Mankind has existed on planet Earth for more than 2 million years and has had various effects on nature since ancient times. People began to cut down forests to make room for the construction of first settlements, then cities, to exterminate animals, using their meat for food, and their skins and bones to create clothes and dwellings. Many representatives of the fauna disappeared from the face of the planet, becoming victims of people. Consider the influence of humans on animals.
Deforestation
Human influence on animal world can be both positive and negative. First of all, people have been actively intruding into life since ancient times. wildlife destroying forests. Humanity needs wood, which is used in construction and industry. The population of the planet is growing every year, so you also need a free place where the cities will be located. In the place of the once dense forests, a person arranges pastures.
Therefore, forests are cut down. There is nowhere for wild representatives of the fauna to live, so their populations are declining from year to year. In addition, forests are the green lungs of the planet, as trees release oxygen into the air during photosynthesis. The fewer of them, the worse the air itself becomes, making the life of some species very difficult. If earlier most of the North American continent was covered with dense forests, now cities are proudly located in their places. The tropics, known for their diverse fauna, used to cover more than 10% of the planet's surface, but now they cover only 6%. Often, animals disappear along with their "home".
So the first factor negative impact people on animals - the destruction of the forest, which leads to the death of entire species and even ecosystems.
Hunting
Since ancient times, one of the main ways of obtaining food for people has been hunting. Man has learned to use spears and harpoons, bows and arrows in order to kill representatives of the wild fauna as simply and safely as possible. However, hunting primitive people, the main purpose of which was the extraction of food, did not turn out to be so destructive for animals, modern man did much worse with them. The meat was no longer of value in itself, but the animals were exterminated in huge quantities because of the valuable fur, bones, tusks. Therefore, many species were completely destroyed:
- An example of terrifying cruelty and the most negative human impact on animals is Steller's cows. These good-natured clumsy giants, to their misfortune, had very tasty tender meat and a dense skin, which was used to make boats. Therefore, in less than 30 years of acquaintance with civilized people, they completely disappeared from the face of the earth.
- Great auks are inhabitants of North Antarctica. When people got here, they liked the meat and eggs of these birds, and began to stuff pillows with soft fluff. As a result, a rare bird was destroyed.
- Black rhinoceros had a very valuable horn, because of which they became the desired prey of hunters and poachers. Now this species is considered completely destroyed, and the animals themselves are rare and are under protection.
In addition to extinct animals that our descendants will never see again, there are many examples of representatives of the fauna, whose numbers were sharply reduced by the rash actions of people. These are elephants, tigers, koalas, sea lions, Galapagos turtles, cheetahs, zebras, hippos. Next, consider the direct indirect influence man to animals.
nature pollution
The industry is actively developing, more and more new factories are constantly being opened, which, for all their usefulness, release toxic waste into the air, which turns out to be detrimental to wildlife. Air and soil pollution is an example of human influence on animals, and the influence is negative.
In order for a plant to work, it needs energy obtained by burning fuel, which is wood, coal, and oil. Burning, they form smoke, which contains the most carbon dioxide. It poisons the atmosphere and can even cause a greenhouse effect. Therefore, it is becoming increasingly difficult for representatives of the wild fauna to survive in the conditions created by an insatiable civilization. The death of hundreds of animals is caused by acid rain, the use of poisoned water from reservoirs where modern enterprises dump their waste.
Ecological disasters
The negative influence of man on animals can also be caused by a tragic accident. So, among the most terrible environmental disasters that led to the death of a large number of representatives of the fauna, the following can be attributed:
- In 2010, an industrial tanker crashed, nearly destroying Australia's main natural attraction, the Great Barrier Reef. More than 900 tons of oil fell into the water then, so the event is rightfully considered one of the worst environmental disasters in terms of consequences. An oil slick with an area of about 3 km was formed on the surface of the water, and only the prompt intervention of people saved nature from complete destruction.
- A methyl isocyanate leak in the Indian city of Bhopal in 1984. Then more than 40 tons of toxic fumes entered the atmosphere, which caused the death of thousands of people and animals.
- The explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant forever changed the natural world of Ukraine. The consequences of this monstrous catastrophe still make themselves felt.
There are many examples of horrendous environmental disasters, all of which have an indirect impact on the world of wildlife and its fauna.
Drainage of swamps
With apparent benefits, this process leads to a violation of the ecological balance and can cause the death of animals. It entails the death of plants that need high humidity, which cannot but be reflected in the reduction in the number and species of wild animals that used these plants for food. Thus, the drainage of swamps is an example of the negative impact of humanity.
Use of pesticides
Wanting to get a rich harvest, people spray the fields with toxic substances that allow them to destroy bacteria and fungi that affect cultivated plants. However, representatives of the animal world often become victims, who, having absorbed the chemical, die immediately or become infected.
Research
Science is making strides forward. People have learned to create vaccines against diseases that were considered incurable a couple of centuries ago. But animals suffer from it again. It is on them that experiments are carried out, new drugs are being studied. On the one hand, this has its own logic, but on the other hand, it is terrible to imagine how many innocent creatures died in agony in laboratories.
reserves
In an effort to preserve rare and endangered species, a person takes them under his protection, opening a variety of reserves, reserves, parks. Here the animals live in freedom, in their natural habitat, hunting for them is prohibited, and the number is regulated by experienced researchers. All conditions have been created for the world of fauna. This is an example of the positive influence of man on animals.
Help natural treasures
The already mentioned Great Barrier Reef in Australia is an example of not only the negative, but also the positive impact of mankind on nature. So, a natural attraction is formed by corals - small-sized organisms that live in such extensive colonies that they form entire islands. People have been protecting this natural treasure since ancient times, because in coral reefs many amazing marine life have found their home: parrot fish, butterfly fish, tiger sharks, dolphins and whales, sea turtles and many crustaceans.
