetics of the material (product) itself, is determined by its parameters such as shape, color, texture and pattern (texture);
- the second characterizes the aesthetic compatibility (compatibility) of the material (product) under consideration with others used in conjunction with it at a given object, as well as its compatibility with the environment (natural and artificial) outside the object of application.
Aesthetic properties are determined by three main types of characteristics: psychological, physiological and physical . The latter can be quantified by the results of simple measurements of geometric dimensions or with the help of special instruments (photometers, spectrophotometers, gloss meters, etc.). The objective component of the physiological parameters of color can also be quantified using colorimetry methods that take into account the spectral characteristics of the visual analyzer of the average (untrained) observer.
Form building materials and products plays a significant role not only in their functional, but also in the aesthetic evaluation. Since ancient times, architects and builders have taken care that the shape of the materials used (stone block, brick, facing tiles) is aesthetically meaningful, strict, proportional. For example, in masonry from natural stone materials large, roughly processed blocks were used for plinths, and small-sized smooth stones were used in the upper part of the wall. This created the impression of visual relief of a wall made of one material, from bottom to top. The aesthetics of the shape of the material and the product is determined by its geometry (cubic, parallelepiped, cylindrical, etc. for bulk products; square, rectangular, polyhedral, etc. for flat ones) and the proportions (ratios) of the main dimensions.
Architects, together with technologists and builders, worked hard to unify the shape and size clay brick, achieving not only its modularity and the convenience of masons, but also its proportionality, the aesthetic expressiveness of the pattern of unplastered brickwork. Only nine sizes of shaped bricks were needed by the creators of the wonderful Ascension Church in Kolomenskoye and the church in the village. Dyakovo, twice as many of them - the architect of St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, in order to get unique compositions and a huge variety architectural forms. The same number (18 types) of ceramic slabs was used in the ornamental compositions of the old Yaroslavl architecture, and only seven standard figurative stones created a rich pattern of the “Holy Gates” in Pereslavl-Zalessky (research by architects V. Gridin and G. Borisovsky).
At the dawn of domestic industrial housing construction, architects A. K. Burov and B. N. Blokhin developed new forms of large concrete blocks and panels. This work is especially important when designing prefabricated buildings from lightweight large-sized products and new efficient materials. No less significant is the aesthetics of the form of carpentry, hardware, sanitary ware, the design of which the architect should pay great attention to. The shape of flat tile materials for wall cladding and flooring can also significantly enrich their range.
Form - an important aesthetic characteristic for such building materials and products as glass blocks, profile glass (glass profile), piece wooden parquet, plinths, platbands, handrails and other molded materials made of wood, plastics and aluminum alloys, relief facing materials for facades and interiors made of stamped sheet metal or vacuum-formed plastics, etc.
Color - one of the properties of objects of the material world, perceived as a conscious visual sensation . The color of materials (products) is understood as a certain visual sensation caused by exposure of the eye to electromagnetic radiation fluxes in the visible part of the spectrum (wavelength λ is 380-760 nm). The color of the material (as a color sensation) depends on the spectral composition luminous flux reflected by the surface of the material or passed through it (the latter characterizes the color of only translucent materials - glass, some minerals and plastics).
In general, the color of the material is determined by the following factors: its color, surface properties, optical properties of light sources (it is known, for example, that the color of the same wallpaper is perceived differently during the day and under artificial lighting in the evening) and the medium through which the light propagates, individual features visual analyzer and the psychophysical process of processing visual impressions in the brain centers of the observer. When describing a color qualitatively, three of its interrelated subjective attributes are used: hue, saturation and lightness.
The visible spectrum can be divided into sections of different chromaticity; the boundaries of these areas indicate the wavelengths of radiation in nanometers (nm): 380-430-violet, 430-470-blue, 470-510-blue, 510-560-green, 560-590-yellow, 590-620-orange, 620-760-red. Mixed colors are perceived at the boundary areas (for example, about 590 nm - yellow-orange, about 620 nm - red-orange, etc.).
