Starting from the middle of the III century BC. and ending in the middle of the 2nd century BC, the developed slave state of Carthage waged wars with the Roman Empire for dominance in the Western Mediterranean. The Romans called this period the Punic Wars.
The First Punic War began when Carthage wanted to increase its influence in Sicily. Rome could not agree with this, he also needed these provinces that supplied bread to Italy. And in general, a powerful neighbor with exorbitant appetites did not suit the growing Roman Empire at all.
By the beginning of the Punic Wars, this is a highly developed slave state that prospers not only through intermediary trade, but also due to the development of all types of crafts for which the inhabitants of Carthage were famous.
Agriculture was in Carthage at a high level - North Africa was a recognized granary in the ancient Mediterranean. In addition, it was a country of highly developed slavery, in which a huge army of slaves was employed in the sphere of material production and in the personal service of slave owners.
In 264 BC. The Romans captured the Sicilian city of Messana and cut off Syracusan trade. Bypassing the Carthaginians on land, for some time the Romans allowed them to dominate the sea. However, numerous Carthaginian raids on the Italian coast forced the Romans to create their own fleet and invent boarding bridges, and this helped them win several naval victories and land on the African coast.
But on land, the Roman troops were almost completely defeated. However, after 20 years, it completely blocks the last stronghold of the Carthaginians in Sicily - the port of Lilibey. The fleet sent by the Carthaginians was defeated, and the war was lost.
Two more decades will pass and the experienced warrior Hannibal will lead his army against the Romans. By 220 B.C. he almost completely captured the Iberian Peninsula. On the demand of the Roman government to extradite Hannibal as a violator of the borders of the Carthaginian possessions, Carthage refused, and Rome declared war.
at the same time he was crossing the snowy Alps to strike from the north, it was an extraordinary military operation. The war elephants were especially intimidating.
Exhausted by difficult transitions, the army carried out military performances in the Pyrenees for almost 15 years, and more than once the Romans were on the verge of defeat. But the government of Carthage withdrew the troops to their homeland and forbade Hannibal to prepare for war and concluded a peace treaty with the Romans.
But Rome did not want half measures, he needed to wipe Carthage off the face of the earth. Using the slightest pretext, in 149 BC. Rome declared war on Carthage, although the Carthaginian council complied with all requirements. The demand to destroy the city and resettle caused popular anger, and the Romans had to besiege the recalcitrant city for three years. After the capture of Carthage, out of 300 thousand inhabitants, no more than 50 thousand survived. They were sold into slavery and Carthage was destroyed. The place itself was cursed and plowed up.

219 SIEGE OF SAGUNT.

Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca, demanded the subjugation of Sagunt, a Greek city allied with Rome, the only place in Spain south of the Ebro that did not recognize the dominion of Carthage. When Saguntus rejected this demand, Hannibal immediately laid siege to him, realizing that by doing so he might provoke a war with Rome: in the tradition of his father, he was avenging his defeat in the First Punic War. Rome demanded the lifting of the siege and the extradition of Hannibal. Carthage refused; Rome declared war. After an eight-month siege, Hannibal took Saguntum by storm. From now on, his Iberian base was secure, and he was ready to start implementing his far-reaching and carefully thought-out strategic plans.

218 HANNIBAL'S PLAN.

So that Roman control of the seas could not prevent him, Hannibal planned to lead the army from Spain by land - through southern Gaul and the Alps to the Po valley. He had already sent representatives there to secure allies in Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul, thus securing reliable lines of communication that would link him to Spain, and establishing forward bases in northern Italy. He planned to recruit reinforcements among the warlike Celtic tribes who hated Rome. Having set out to force Rome into a war on two fronts, he began negotiations with Philip V of Macedon. He intended to leave about 20 thousand people under the command of his brother Hasdrubal in Spain, thereby providing a reliable rear.

Hannibal. Carthaginian coin

HANNIBAL, one of the greatest generals of antiquity, was undoubtedly an outstanding personality. He also had extraordinary abilities. politician and a diplomat. The plan he outlined for the fight against Rome was not only a military plan, but also a political program designed to take advantage of the contradictions between the Roman state and the Italic communities conquered by it. It should also be noted that Hannibal was an excellent organizer and, according to ancient historians, enjoyed exceptional prestige and popularity among his troops.