However, the Great Barrier Reef is in danger: the coral polyps that form it are a favorite delicacy of the voracious crown of thorns starfish. For a year, one individual is capable of destroying more than 6 square meters. m of corals. Mankind is fighting these pests by artificially reducing their numbers, but this is quite problematic, since the only effective, but safe for the ecosystem, method is to collect the crown of thorns by hand.
We have considered the direct and indirect influence of man on animals and we can conclude that negative impact much more pronounced. Humans destroy entire species and make impossible life others, numerous ecological catastrophes of the XX-XXI centuries. caused the death of entire ecosystems. Now efforts are being made to protect and protect rare and endangered species, but so far the results are disappointing.
Direct Impact Factors
The characteristics of interconnectedness, complexity, fluidity and uncertainty describe both direct and indirect factors. indirect impact. The characteristics of the environment are different, but at the same time related to its factors. This dependence will become apparent when considering the main factors in the direct impact environment: suppliers, laws and government agencies, consumers and competitors.
Suppliers
From the point of view of a systems approach, an organization is a mechanism for transforming incoming elements into outgoing ones. The main varieties of inputs are materials, equipment, energy, capital and labor. The dependency between an organization and a network of suppliers providing the input of said resources is an example of the impact of the environment on the operations and success of an organization.
In some cases, all organizations in a given region do business with one or almost the same supplier. For example, energy supply, when all organizations receive energy at prices set by the state. At the same time, changes such as price increases will affect the organization to the extent that it consumes energy.
Materials. Some organizations depend on a continuous flow of materials. At the same time, in some regions, for example, in Japan, it is possible to use methods of limiting stocks, i.e. firms assume that the materials needed for the next stage of the production process must be delivered just in time. Such a supply chain requires extremely close interaction between the manufacturer and suppliers. At the same time, in other regions, it may be necessary to seek alternative suppliers or maintain a significant amount of stocks. However, inventories tie up money that has to be spent on materials and storage. This relationship between money and supply of raw materials illustrates well the interconnectedness of variables.
Capital. For the functioning and development of an organization, capital is needed. Potential investors include: banks, federal loan programs, shareholders, and individuals who accept the company's bills or purchase its bonds. The better the company is doing, the higher its ability to get the required amount of funds.
Labor resources. For the effective operation of the organization, for the implementation of tasks related to the achievement of the set goals, it is necessary to provide it with personnel of the necessary specialties and qualifications. The development of a number of industries is currently constrained by the lack of the necessary specialists. Many sectors of the computer industry can serve as an example. Many firms were forced to look for cheap labor in other countries.
Main concern modern organization is the selection and support of talented managers. In the conducted studies, when ranking by the degree of importance of a number of factors, the heads of firms singled out in the first place: the involvement of highly qualified managers of the highest management level and the training of capable managers within the firm. The fact that managerial development has been more important than profits, customer service, and the payment of acceptable dividends to shareholders is a clear sign of the importance of the influx of this category of labor into the organization.
Laws and government bodies
Labor laws, many other laws and government agencies affect the organization. In a predominantly private economy, the interaction between
buyers and sellers of every input and every output is subject to numerous legal restrictions. Each organization has a specific legal status, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a company, a corporation, or a not-for-profit corporation, and it is this that determines how the organization can conduct its business and what taxes it must pay.
The state of legislation is often characterized not only by its complexity, but also by mobility, and sometimes even uncertainty. Codes of laws on safety and health at work, environmental protection, consumer protection, financial protection, etc. are being developed and revised almost continuously. At the same time, the amount of work required to track and comply with current legislation is constantly increasing.
State bodies. Organizations are required to comply not only with federal and local laws, but also with the requirements of state regulatory authorities. These bodies provide enforcement of laws in their respective areas of competence, as well as introduce their own requirements, often with the force of law.
Legislation of local governments. Local government regulations also complicate matters. Local governments require businesses to acquire licenses, limit their choice of where to do business, impose taxes on businesses, and, in the case of energy, telephone systems and insurance, for example, set prices. Some local laws modify federal regulations. An organization that conducts its business in dozens of subjects of the federation and dozens of foreign states is faced with a complex and diverse system of local institutions.
Consumers
Renowned management expert Peter F. Drucker argues that the only true purpose of a business is to create a customer. This implies that the very survival and justification of the existence of the organization depends on its ability to find a consumer of the results of its activities and satisfy its needs. The importance of consumers to business is clear. However, non-profit and government organizations also have consumers in this sense. Thus, the government of the state and its apparatus exist only to serve the needs of citizens. That citizens are consumers and deserve to be treated is, unfortunately, sometimes not obvious in everyday dealings with state bureaucracy, but during election campaigns citizens are seen as consumers to be “buyed”.
Customers, by deciding what goods and services they want and at what price, determine almost everything related to the results of its activities for the organization. Thus, the need to meet the needs of customers affects the interaction of the organization with suppliers of materials and labor resources. The impact of consumers on the internal variables of a structure can be quite significant.
Competitors
COMPETITORS are the most important factor, the influence of which cannot be disputed. The management of each enterprise is well aware that if the needs of consumers are not met as effectively as competitors do, then the enterprise will not last long. In many cases, it is competitors, not consumers, who determine what kind of performance can be sold and what price can be asked.
It is important to understand that consumers are not the only object of competition for organizations. Organizations may also compete for labor, materials, capital, and the right to use certain technical innovations. The reaction to competition depends on such internal factors as working conditions, wages and the nature of the relationship of managers with subordinates.
Factors of indirect influence
Indirect environmental factors usually do not affect the operations of organizations as noticeably as direct environmental factors. However, management should take them into account. The indirect impact environment is usually more complex than the direct impact environment. Management is often forced to rely on assumptions about such an environment, based on incomplete information, in an attempt to predict the possible consequences for the organization.
The main environmental factors of indirect impact include: technology, the state of the economy, socio-cultural and political factors, as well as relationships with local management organizations.