There are no white-gray-black colors in the spectrum, called achromatic(which in ancient Greek means colorless). These missing colors in the spectrum differ only in lightness 1 , which our consciousness usually associates with the amount of white or black pigment. Chromatic(defined by color) colors of materials differ from each other both in lightness and in color tone (“hue”) - a qualitative characteristic in relation to which the color of the material can be equated to one of the above spectral or purple (transitional between extreme spectral - red and purple) colors. Quantitatively different color tones are objectively characterized by wavelengths λ of spectral colors of the same hue. The lightness of the chromatic surfaces of materials is determined by comparing them with achromatic ones - the reflection coefficients of those achromatic colors that seem neither darker nor lighter than them, i.e. equal to them in lightness. An approximate idea of the lightness of achromatic in colored surfaces of materials can be obtained from the data given in Table. 1.3.
Table 1.3. Reflection coefficients of achromatic and colored surfaces of materials
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Reflection coefficient |
Reflection coefficient |
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Dark blue and dark brown |
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Dark grey |
Green and brown |
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red-orange |
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light gray |
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white gray |
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Yellow (egg) * |
Finishing materials often come with a polychrome (multi-color) pattern. The lightness of such materials can be approximately determined by the ratio of primary colors within the rapport (repeating part) of the pattern.
The degree of difference between a chromatic color and an achromatic color of the same lightness is called color saturation. Saturation characterizes the level, the strength of the color tone; in the human mind, it is associated with the amount (concentration) of pigment, paint. The number of different degrees of saturation for different colors of materials ranges from 4 to 25. However, the method of measuring saturation is quite complicated, and therefore it is customary in color science to measure not the saturation that is directly perceived by the eye, but the so-called colorimetric saturation, or purity colors - the ratio (in percent) of the intensities of monochromatic and white colors in the mixture, i.e. the proportion of pure spectral in the mixture is equal to bright spectral, and white. The purity of spectral colors is taken as 100% (or one), the purity of ideal white would be zero.
By quantitatively determining the lightness (reflection coefficient), color tone (wavelength of radiation that reproduces the measured color mixed with white) and color purity, we objectively characterize the color of a particular material, any change in color necessarily entails a change in at least one of the three the quantities that determine it. The ability to "read"; color, i.e. to imagine a certain color by its numerical characteristics requires practical skill. For example, we give the main indicators λ, P, p, characterizing the color of some paints (Table 1.4).
Table 1.4. Color characteristics of some paints
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Name of paint |
Approximate color specification: |
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color* tone (wavelength) λ, mm |
saturation (color purity) |
lightness (reflection coefficient) ρ |
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Krapplak (medium) |
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Cadmium red |
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Cinnabar red |
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Burnt ocher (light) |
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Ocher (light) |
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Cobalt green (dark) |
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Greens emerald |
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cobalt blue |
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Ultramarine t blue |
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Burnt bone |
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The assignment of numerical values to the subjective attributes of the color of the material described above is carried out either by the comparator method: (comparison with the reference colors given in color atlases, tables, color books, etc.), or by various instrumental calculation methods. For the practical application of these methods, devices are used - colorimeters, comparators, color photometers, etc.
Color characteristics are especially important for quality evaluation finishing materials used in the exterior and interior decoration of buildings and structures. Since color is one of the most important factors in industrial and domestic comfort, when choosing finishing materials, it is necessary to take into account not only their own color characteristics, but also a certain psychological impact specific color combinations of various materials (or paints) - color harmonies.
When designing a building and its decoration, choosing the necessary finishing materials, the architect must take into account (in addition to objective factors that determine color sensations - light sources, environment, etc.) the relationship between color and surface texture, color and shape, the role of chiaroscuro and reflections in color perception. So, with the help of color, you can visually "destroy" the wall, distort the volume, change the proportions of the object, and color reflections can change the shades of surfaces (for example, when covering the floor with a red carpet, white walls will be perceived as pale pink). In the interior trim remote end wall saturated with material, warm color helps to reduce the perceived length of the room, and the use of cold unsaturated, on the contrary, visually lengthens it.