218 ROMAN PLANS.

Consul Titus Sempronius, at the head of an expeditionary force of about 30 thousand people on 80 ships, was to invade Africa and attack Carthage; the consul Publius Cornelius Scipio with his brother Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio were to invade Spain with an army of about 26,000 men and a fleet of 60 ships; Praetor Lucius Manlius, with about 22,000 men, was to guard Cisalpine Gaul, holding back the restless Celts while the consular armies were occupied by the Carthaginians. The Romans were unaware of Hannibal's planned invasion.

March-June 218 THROUGH THE PYRENEES.

Having crossed the Ebro at the head of about 90 thousand people, Hannibal conquered the country lying south of the Pyrenees. Here he left a strong garrison and excluded from his army all men unfit for a long field campaign. He entered Gaul with less than 50,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and about 80 war elephants.

July-October 218 Across Gaul.

Although he met some resistance during the campaign (especially when crossing the Rhone), on the whole, the march through Gaul, thanks to the magnificent preliminary preparation turned out to be quick and easy. Upon learning of this movement, Scipio landed in Massilia (modern Marseille) with his army in the hope of distracting the Carthaginians. But Hannibal, to avoid interference, had already turned north up the Rhone valley, planning to cross the Alps inland, perhaps at Traversetta. Desperate to intercept Hannibal, Scipio with small forces hurried along the coast to Northern Italy, sending his main army under the command of his brother to Spain.

October 218 CROSSING THROUGH THE ALPS.

Although the Alpine passes were already covered with snow, Hannibal's army was moving forward. Many people and animals died because of the cold, many died, overcoming the unexpectedly fierce resistance of the mountain tribes. Hannibal reached the Po Valley with only 2,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and a few elephants.

November 218 BATTLE ON TICINA (modern Ticino).

Hannibal was as struck by the presence of Scipio as the Roman consul was by the speed of the Carthaginian advance. Having taken command over the army of Manlius, battered in the recent battle with the Gauls that ended in defeat, Scipio rushed towards Hannibal to the Ticin River, the northern tributary of the Pad River (modern Po). In a battle mostly limited to cavalry, the Romans were defeated and Scipio was wounded.

The Battle of the Trebbia in 218 B.C.

December 218 BATTLE OF TREBBIA (modern Trebbia).

Upon learning of the appearance of Hannibal, Sempronius by sea, across the Adriatic, transferred most of his army from Sicily to the Po Valley, to join with Scipio. Hannibal, thanks to the recruitment carried out among the Gauls, increased his army to 30 thousand people, prompted Sempronius to attack, forcing the Trebbia (against the advice of Scipio). While Hannibal himself counterattacked the soaked Romans, a small detachment of cavalry and infantry under the command of his brother Mago, hidden in a dell up the river, struck the Romans in the flank and rear. Of the Roman army of 40 thousand people, only 10 thousand survived who broke through the Carthaginian center; the rest were killed. Hannibal's losses may have exceeded 5,000 men.

218 SPAIN.

Meanwhile, Gnaeus Scipio landed in Spain, north of the Ebro River, and defeated the Carthaginians, capturing Hanno and now controlling the entire region between the Ebro and the Pyrenees.

January-March 217 WINTER APARTMENTS IN THE PO VALLEY.

Here Hannibal gave rest to his Carthaginians and recruited Gauls, while collecting information through his highly effective spy network in Italy. He learned that the two new consuls who took office on March 15 were Gaius Flaminius, who had about 40 thousand people in Arretia (modern Arezzo), and Gnaeus Servilius, under whose command there were about 20 thousand people in Arminia (modern Rimini) . The consular armies blocked both main roads leading to Central Italy and Rome.

March-April 217 ADVANCE IN CENTRAL ITALY.

Making the first conscious detour in history, Hannibal, at the head of about 40 thousand people, made an unexpected transition through the snow-covered Apennine passes north of Genoa, went south along the seashore and in four days crossed the marshy swamps in the floodplain of the Arne River (modern Arno), considered impassable during the spring flood. Hurrying on, he soon reached the Rome-Arretius road near Clusius (modern Chiusi), and thus found himself between the Roman armies and their capital. (During this difficult march, Hannibal lost sight in one eye due to an infectious disease.)

Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217 B.C.

April 217 BATTLE AT THE LAKE OF TRASIMENE.