Technology is both an internal variable and external factor great importance. (One should take into account the very broad interpretation of the term technology, which refers to both processes, and methods, and techniques for carrying out any industrial, service, and even creative activities.) Technological innovations affect the efficiency with which products can be made and sold, the rate of product obsolescence, how information can be collected, stored, and distributed; and what kind of services and new products customers expect from the organization.
The rate of technological change has increased markedly in recent decades. Of the major technological innovations that have deeply affected the entire society and have had a strong impact on specific organizations, one can note computer, laser, microwave, semiconductor technologies, integrated communication lines, robotics, satellite communications, nuclear energy, synthetic fuel and food production, genetic engineering. etc. Renowned sociologist Daniel Bell believes that miniaturization technology will be considered the most valuable innovation in the future.
Obviously, organizations that deal directly with high-level technology, knowledge-intensive enterprises, must be able to quickly respond to new developments and propose innovations themselves. At the same time, today all organizations, in order to remain competitive, must keep pace with those developments on which the effectiveness of their activities depends.
The state of the economy
Management must also be able to assess how general changes in the state of the economy will affect the organization's operations. The state of the world economy affects the cost of all inputs and the ability of consumers to buy certain goods and services. For example, if inflation is predicted, management may increase the stock of resources and negotiate fixed wages with workers to keep costs down. It may also decide to make a loan, as the money will be worth less when the payments fall due.
The state of the economy can greatly affect the ability of an organization to obtain capital, since when the economic situation worsens, banks tighten the conditions for obtaining a loan and increase interest rates. Also, with tax cuts, there is an increase in the amount of money that people can spend on non-essential purposes and, thereby, contribute to business development.
A particular change in the state of the economy can have a positive impact on some organizations and a negative impact on others. Organizations doing business in many countries often find the state of the economy particularly challenging and important to them. Thus, fluctuations in the dollar against the currencies of other countries can cause instant enrichment or impoverishment of the company.
Socio-cultural factors
Every organization operates in at least one cultural environment. Therefore, sociocultural factors, and above all, life values, traditions, attitudes, affect the organization. So, for example, in the value system of American society, giving a bribe to obtain a lucrative contract or political benefits, spreading rumors discrediting a competitor are considered unethical and immoral actions, even when they cannot be considered illegal. However, in some other countries this practice may be considered quite normal.
On the basis of special studies, it was shown that the value orientations of workers are also changing. In general, relatively young workers want more independence and social interaction at work. Many workers and employees aspire to work that requires more flexibility, has more content, does not infringe on freedom and arouses self-respect in a person. Many modern workers do not consider that they will spend their entire working life in one organization. These attitudes become especially important for managers in relation to their main function - motivating people, taking into account the goals of the organization. These factors also led to the emergence of a position on public affairs of the corporation.
Sociocultural factors also influence the products or services that are the result of the company's activities. A good example is the clothing industry. Another example is the passion for nuclear power, which has had a dramatic negative impact on many of the firms associated with it.
Sociocultural factors also influence how organizations conduct their business. For example, public opinion may put pressure on a firm that has ties to socially disapproved organizations, groups, and possibly countries. Consumer perceptions of quality service affect the daily practices of retail stores and restaurants. The result of the sociocultural impact on organizations has been a growing focus on social responsibility.
According to R. Jones, former chairman of the board of General Electric, organizations must be able to anticipate changes in society's expectations and serve them more efficiently than competitors. And this means that the corporation itself must change, consciously transforming itself into an organization adapted to the new environment.
Political factors
Certain aspects of the political environment are of particular importance to leaders. One of them is the position of the administration, legislative bodies and courts in relation to business. This position influences government actions such as taxation of income, the establishment of tax breaks or preferential trade duties, requirements for labor practices, consumer protection legislation, standards for safety, environmental cleanliness, price and wage controls, etc. P.
Another element of the political environment is special interest groups and lobbyists. All institutions of state regulation are the objects of attention of lobby groups representing organizations that are affected by the decisions of these institutions.
Of great importance for companies with operations or markets in other countries is the factor of political stability. For a foreign investor, or for product exports, political changes can lead to restrictions on property rights for foreigners (or even nationalization) or the imposition of special duties on imports. The balance of payments or problems with external debt servicing can make it difficult to receive money exported as profit. On the other hand, the policy may change in favor of investors when there is a need for capital inflow from abroad. Establishing diplomatic relations may open the way to new markets.
Relations with the local population
For any organization, as a factor in the environment of indirect impact, of paramount importance is the attitude of the local population, the social environment in which the organization operates. Organizations must make a concerted effort to maintain good relations with the local community. These efforts can be expressed in the form of funding for schools and public organizations, charitable activities, support for young talents, etc.
International Factors
The external environment of organizations operating at the international level is characterized by increased complexity. This is due to the unique set of factors that characterize each country. The economy, culture, quantity and quality of labor and material resources, laws, government institutions, political stability, and the level of technological development differ from country to country. In carrying out the functions of planning, organizing, stimulating and controlling, these differences must be taken into account.
International factors should also be taken into account:
Changes in exchange rates;
Political decisions of investor countries;
Decisions made by international cartels
With the advent of man, an anthropogenic cycle or metabolism arose. Anthropogenic cycle (exchange) - the cycle (exchange) of substances, the driving force of which is human activity. Two components can be distinguished in it: biological, associated with the functioning of a person as a living organism, and technical, associated with the economic activity of people (technogenic circulation (exchange)).
Unlike the geological and biological cycles of substances, the anthropogenic cycle of substances in most cases is not closed. Therefore, they often talk not about the anthropogenic cycle, but about the anthropogenic metabolism. The openness of the anthropogenic circulation of substances leads to depletion natural resources and pollution of the natural environment.
In addition to influencing the circulation of substances, a person has an impact on energy processes in the biosphere. The most dangerous is the thermal pollution of the biosphere associated with the use of nuclear and thermonuclear energy.
Thus, the impact of man on nature consists in the redistribution of matter in the environment and the change in its physical, chemical and biological characteristics.
Human impact on nature can be direct (immediate) or indirect (indirect).