The possibility of a directed change in the color of artificial (and, if necessary, natural) building materials should be widely used with the help of pigments - colored finely divided inorganic and organic substances introduced into the composition of the material during its production or used for the preparation of paints and impregnating compositions used for decorative and protective surface finishing of materials and products.
Significant changes in the color of materials occur in vivo operation (for example, as a result of oxidation of the surface layer of the metal). The ability of a material to retain its color under operating conditions for a long time without changing its color is characterized by its color fastness. This property of artificial materials is largely determined by the durability of the applied pigments. Color change dyed polymer materials observed as they age.
Texture (from lat. factura - processing, structure) - the visible structure of the surface of the material (product). The texture is characterized by the degree of unevenness (relief) or smoothness of the surface and is perceived due to the visual perception of light and shade irregularities. According to the nature of the surface of the material, two groups of textures are distinguished: embossed(differing in height and relief) and smooth(from mirror-shiny to rough-smooth).
Since a certain proportion of the light incident on the surface of any body (material) is reflected from it according to the law "angle of incidence equal to the angle reflection", then the structure of the surface can be determined by the nature of the reflection of light. Materials with a perfectly smooth (mirror-like) surface reflect light in one specific direction, from which this surface is perceived as shiny. Materials with a rough surface reflect light diffusely, in different directions, since various negligible areas of their surface are located under different angle to the incident light. Such a surface from different directions is perceived as matte - evenly bright, but not shiny, without glare. Sometimes another kind of smooth surface is distinguished - glossy, which occupies an intermediate position between shiny and matte.
The color of the shaded part of the material surface is different from the color of its illuminated part; at some points on the surface, glare is observed, the brightness of which depends on the brightness of the light and the nature of the surface topography. Therefore, with diffuse illumination of the surface from all sides and with intense frontal illumination, irregularities do not give shadows, and the texture appears much worse, and sometimes there is no difference at all. The texture of the material is poorly distinguished at a great distance.
There are two types of relief textures:
- organized (with a repeating uniform, often geometric relief pattern)
- unorganized (with an uneven, chaotic pattern).
An example of the first is the regular corrugated texture of natural stone, the second is the texture of concrete with exposed aggregate or the stone texture of a rock. illustrative example textured surface treatment of building materials - relief and smooth processing of the front surface of natural (natural) stone.
Wood textures can also be divided into relief (chipped, hewn, carved, rough, sawn) and smooth (planed, polished).
Various texture processing; face concrete. There are many still undiscovered possibilities in the decorative surface treatment of ceramic, glass, gypsum, asbestos-cement, polymeric building materials and products. Great importance for plastic facades of buildings - has textured processing of the front surface of wall and facing materials. The texture of materials for suspended acoustic ceilings plays a significant role in creating acoustic and light comfort in interiors.
Drawing material can be natural, expressing on its surface a characteristic structure, structural features (such a visible surface pattern is called texture), or artificial, applied to the surface of the material (product) by painting, printing or in any other way. The drawing of the material can be colored (chromatic) and black and white (achromatic).
In a broad sense texture(from Latin textura - fabric, connection, structure) - the predominant orientation of crystalline grains in polycrystals or molecules in solid amorphous materials, leading to anisotropy of their properties.
Tree species with clearly defined wide vessels visible in the longitudinal section have the so-called stroke texture, and if these strokes are collected in wide stripes (as, for example, in oak and ash), then the texture is called strip-stroke, and if the strokes are arranged randomly (for example, , walnut and eucalyptus), then - scattered dashed. Wood species with clearly distinguishable core rays (oak, beech, sycamore, etc.), which are visible on radial cuts as shiny mirrors - intermittent stripes or spots, are characterized by a mirror texture. On tangential sections of these rocks, a scaly texture of wood is visible.