The stubborn Flaminius, realizing too late that his communications had been cut, quickly marched south, looking for battle; even safety was sacrificed for the sake of speed. Familiar with both Roman practice and the character of his adversary, Hannibal positioned his entire army in ambush where the road passed Lake Trasimene, in a narrow defile under the overhanging rocks. His light infantry was placed in cover on the side of the mountain, the cavalry hidden behind them. At the southern end of the defile, blocking the road, he placed heavy infantry, which stopped the head of the Roman column here. When the entire army of Flaminius was drawn into the six-kilometer defile, Hannibal ordered the cavalry to close its northern end, and then struck with light infantry on the eastern flank of the Roman column. The suddenness of the attack turned into a panic and defeat for the Romans. About 30,000 Romans, including Flaminius himself, were killed or captured, the remaining 10,000 fled through the mountains in scattered groups to inform Rome of the terrible defeat. Meanwhile, Hannibal continued south, looking for a suitable base in southern Italy - he expected to be joined here by cities and tribes that were nominally considered allies of Rome (but in reality were his vassals).

BUT HANNIBAL did not go to Rome, but sent his army through Umbria and Picenum to the coast Adriatic Sea. He understood that the capture of Rome required a long siege and that it was risky to conduct such a siege with Italy not yet conquered in the rear. In addition, after a successful experience in attracting the Gauls to his side, he had reason to count on support, and perhaps even an uprising of the population of Central and Southern Italy against the power of Rome. Therefore, Hannibal, devastating the fields and households of Roman citizens on his way, spared the possessions of the Italians, and released the captives from among them without ransom.

May-October 217 THE SENATE APPOINTS QUINTUS FABIUS DICTATOR.

Realizing that he could not compete with Hannibal on the battlefield, Fabius wisely decided to avoid regular battles, while at the same time continuously harassing the Carthaginians and slowing their progress. This "tactic of Fabius" soon earned him the nickname Cunktator (i.e. Slower). Many Romans were impatient - they were familiar only with the tradition of offensive warfare. Marcus Muntius Rufus, Fabius's closest aide, who publicly expressed contempt for these tactics, was rewarded by the senate with the status of a commander equal to a dictator. Hannibal did everything he could to provoke the Romans into open battle, and unexpectedly his efforts were rewarded at Geronia, where Muntius accepted the challenge. Hannibal immediately attacked. Muntius was saved from defeat only by the timely arrival of Fabius, whose army posed a serious threat to the Carthaginian flank. Hannibal prudently retreated. Muntio courageously admitted his error and continued to give Fabius loyal support.

BECOMING now at the head of the Roman troops, replenished with a new set, the dictator Quintus Fabius Maximus took into account the experience of three lost battles. Realizing that the Carthaginians were stronger than the Romans in a field war, in open battle, he switched to the tactics of wearing down the enemy. Avoiding decisive battles with the main forces of Hannibal, he followed on his heels, attacked individual detachments and, destroying food supplies, made it difficult to supply the Carthaginian army. However, this tactic was not popular and supported by the population, especially the peasants, who were completely ruined by the protracted war and the presence of the enemy army in Italy.

Therefore, the dictatorial powers of Fabius Maximus, nicknamed the Cunctator (Slower), were not extended, and in 216 Lucius Aemilius Paul and Gaius Terence Varro were elected consuls. Varro became an ardent supporter of the decisive conduct of the war and promised to put an end to it on the same day as he saw the enemy.

217-211 AD SPAIN AND AFRICA.

Meanwhile, Publius Scipio, with eight thousand reinforcements, joined his brother in Spain. In subsequent years, both Scipios, as a rule, were successful. They managed to force Hasdrubal and Mago to retreat from the Ebro line and persuade the Numidian king Syphax to revolt against Carthage. However, the Carthaginian commander who returned to Africa, with the support of the Numidian prince Massinissa, defeated Syphax. Then Hasdrubal with reinforcements, including the Numidian cavalry of Massinissa, returned to Spain (212), where in the meantime Scipio managed to recapture Saguntum.