Direct (immediate) impact - a change in nature as a result of direct impact economic activity person on natural objects and phenomena. Indirect (indirect) impact - a change in nature as a result chain reactions or secondary phenomena associated with human economic activity.
Under the influence of non-natural factors, both the structural organization of ecosystems and their functional properties change. Depending on the nature of the impact, there is either a complication or simplification of the structure, and sometimes its complete transformation and the formation of new technogeosystems that are not characteristic of natural formations (Fig. 2).
Figure 2 - Scheme of impact anthropogenic factor on the ecosystem
The technogenic impact of mining enterprises on the environment is fundamentally different from other industrial facilities in that it affects the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere.
The impact on the last three spheres always occurs as a result of technogenic changes in the lithosphere during the extraction of a mineral, while the geological predetermination of the location of the mining enterprise leads to the fact that any of the ecosystems existing on Earth can be in the zone of this impact. With such a setting a common problem environmental safety during the development of subsoil can be divided into several independent parts determined through the unity of the ultimate goal, and the global contradiction between the techno- and biosphere is overcome by turning it into a number of local contradictions resolved on the basis of various methodological approaches.
As the analysis of the most common systems for assessing the level of technogenic change in biota has shown, the difference between the technocratic and biotic position here lies in the fact that in the first case, the concept of a general impact is formed by combining various detailed differentiated technogenic factors, and in the second, the concept is formed according to the same principle. biota. The other element of the considered system “impact-ecosystem” in both cases is a priori accepted as integral.
The internal inconsistency of this approach lies in the dissimilarity of the principles for the formation of criteria that evaluate the state of equally complex interacting objects.
As follows from the logical scheme for the development of any technogenic processes, shown in fig. 3, the use of any geotechnology is accompanied by the appearance of any technogenic factors (pollutants). Spreading in the transit environment, they form a zone of technogenic damage, within the boundaries of which the ecosystem experiences a technogenic load. As a result of its appearance, the values of certain life-supporting factors for biota objects change, which leads to its subsequent disruption (degradation).
Figure 3 - Logic diagram of the formation of technogenic pressures on ecosystems
The impact of pollutants on animals can be both direct and indirect. Immediate action harmful substances from the atmosphere on animals is insignificant, since the amount of pollutants absorbed is relatively small. The secondary, indirect impact is much more serious, since the animals receive pollutants from the feed.[ ...]
Impact - the direct impact of human economic activity on the environment. The following types of impact are distinguished: intentional and unintentional, direct and indirect (indirect). The first type of human economic activity includes mining, construction of hydraulic structures, deforestation (for arable land and pastures, for timber), etc. Unintended impacts occur side by side with the first type of impact, in particular, mining open way minerals leads to a decrease in the level ground water, pollution of the air basin, the formation of man-made landforms (quarries, waste heaps, tailings), etc. In turn, the above impacts can be both direct and indirect. Direct impacts (irrigation) directly affect the environment - they change the composition and structure of soils, lead to secondary salinization, etc. Indirect impacts occur indirectly, i.e. through chains of interrelated influences.[ ...]
Indirect Impact earth's crust to other structural parts geographical envelope manifested through the relief of the earth's surface. The relief affects the speed and direction of the wind, the temperature and humidity of the surface layers of air. Submarine ridges, changing the direction of deep currents, affect the circulation of oceanic waters in general, and impede water exchange between the seas and oceans. The morphology of the earth's crust regulates the degree of development and productivity of the terrestrial and underwater biostrome, with the essential difference that at extreme heights the biostrome degrades (nival landscapes) in the former, while its structure becomes more complex and productivity increases in the latter.[ ...]
The impact of air-blast on a person can be indirect or direct. In case of indirect damage, air-blast, destroying buildings, involves in the movement a huge amount of solid particles, glass fragments and other objects weighing up to 1.5 g at a speed of up to 35 m/s. Thus, at an excess pressure of about 60 kPa, the density of such dangerous particles reaches 4500 pieces/m2. The largest number victims - victims of the indirect impact of air-blast.[ ...]
The indirect effect of photooxidants on vegetation is mainly due to their influence on the formation of atmospheric precipitation acidity and on chemical and biological processes in soils under the action of strong acids (see Ch. 6).[ ...]
Human impact on the animal world. Z.KOS VODSIS 1 kitty can whine direct and indirect. Indirect impact is manifested due to changes in the habitat (drainage of swamps, plowing of steppes, construction of dams, cities, roads, etc.). The negative impact of humans on animals is increasing.[ ...]
The indirect effect of thermal load on aquatic organisms leads to an increase in their susceptibility to diseases, a change in the solubility of gases and an increase in the reaction rate of toxic and other chemical substances in water, favors the replacement of the usual flora of algae with less desirable s and e - green algae and.[ ...]
Indirect impacts occur indirectly - through chains of interrelated influences. So, intentional indirect impacts are the use of fertilizers and a direct impact on crop yields, and unintended ones are the impact of aerosols on the amount of solar radiation (especially in cities), etc.[ ...]
Indirect impact is a change in living conditions as a result of anthropogenic pollution of air, water, the use of pesticides and mineral fertilizers. Of certain importance is also the penetration of alien plant species (introducers) into plant communities.[ ...]
Of the indirect human impacts on biotic communities, for example, their pollution with industrial emissions is of great importance.[ ...]
The indirect effect of aerosol on clouds is also understood as the effect associated with the influence of an increase in the number of condensation nuclei in industrial and polluted regions on the microphysics and optical properties of clouds. Quantitative estimates of the influence of this effect on the radiative properties of clouds can be obtained if the optical parameters (volumetric extinction coefficient, single scattering albedo and scattering indicatrix) of particles consisting of a mixture of substances with different refractive indices are known.[ ...]
Indirect impact refers to such changes in the environment that, without having a harmful effect on the human body, worsen ordinary living conditions, for example, increase the number of foggy days, affect green spaces, etc.[ ...]