Wood species with a poorly distinguishable anatomical structure (for example, birch, boxwood, pear) are called weak texture. In terms of decorativeness, the mirror texture is higher than the scaly one, therefore, for facing panels and furniture, a sliced radial veneer (thin cut) is preferable to a tangential one.
A peculiar texture on the cuts is created by defects in the structure of wood-knots, burls (nodules), etc. The natural pattern of the cut is revealed and enriched by oblique cutting, the use of special knives with a wavy blade, uneven pressing, and other methods.
The texture of stone and wood materials is enhanced by polishing and transparent finishing (mastics, varnishes) of the surface. The expressiveness of the natural pattern of stone, glass-crystalline and some polymeric and other materials is enhanced by directional illumination of the surface, the play of translucent, deaf and shiny inclusions. Modern technology The production of artificial, primarily polymeric, finishing materials makes it possible to obtain an almost unlimited variety of patterns, including specially created decorative textures.
In natural and most artificial materials, the texture is formed visible on their surfaces with different shapes, sizes, and character. spatial arrangement, color by individual constituent elements: in wood - annual layers, core rays, vessels, fibers; at natural stone- grains, veins, pores; for concrete - with cement stone, fine and coarse aggregate, etc. Texture and color serve as important diagnostic features for recognizing mineral and wood species. Experienced architects, builders and material scientists can easily distinguish dozens of wood species and natural stone materials by external signs. The textures of these materials are shown in fig. The texture of wood, reflecting its anatomical structure, largely determines its artistic and decorative value. Hardwoods tend to have a more expressive and rich texture than softwoods. The nature of the wood texture changes dramatically depending on the direction of the cut of the trunk: transverse (end) or longitudinal (radial and tangential).
Artificial (applied, as a rule, on the surface of the material) drawings differ in numerous ways: the nature, scale, rapport, the number and characteristics of colors and their combinations, etc. The drawing may not be applied to the surface of the material, but located under a transparent top layer (for example, on the inside of a transparent polymer film in multilayer finishing materials and linoleums). The pattern of the material can be created on its surface not by color, but by a combination of different reliefs (etching on glass, a combination of looped and cut pile of carpet materials), perforations (on acoustic plates) and other methods.
Rapport (from French rapporter - to bring back) - a repeating part (motif) of a pattern.
The evaluation of the aesthetic properties of building materials and products is carried out both by measuring their physical parameters and by visual comparison with approved standards. With the visual method, the assessment of color, texture and pattern is carried out in the same lighting conditions under which the material is supposed to be used.
An important, extremely complex and little-studied characteristic of building materials and products is their aesthetic compatibility with each other and with environment. More than others, the issue of color harmonies has been studied, however, as a rule, it was considered in isolation from the specific conditions for the use of various color combinations. The aesthetic properties of materials are shown in the property tree diagram
The issue of color harmony of structural and finishing materials cannot be considered abstractly from the general tasks of architectural design and reduced to the selection beautiful combinations. In The Doctrine of Color, Goethe called the combination of blue and green "vulgarly unpleasant" and the combination of yellow and green "vulgarly cheerful". The entire history of material culture testifies that “... there are no universal, unchanging laws of beautiful color combinations regardless of place and time ... Rejecting the normative theories of color harmony, it would be wrong, however, to neglect those of their provisions that are based to some extent on the generalization of observations and artistic practice” 1 . Thus, the indications that light colors go well with white are not without justice, that juxtapositions of close colors, perceived as shades of the same color, are among the harmonious ones, which in color combinations it is better to preserve the lightness ratios of spectral colors, etc. It is also logical to indicate the desire for “natural” combinations found in nature.
Harmonious is a combination of colors that causes a positive psycho-aesthetic assessment.
This compatibility of "natural" is true not only for color harmonies. It is always positively perceived, for example, a combination of natural construction materials of wood and stone in one building; the combination of traditionally interconnected artificial structural materials - metal and concrete - is also harmonious. And the combination of heavy natural stone with light plastic structures may be perceived as inharmonious, unnatural.