April-July 216 ROME IS PREPARING FOR THE DECISIVE BATTLE

Thanks to the time gained by Fabius, Rome gathered an army of 8 Roman and 8 allied legions - 80,000 infantry plus 7,000 cavalry - and sent it south to Apulia, under the command of two new consuls, Aemilius Paulus and Terentius Varro, to seek battle with Hannibal. The Carthaginian, who had 40,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, was looking for favorable conditions for the battle. A cold-blooded and cautious military leader, Paul carefully avoided giving the enemy such an opportunity, and for a time was able to persuade his more impulsive colleague Varro to follow the same tactics. Consuls commanded in turn, changing every day. In an effort to speed things up, Hannibal marched to Cannes by night, capturing the Roman food warehouses and gaining control over the grain-producing regions of southern Apulia. The Roman army hastened to the same place; the opponents were located on the southern bank of the Afid River (modern Ofanto) in fortified camps spaced 10 km from one another.

The village of Cannes in southern Italy was the site of one of the classic victories in world military history. Aemilius Paul did not want a battle on a wide plain, where Hannibal's cavalry would have clear benefits. But on that day, when the turn to command the army passed to Varro, that battle began ... Hannibal defeated the Romans. Having a smaller infantry but stronger cavalry, he placed his troops in the shape of a crescent. The Roman legionnaires, who were in tightly closed battle formations, attacked the center of Hannibal's troops, threw them back, but could not make a breakthrough. As the Carthaginians retreated and the Romans advanced deeper, Hannibal made a brilliant double envelopment; his cavalry crushed the right and left flanks of the Romans, slammed the trap and attacked the Romans from the flanks and from the rear. The victory at Cannae brought glory to Hannibal, which many commanders later dreamed of: 45,000 Roman infantry and 2,700 horsemen remained lying on the field of battle. Among them are the consul Aemilius Paul, many former senior magistrates and 80 senators. Varro with 50 horsemen managed to break out of the encirclement and flee. 4,000 infantry and 200 horsemen managed to save the 19-year-old Publius Cornelius Scipio, the future winner of Hannibal.

The BATTLE of Cannes was already considered an unsurpassed example of military art in ancient times. The name "Cannes" subsequently began to be applied to any major battle that led to the encirclement and complete defeat of the enemy troops. At the same time, it was Hannibal's last major victory.

August-December 216 ROMAN RESPONSE

Never - neither before nor after - has a state survived, one after another suffered such crushing defeats as Rome on the Trebbia, at the Trasimene Lakes and at Cannae. When the news of Cannae reached Rome, there were, of course, few weak hearts there, but as a people the Romans saw only one goal in front of them: to persevere in the pursuit of victory. The Senate appointed Marcus Junius of Peru as dictator. All physically healthy people, regardless of age or occupation, were mobilized. Mark Clodius Marcellus became the main field commander, with two legions immediately marching south to support the confidence of the allies of Rome in the final victory. Should the allies go over to the side of the enemy, or simply withdraw from hostilities, neither the valor nor the determination of Rome could ever prevail over the genius of Hannibal. But most of the allies remained loyal. Without a siege train, Hannibal was unable to capture Naples, the garrison of which was hastily replenished by Marcellus. Capua, the second largest city in Italy, joined Hannibal - as did several small towns in Campania, some Samnites and Lucans. However, the hesitant Italian cities were shocked when, under the walls of Nola, Marcellus repulsed the great Carthaginian at the first battle of Nola. Small reinforcements from Carthage arrived late this year - the sluggish support of the Carthaginian senate, then dominated by Hanno, an old political opponent of his father, coupled with Roman superiority at sea, made it impossible to send large reinforcements that could allow Hannibal to attack Rome itself. He was criticized for not marching on Rome immediately after Cannes. But Hannibal knew for sure that without a siege train, his own motley army had no chance of taking a powerful fortress with a garrison of 40 thousand people. Accordingly, he focused on the task of establishing a base in southern Italy, in which he was remarkably successful, despite the solidarity of the Italian cities with Rome.

215 CAMPAIGN TIED.

Having captured a large number of cities and fortresses, Hannibal nevertheless did not achieve a real win. Rome had about 140 thousand soldiers (including units in Spain, Gaul and Sicily); about 80 thousand of them were concentrated against forty or fifty thousand warriors of Hannibal. However, the Romans, following the new policy promulgated by the Senate, avoided open battles. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, Marcellus again repelled the offensive of Hannibal in the second battle of Nola.

215-205 AD FIRST MACEDONIAN WAR.

Although Hannibal successfully negotiated an alliance with Philip of Macedon against Rome, he was disappointed with the results.

214-213 AD INFECUTIVE ACTIONS.