The direct impact on the environment, for example, when clearing and leveling the route, will be a violation of the micro- and macro-relief, and indirectly, the reduction of pasture areas. The consequences of direct and indirect impacts will be respectively primary and secondary.[ ...]
The indirect impact environment refers to factors that may not have a direct immediate impact on operations, but nevertheless affect them. It's about factors such as the state of the economy, scientific and technical progress, socio-cultural and political changes, educational and professional level workforce, environmental awareness of the population, the influence of group interests and significant events for the organization in other countries.[ ...]
Anthropogenic impact can be direct - extermination, reproduction and resettlement by humans of both individual species of animals and plants, and entire biocenoses. Indirect impact is carried out by changing the habitat of organisms: climate, river regime, plowing of land (development of virgin lands), etc.[ ...]
One of the types of indirect impact of a transport facility on public health and wildlife is transport pollution of the environment.[ ...]
It is noted that indirect exposure leads to a decrease in the required dose £>0 with a decrease in the level of radiation to the radiation of the environment. With direct exposure, the opposite trend is observed: O0 increases with a decrease in the level of absorbed radiation, provided that at a low level of radiation, the dominant mechanism is a direct effect on genes. This leads to a big difference between the expected and observed effect.[ ...]
The following classification of impact partially coincides with the classification of the impact of pollution sources on various media. This is a classification according to the direct and indirect consequences of a particular impact. In the case of direct exposure, the source of exposure, for example, industrial enterprise, has a direct effect on the environment, which is both transit (i.e., directly perceiving certain types of pollution, in which transportation and partial transformation, as well as dispersion of pollutants) and depositing (i.e., accumulating and / or transforming contaminants). In the case of indirect impact, a complex analysis of the transfer of the pollutant to one or several depository environments is required, as well as in terms of identifying the pollution as belonging to a particular enterprise.[ ...]
ANTHROPOGENIC LOAD - the degree of direct and indirect impact of people and their economy on nature as a whole or on its individual ecological components and elements (landscapes, natural resources, living species, etc.).[ ...]
Atmospheric aerosol has both direct and indirect effects on the climate. Aerosol particles scatter and absorb solar and thermal radiation and, therefore, have a direct impact on the radiation regime of the atmosphere.[ ...]
ANTHROPOGENIC DESERT - a desert that has arisen as a result of the direct or indirect impact of mankind on nature. Area P. a. is constantly growing and currently reaches 10 million km2, (6.7% of the land surface). There is an opinion that all the deserts of the world are of anthropogenic origin.[ ...]
Environmental factor - any element of the environment that can have a direct or indirect effect on a living organism at least at one of its stages. individual development, or any environmental condition to which the organism responds with adaptive reactions. When the regimes of environmental factors change, the deviation of certain components of the natural environment from a certain norm required by the body, violations of vital activity are possible up to the incompatibility of these deviations with life. When living conditions change, the body goes through a series of successive states - from comfortable to pathological (Fig. 7).[ ...]
An environmental factor is any element of the environment that can have a direct or indirect effect on a living organism at least at one of the stages of its individual development, or any environmental condition to which the body responds with adaptive reactions.[ ...]
ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS are components and phenomena of inanimate, inorganic nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms. Among them, the leading role is played by climatic (solar radiation, light regime, temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, pressure, etc.); then come edaphic (soil), important for animals living in the soil; and, finally, hydrographic, or factors of the aquatic environment. Solar radiation is the main source of energy that determines the heat balance and thermal regime of the biosphere. Thus, the total solar radiation entering the earth's surface, in the direction from the equator to the poles, decreases by about 2.5 times (from 180-220 to 60-80 kcal/cm2-year). Based on the radiation regime and the nature of the circulation of the atmosphere, they are allocated on the surface of the Earth climatic zones. However, solar radiation, in turn, is also the most important environmental factor affecting the physiology and morphology of living organisms. The existence on the surface of our planet of large zonal types of vegetation (tundra, taiga, steppes, deserts, savannas, tropical rainforests, etc.) is mainly due to climatic reasons; moreover, they are closely related to climatic zonality.[ ...]
For example, the most polluting branch of the environment - mining and smelting - has a direct and indirect impact on the biosphere. The direct impact consists in the use of a significant area of land for the construction of quarries and underground mines, the construction of processing plants and metallurgical plants, as well as for overburden dumps, tailings, slag dumps, etc. At the same time, significant agricultural lands are being torn away and dying. The indirect impact extends over much longer distances and manifests itself in the deposition of gases, dust and chemicals, surface deformation, damage to vegetation, reduced productivity of agricultural land, livestock and fisheries, change chemical composition and dynamics of movement of surface and ground waters. All this has an impact not only on the natural system, but also on the social and hygienic situation associated with the life of human society in accordance with the four laws of B. Commoner.[ ...]
ECOLOGICAL DISASTER - !. A natural anomaly (prolonged drought, mass mortality, etc.), often arising from the direct or indirect impact of human economy on natural processes, leading to adverse economic consequences or even death of the population of a certain region. 2. An accident of a technical device (nuclear power plant, tanker, etc.), which led to acutely unfavorable changes in the natural environment and, as a rule, to the mass death of living organisms.[ ...]
DAMAGE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION - actual and possible losses of the national economy associated with environmental pollution, including direct and indirect impacts, as well as additional costs for eliminating the negative consequences of pollution, as well as losses associated with the deterioration of public health, the reduction of activities working period and people's lives. The release of contaminants contributes to the corrosion of equipment and building structures, brings losses to adjacent areas of economic activity. Energy production is the main contributor to the global anthropogenic impact on the environment. In most cases, its impact is characterized as a change in the natural level of flows of chemicals (methane, lead, cadmium, mercury, etc.) in the natural environment.[ ...]