Even more difficult is the question of choosing rational (from the standpoint of "compatibility") materials that are in harmony with the environment. An architect must take into account the natural and climatic conditions, the nature of the landscape, regional and national traditions, and much more. Plastic yurts did not “take root” in the Kazakh steppes, although all the technological calculations of the structures were made correctly. But how harmoniously old and new buildings made of tuff fit into the strict landscape of Armenia.
Number possible combinations materials between themselves and the environment outside the object of their application is huge. Each of them may be acceptable or unacceptable depending on the specific conditions and, above all, on the functional and artistic tasks solved by the architect.
Texture is the surface quality of an object. It can be smooth and rough.
Texture can be perceived by touch or visually. Touch and vision are closely related. For example, when you see polished metal, you visually react to it and know that its surface is smooth without touching it. This is because when you see something that looks smooth, your mind reminds you of past experiences when you touched a smooth surface.
Therefore, the texture affects not only how the interior looks, but also how it is perceived. Rough textures look warm and natural, smooth textures look cold and formal.
Texture also has visual weight. Smooth reflective surfaces tend to be lighter than rough matte surfaces. Polished marble cladding will look lighter than wood paneling.
Rough textures can also visually zoom in on an object and reduce its size. So, for example, wood panels in big room can balance a space and make it cozier, while wood paneling can make a small room look smaller.
Texture also affects color: smooth, glossy surfaces look brighter than rough, opaque ones.
Texture perception is influenced by scale, distance, and light. The smaller the texture surface scale, the smoother it will appear. Even a rough texture can appear relatively smooth when viewed from a distance.
Directional lighting enhances texture, creating shadows and sparkle. Soft ambient light, on the other hand, minimizes contrast and shadows, making the texture hard to read.
Smooth, shiny surfaces reflect light, are in focus and attract attention. Matte and medium-rough surfaces absorb light and scatter it unevenly, so they appear duller than colored smooth surfaces. Very rough surfaces lit directly will create different shadows.
Contrast also affects texture. Texture on a smooth uniform light background will be perceived more clearly than the same texture against a light texture. If a texture is placed on a rough uneven dark background, it will appear thinner and smaller in size.
On smooth surfaces, dirt and abrasions are clearly visible, but can be easily removed from it. Rough surfaces hide dust but are more difficult to clean.
Texture can be used effectively to add interest and character to a room. However, since textures tend to fill space visually, in small rooms it is better to use a fine texture and in small quantities.
Texture is especially effective in monochromatic interiors, where it is used to add depth and create an eye-catching design.
In modern interiors, the bold use of texture gives a stunning effect. Rough unfinished masonry may be used along with stainless steel, glass or polished concrete. By combining contrasting textures, you can create variety, but this requires a lot of space.
Texture and pattern are closely related. Ornament is decorative element, which decorates the surface and, as a rule, is obtained by repeating motifs. When you look at an ornament from a distance, the motifs become so small that you don't see them as separate elements and perceive them as texture.
The pattern can be structural or applied. Structural is inherent in building or mounting surfaces. The butt is decorative and is added after the surface is completed.
Patterns have been part of our lives since the very beginning. They are present everywhere and play an important role in Everyday life having cultural, religious and philosophical significance. Nature often becomes a source of inspiration for decorative patterns in interior design.
An effective interior design tool, pattern, like texture, fills a space, so don't overdo it: competing patterns won't make a space more interesting, only clutter it up and create clutter.
If you like simplicity, then use the pattern as an accent. Enliven a calm interior with accessories: several different pillows with bright pattern decorate the room without creating chaos.
If you are crazy about patterns, here are a few tips to help you keep your interior harmonious and balanced:
Use the scale of the pattern depending on the size of the room. If the room is small, it is better to stick to a small pattern. Keep in mind that it will feel like a texture or even solid in a large space. In a large room, you can use large patterns or medium-sized patterns.
Combine different patterns in the room with a common color or the same patterns different sizes or flowers.