Rome now had more than 200,000 soldiers in service, 85,000 to 90,000 of whom carefully watched Hannibal, who was now able to maintain the size of his army within 40,000 only by recruiting indifferent Italians. He fought another battle with Marcellus - the third battle of Nola, which did not decide anything, then headed for Apulia, hoping to capture the port of Tarentum. His brother Hanno, with an army of 18,000, suffered a serious defeat at Benevente from Tiberius Gracchus, under whose command there were 20,000 people. Marcellus went to Sicily, where he won several victories over the Syracusans, who declared themselves supporters of Carthage, and over the Carthaginians themselves. Hannibal devoted the next year to operations against Tarentum; Hanno, meanwhile, defeated Tiberius Gracchus in Bruttia (modern Calabria, 213).

Storming Syracuse from the sea. End of the 3rd century BC
Sea sambuca and Archimedes crane, with which the bow of the ship is raised

213-211 AD SIEGE OF SIRA3KUZ.

Throughout the year, Marcellus' attempts to take the city by storm remained unsuccessful, thanks to the large number of defensive guns brilliantly designed by Archimedes. The skillful Syracusan commander Hippocrates led the defense. Finally (212) he managed to force his way into the outer city, timing the attack to coincide with the holiday. Archimedes was killed. The operation in Syracuse lasted another 8 months - Marcellus, one after another, recaptured the fortifications of the inner city and the citadel, and finally defeated the garrison by attack.

212 Tarentum and Capua.

Hannibal captured Tarentum, but the Roman garrison held out in the citadel. Meanwhile, the Roman consuls Quintus Fulvius Flacci Appius Claudius laid siege to Capua, where there was already a shortage of food. In response to a call for help, Hannibal sent Hanno to liberate the city. In a well-fortified camp near Benevent, Hanno gathered large supplies of food, and then, with a skillful diversion, provoked the Roman armies to withdraw from Capua. He delivered supplies to the besieged city, however, in comparison with the skillful Carthaginian commander, the Capuans acted too clumsily. While he was on an expedition collecting new provisions, Fulvius Flaccus made a successful night attack on Hanno's camp and captured several thousand Capuan wagons and a large amount of supplies. 6,000 Carthaginians were killed and 7,000 captured. Hanno hastily returned to Bruttium. The Romans resumed the siege of Capua. Now Hannibal, at the head of some 20,000 men, was advancing from Tarentum, and although the Romans in southern Italy had more than 80,000 men, they were unable or unwilling to prevent his march on Capua.

212 FIRST BATTLE OF CAPUA.

In the battle under the walls of the city, Hannibal defeated the consuls. In order to distract the Carthaginians from Capua, they dispersed in different directions, threatening his fortresses in Campania and Lucania. Hannibal followed Appius to Lucania, but was unable to catch him. True, in the northwestern part of Lucania, he met and exterminated the army of Praetor M. Centenius Penula - apparently, on the Silarida River (modern Sele). Centenius had about 16 thousand people, Hannibal - about 20 thousand; Centenius himself died, and only one thousand of his people escaped death and captivity. Meanwhile, the consuls resumed the siege of Capua, but since the city was now well supplied, Hannibal returned to the south coast, where he was defeated in an attempt to take possession of Brundisium (modern Brindisi).

211 SPAIN.

The Carthaginian armies of Hasdrubal, who received reinforcements, defeated the Scipio brothers in separate battles in the valley of the Upper Betis (modern Guadalquivir River); both Roman generals were killed. Carthage again held all of Spain south of the Ebro.

211 SIEGE AND SECOND BATTLE OF CAPUA.

During the winter, the Romans completed the construction of siege fortifications. The new consuls, Publius Sulpicius Galba and Gnaeus Fulvius Centimal, blocked Hannibal's path from the south with more than fifty thousand men, while the proconsuls Fulvius and Appius, at the head of sixty thousand men, continued the siege. In response to the new call of Capua, Hannibal appeared, leading 30 thousand people; somehow he managed to avoid meeting with Galba and Centimala, and at the moment when the Capua garrison launched a sally, the Carthaginian attacked the Roman lines from the outside. However, he failed to overcome the resistance of Fulvius and was eventually forced to retreat, meanwhile Appius drove the Capuans back into the city.