In this case, indicators can be expressed in various forms. For example, when evaluating the characteristics physical processes and operations, including their direct and indirect effects on the environment, such as energy consumption or the consumption of raw materials and materials, should be used quantitative indicators; depending on the method of information processing and its further use, the quantitative values of indicators can be absolute (for example, when determining the volume of emissions into the atmosphere) or specific (energy intensity); financial indicators can be used to evaluate savings and costs; can be used qualitative indicators in the absence of the possibility of using quantitative.[ ...]
On the site of cut down forests, the process of renewal of taiga ecosystems is 100 years or more. In the north-taiga regions, a "lunar landscape" is formed on the site of forests that died from industrial pollution (mainly SO2). For example, in the vicinity of the city of Monchegorsk, there is no vegetation within a radius of 15 km and the soil cover is completely burned. The level of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases of the population in such areas is much higher compared to others where there is no such production. Since the Kostomuksha region is the youngest industrial region in the north of Fennoscandia, Negative consequences do not yet have external manifestations. However, the data of remote cosmic sensing of the state of the forests show that in 1992, pollution from the plant's pipe spread to the northeast for 25–30 km, and in the southwest it reached the territory of the city (Litinsky, 1997).[ ... ]
Environmental audit - an independent study of all areas of economic activity of the enterprise, conducted to determine the volume of its direct and indirect impact on the environment. Its tasks are to bring environmental activities in line with the requirements of legislation and regulations, optimize the use of natural resources, reduce energy consumption, reduce waste, prevent accidental discharges and man-made disasters.[ ...]
In the content of environmental relations, two structural elements are distinguished - socio-ecological relations that develop between people in their artificial habitat and indirectly affect the natural habitat of people and real-practical relations, which include, firstly, the relationship of a person directly to the natural environment. habitation, and secondly, relations in the material and production spheres of human life associated with the process of appropriation by a person natural forces, energy and matter, and thirdly, the relationship of man to natural conditions its existence as a social being.[ ...]
Relief anthropogenic (technogenic) - a set of forms of the earth's surface, changed or created by human activity. Almost the same as the technogenic relief, but includes indirect impacts through erosion processes (ravines, shifting sands, etc.). Significant impacts on the relief of the earth's surface are exerted by: mining (especially by open pit mining), construction of canals, pipelines, reservoirs, etc. other[ ...]
The importance of taking into account the edaphoclimatic conditions of the environment becomes even more obvious when comparing the vegetation of different natural and climatic zones. Thus, in the forest zone, one of the leading factors of indirect impact industrial emissions vegetation is affected by soil acidification [Zaikov and Maslov, 1991; Horvat, 1990], while in the study area this practically does not manifest itself, since chernozems have a high acid-neutralizing capacity.[ ...]
The main independent factors of soil evolution are climate change and human activity. Climate change is the most important factor in the evolution of soils and the geographic environment. Changes in biota are also an important factor, but mostly subordinated to climate influences. Human activities are characterized by a wide variety of direct and indirect impacts on soils and their anthropogenic changes. Indirect impacts (natural processes provoked by man) are carried out through the transformation of the biota, the processes of sedimentation, erosion. Among direct impacts, arable soils are the most common, and impacts on roadside and urban soils are the most intense (Aleksandrovskaya, 1985, 1996; Aleksandrovskaya et al., 2000, 2001, 2002; Aleksandrovskaya et al., 1997a; Alexandrovskaya et al, 2000, 2001, 2002 ).[ ...]
TECHNOSPHERE: 1) part of the biosphere, radically transformed by man into technical and man-made objects (buildings, roads, mechanisms, etc., into an anthropogenic environment); 2) a part of the biosphere (according to some ideas, over time, the entire biosphere), transformed by people with the help of direct and indirect impact of technical means in order to best meet the socio-economic needs of mankind.[ ...]
The mechanisms for maintaining the spatial distribution of individuals in a population can be very diverse. In lower organisms, influence on each other is widespread with the help of chemicals (phytoncides in onions and garlic, etc.) secreted by the body (allelopathy), as well as indirect influence (for example, shading individuals of their own species by faster growing trees). In highly organized animals, the regulation of the spatial structure of populations is carried out due to the higher nervous activity regulating behavior, reproduction and other vital processes of the body.[ ...]
Our country has a generally recognized priority in the development of the world's first air purity standard. Soviet hygienic science determines the level of the maximum permissible concentration of a particular substance on the basis of its complete harmlessness, the absence of a direct or indirect effect on the body. In other words, this is a scientifically based hygienic standard. Currently, such standards have been approved for 150 substances most commonly found in the atmospheric air of populated areas. Subtle physiological, biochemical, clinical and other methods are used to detect the early reactions of the body, including the study of the electric currents of the brain. Hygiene standards allow health authorities to assess the degree of air pollution in any area and require effective measures to reduce harmful emissions. Hygienic standards underlie all the practical activities of sanitary authorities and are the initial data in the design of industrial and civil engineering.[ ...]
Our experiments have shown that when protococcal algae are exposed to CuCl2 and copper complexes at a concentration of 0.5-5.0 mg Cu!l, after 3-4 hours the cells lose about 75% of potassium, thereby changing the K/Na ratio in the medium . The accumulation of potassium in the nutrient solution has been shown to have an indirect effect on the viability of algal cells (Tatus, 1964).[ ...]
Ecological catastrophy- this is an irreversible phenomenon in nature, representing one of the states of nature, manifested in a natural anomaly (Greek anomalía - deviation from the norm, from the general pattern). Examples of natural anomalies are a prolonged drought, mass mortality of livestock, which often arise on the basis of direct or indirect impact human activity on natural processes leading to acutely unfavorable economic consequences or mass death of the population of a certain region.[ ...]
The proposed criteria, characteristics and assessments of the classes of the state of the environmental protection system according to the features of the manifestation of technogenic factors are not strictly mandatory and can be considered as recommendatory ones that require refinement and clarification. In particular, for some components of the environmental system, a more detailed classification of the state of the PS can be proposed, the indirect impact on the biota of certain types of technogenesis is taken into account, the role of biotic criteria is strengthened, which makes it possible to identify negative processes at an early stage.[ ...]
NOISE POLLUTION - noise perceived by a person as a hindrance, one of the options for physical pollution of the environment. ECLECTICS (gr. eklego - I choose) - a mixture of different artistic styles, compositional techniques and forms without taking into account the nature of the local landscape, the internal logic of building an ensemble. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS - components of the environment that directly or indirectly affect living organisms.[ ...]
At the same time, the damage caused to nature as a result of the action of natural forces and anthropogenic activity is compared. It is noted that the consequences of human activity are often inferior in scale to the natural impact, but significantly exceed it in the speed of manifestation. A distinction is drawn between the direct impact of pollution (for example, the effect of toxins on the body, the occurrence of mutations and genetic changes) and indirect impact (for example, climate change), when the induced effect (in particular, a decrease in soil fertility) may appear much later. The author many times emphasizes the need for an integrated approach to discussing any case of violent intrusion into the ecosystem and eliminating its consequences.[ ...]
Considering the nature of mantle convection, one should emphasize the leading role in its occurrence of the process of chemical-density differentiation of terrestrial matter. However, one should not forget about the contribution of the thermal component of convection. This contribution is determined both by the direct heating of the mantle matter and the decay of radioactive elements scattered in it, and by the indirect effect of additional heating of the matter due to the dissipation of the energy of viscous flows in the mantle, as well as by the influence of cold oceanic lithospheric plates plunging into the mantle. Judging by energy estimates, the contribution of radiogenic heat to the convective mass turnover of mantle matter does not exceed 10%. The dissipative component of the thermal energy of convection and its part, determined by the cooling of the oceanic lithosphere, is drawn from the gravitational energy of the very process of differentiation of terrestrial matter. Therefore, when determining the nature of the tectonic (or more precisely, tectono-magmatic) activity of the Earth, it should be associated not just with gravitational, but precisely with gravitational-thermal convection. In the future, as a synonym for this concept, we will widely use the term "chemical-density convection", understanding by it that density inhomogeneities in the mantle arise not only due to changes in the chemical composition, but also due to its temperature inhomogeneities.[ ...]
Main Feature environmental legislation at the present stage is the increase of its active role in the regulation of economic relations, in the implementation of environmental rules in regulations governing the planning, design, construction, commissioning, operation of enterprises, equipment and other facilities that have a direct and indirect impact on the environment .[ ...]
The next operation is the selection of different biotopes within each of the ecotopes. A biotope is an environmental space transformed by currently existing edificatory species, among which the first place is occupied by woody plant species. Of course, one must take into account the fact that in most cases the distribution of trees over the territory was created under the direct or indirect influence of man.[ ...]
The President of Russia ensures the coordinated functioning and interaction of the bodies state power in the field of environmental expertise. The procedure for conducting the state environmental review is approved by the Government of the Russian Federation. The terms of reference of the subjects of the Federation in the field of environmental expertise include, in particular, the following: obtaining information about the objects of environmental expertise, the implementation of which may have a direct or indirect impact on the environment within the territory of a given subject; delegation of experts to participate as observers in meetings of expert commissions of the state environmental review of objects of the above nature.[ ...]
The term "ecology" was introduced by the German scientist E. Haeckel in 1866 (derived from Greek, which means dwelling, shelter, cology - science). It studies the interaction of organisms with the environment and with each other. The environment is the habitat and production activity of a person, the content of which is characterized by interaction with inanimate nature(climate, relief, etc.) and living organisms. The concept of "environment" includes social, natural and artificially created physical, chemical and biological factors, that is, everything that directly or indirectly affects the life and activity of a person.[ ...]
Increased engine hours between oil changes not covered by improvement operational properties of the oil used and the conditions of its operation in engines, leads to a faster increase in oil consumption for waste, and ultimately, instead of saving, oil overrun may occur. It is generally accepted that oil waste depends mainly on the design of the engine, and reducing waste is the task of engine building; engine running time between oil changes and its increase is the task of the oil refining industry. In fact, the properties of the oil can have a significant impact on its loss in a given technical condition of the engine, and also indirectly affect the change in oil loss, accelerating or slowing down the change. technical condition engine.
The direct impact environment is also called the direct business environment of the organization. This environment forms such subjects of the environment that directly affect the activities of a particular organization.
Suppliers
From the point of view of the systems approach, the organization is a mechanism for transforming inputs into outputs. The main types of outputs are materials, equipment, energy, capital and work force. Suppliers provide the input of these resources. Receiving resources from other countries could be more profitable in terms of prices, quality or quantity, but at the same time dangerously increase environmental factors such as fluctuations in exchange rates or political instability,
All suppliers can be divided into several groups - suppliers of materials, capital, labor resources.
Laws and government bodies
Many laws and government agencies affect organizations. Each organization has a specific legal status, whether it be a sole proprietorship, a company, a corporation or a non-profit corporation, and it is this that determines how an organization can conduct its business and what taxes it must pay. No matter how the management treats these laws, it has to adhere to them or, having reaped the fruits of refusal to obey the law in the form of fines or even a complete cessation of business.
As you know, the state in a market economy has an indirect influence on organizations, primarily through the tax system, state property and the budget, and directly - through legislative acts. For example, high tax rates significantly limit the activity of firms, their investment opportunities and push them to conceal income. On the contrary, lowering tax rates helps to attract capital, leads to a revival entrepreneurial activity. And thus, with the help of taxes, the state can manage the development of the necessary areas in the economy.
Consumers
The well-known management specialist Peter F. Drucker, speaking of the purpose of the organization, singled out, in his opinion, the only true purpose of the business - the creation of a consumer. This means the following: the very survival and justification of the existence of the organization depends on its ability to find a consumer of the results of its activities and satisfy its needs. The importance of consumers to business is clear. However, nonprofits and government organizations also have consumers in the "Druckerian" sense.
All the variety of external factors is reflected in the consumer and through him affects the organization, its goals and strategy. The need to meet the needs of customers affects the interaction of the organization with suppliers of materials and labor resources. Many organizations focus their structures on the large customer groups on which they are most dependent.
In modern conditions, various associations and associations of consumers are also of great importance, influencing not only demand, but also the image of firms. It is necessary to take into account the factors influencing the behavior of consumers, their demand.
Competitors
The impact on the organization of such a factor as competition cannot be disputed. The management of each enterprise clearly understands that if the needs of consumers are not met as efficiently as competitors do, the enterprise will not stay afloat for a long time. In many cases, competitors rather than consumers determine what kind of performance can be sold and what price can be asked.
Underestimation of competitors and overestimation of markets lead even largest companies to significant losses and crises. It is important to understand that consumers are not the only object of competition for organizations. The latter may also compete for labor, materials, capital, and the right to use certain technical innovations. The reaction to competition depends on such internal factors as working conditions, wages and the nature of the relationship of managers with subordinates.
Environment of indirect influence
Indirect environmental factors or the general external environment usually do not affect the organization as noticeably as direct environmental factors. However, management needs to take them into account.
The indirect impact environment is usually more complex than the direct impact environment. Therefore, its study is usually based primarily on forecasts. The main environmental factors of indirect impact include technological, economic, socio-cultural and political factors, as well as relationships with local communities.
Technology
Technology is both an internal variable and an external factor of great importance. As an external factor, it reflects the level of scientific and technological development that affects the organization, for example, in the areas of automation, informatization, etc. Technological innovations affect the efficiency with which products can be made and sold, the rate of product obsolescence, how information can be collected, stored and distributed, as well as what kind of services and new products customers expect from the organization. In order to remain competitive, each organization is forced to use the achievements of scientific and technological progress, at least those on which the effectiveness of its activities depends.
The researchers have described the rate of technology change in recent decades and argue that this trend will continue. One of the reasons for this phenomenon is that there are more scientists on earth today than there were in the world before. Some recent major technological innovations that have deeply affected organizations and society are computer, laser, microwave, semiconductor technology, integrated communication lines, robotics, satellite communications, nuclear power, obtaining synthetic fuels and foodstuffs, genetic engineering. Daniel Bell, the famous sociologist, believes that future generations will find miniaturization technology the most valuable innovation. Today's innovations such as point microelements and cylindrical magnetic domain memory make it possible to store on a small disk such a volume of information that previously required buildings with numerous database file cabinets. Semiconductors and microprocessors made small computers easily accessible. They also changed the nature of many products (for example, electronic watches replaced mechanical ones) and led to the introduction of new types of machines and devices in new areas (for example, devices designed for diagnosis and treatment in medicine).
Obviously, organizations that deal directly with high-level technology, knowledge-intensive enterprises, must be able to quickly respond to new developments and propose innovations themselves. However, today, in order to remain competitive, all organizations are forced to keep pace with at least those developments on which the effectiveness of their activities depends.
The state of the economy
Management must also be able to assess how general changes in the state of the economy will affect the organization's operations. The state of the world economy affects the cost of all inputs and the ability of consumers to buy certain goods and services. If, for example, inflation is predicted, management may find it desirable to increase the supply of resources to the organization and negotiate fixed wages with workers in order to contain cost increases in the near future. It may also decide to borrow money because the money will be worth less when it falls due, thus offsetting part of the interest loss. If an economic downturn is predicted, the organization may prefer the path of reducing stocks of finished products, since it may become difficult to sell it, lay off part of the workforce, or postpone expansion plans until better times.
The state of the economy can greatly affect the ability of an organization to obtain capital for its needs. This is mainly due to the fact that the federal government often tries to mitigate the effects of deteriorating economic conditions by adjusting taxes, the money supply, and the interest rate set by the Federal Reserve Bank. If that bank tightens credit terms and raises interest rates, commercial banks should do the same to avoid being left out. As a result, borrowing becomes more difficult and more expensive for the organization. Likewise, the cut does not increase the amount of money people can spend on non-essential purposes and thus help stimulate business.
It is important to understand that this or that particular change in the state of the economy can have a positive impact on some and negative on others. For example, while retail stores as a whole can be severely affected in an economic downturn, stores located in wealthy suburbs, for example, will not feel anything at all.
Sociocultural factors
Any organization operates in at least one cultural environment. Therefore, socio-cultural factors, among which attitudes, life values and traditions predominate, affect the organization.
Socio-cultural factors influence the formation of the demand of the population, labor Relations, wages and working conditions. These factors include the demographic state of society. The relationship of the organization with the local population where it operates is also important. In this regard, independent media are also singled out as a factor in the socio-cultural environment, which can shape the image of the company and its products and services.
Sociocultural factors also influence the products or services that are the result of the company's activities. Sociocultural factors also influence how organizations conduct their business.
Political factors
Some aspects of the political environment are of particular importance to the leaders of the organization. One of them is the mood of the administration, legislative bodies and courts in relation to business. Closely linked to socio-cultural trends in a democratic society, these sentiments affect the following governments: taxation of corporate income, the establishment of tax breaks or preferential trade duties, requirements for recruitment and promotion practices of members of national minorities, consumer protection legislation, price and wage controls, the ratio of the power of workers and managers of the firm.
For companies with operations or markets in other countries, the factor of political stability is of great importance.
Relations with the local population
For almost all organizations, the prevailing attitude of the local community in which an organization operates is of paramount importance as a factor in the environment of indirect influence. In almost every community, there are specific laws and regulations in relation to business, determining where it is possible to deploy the activities of a particular enterprise. Some cities, for example, spare no effort to create incentives to attract industries to the city. Others, on the contrary, have been fighting for years to prevent an industrial enterprise from entering the city. In some communities, the political climate is favorable to business, which forms the basis of the local budget's tax revenue. Elsewhere, property owners choose to take on a larger share of municipal government spending, either to attract new businesses to the community or to help businesses avoid pollution and other problems that businesses can create along with the new jobs they create. .