211 March on Rome.

In the hope that the threat to the capital would force all Roman forces to rush to its defense and lift the siege of Capua, Hannibal decided to march on Rome. Indeed, both consuls rushed after him, and Fulvius withdrew part of the forces from near Capua, but Appius continued the siege with about 50 thousand people. Hannibal's maneuver was a clear demonstration; he soon headed south again, continually harassed by the consular army, while Fulvius returned to take command at Capua. This time, the exhausted city surrendered, the heaviest blow Hannibal had ever received in Italy.

210 ROMAN OFFENSIVES.

Still anxious to avoid anything resembling an open battle with Hannibal directly, the Romans decided to try and destroy his base and supply sources. But Hannibal defeated the army of the proconsul Fulvius Centimal in the second battle of Gerdonia (modern Ordon). Centimal was killed. Soon after, Hannibal defeated Marcellus at the Battle of Numistro.

Scipio Africanus

210-209 AD SPAIN.

After the death of Publius Scipio, the Roman Senate sent his twenty-five-year-old son, Publius Cornelius Scipio, who went down in history as "Scipio Africanus", to take command in Spain. He quickly re-established Roman authority north of the Ebro. Then, with an army of 27,500 people, he quickly marched to New Carthage (modern Cartagena), blocked from the sea by the Roman fleet, and took the city with an unexpected attack (209).

209-208 TARENT.

Although Rome was close to bankruptcy, and the people of Italy - to starvation due to a lack of people to work in the field, however, the republic again had 200 thousand troops. Hannibal could collect barely 40 thousand - mostly Italians; and, apart from a few veterans, his army was far inferior to the fighting power of the Roman legions. He now held out, waiting for reinforcements from Spain from his brother Hasdrubal. The goal of the Romans was Tarentum - the main base of Hannibal in Italy. It is surprising that in the citadel the Roman garrison still did not surrender, supplied from the sea. In a difficult two-day battle, Hannibal defeated Marcellus at Asculum, but again was unable to win a decisive victory over his most stubborn enemy. Meanwhile, Fabius Cunctator (consul for the fifth time), thanks to the betrayal of Hannibal's Italian allies, took Tarentum. It is amazing that, despite this loss, Hannibal was able to continue the war and keep in a stalemate the much larger and more effective armies of the Romans (208). But the Romans, and especially Marcellus, no longer feared the battle with him. However, Marcellus this year was ambushed and killed.

208 BATTLE OF BEKUL; SPAIN

After numerous maneuvers and separate skirmishes, Scipio defeated Hasdrubal in a battle near modern Cordoba, without inflicting, however, noticeable damage to the Carthaginians. After being ordered by Hannibal to send reinforcements to Italy, Hasdrubal moved into Gaul, all but leaving Spain to Scipio. In Gaul he spent the winter resting his men and recruiting reinforcements.

Hasdrubal. Carthaginian coin

207 HASDRUBAL IN ITALY.

At the beginning of the year, Hasdrubal crossed the Alps, arriving in the Po Valley with about 50,000 men, more than half of whom were Gauls. Having informed his brother of his arrival, he began to move slowly towards Central Italy. Meanwhile, Hannibal found a worthy opponent in the person of the active consul Caius Claudius Nero. In the battle of Grument (modern Saponara), Nero, under whose command there were 42 thousand people, received a small numerical superiority over Hannibal (who probably had about 30 thousand people), but nevertheless could not block the Carthaginian's path north to Canusium (modern Canosa di Puglia), where he intended to wait for news from his brother. However, the envoys of Hasdrubal were captured by Nero. The Roman consul now conceived a brilliant plan. Leaving the bulk of the army to confront Hannibal, he took 6,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry - the best of the best - and moved north with all possible haste. After traveling 400 km in 7 days, south of the Metaurus River, he secretly joined the consul M. Livius Salinator, who opposed Hasdrubal in northeastern Italy.

207 B.C. BATTLE ON THE METAUR.

Hasdrubal's patrols reported the arrival of Roman reinforcements, and he decided to leave Metaurus at night for a more favorable place. But the Italian guides deserted, and in the darkness the army got lost. Hasdrubal hastily prepared for battle, placing his least reliable units on the left flank, behind a deep ravine. The Roman consuls met with him just after dawn. The Carthaginian right flank was soon engaged in heavy combat with the legions of Livy, while Nero, who was on the Roman right flank, was blocked by a ravine from access to the Gauls. Judging that the obstacle was also impassable for the Carthaginians, Nero withdrew his detachments from the line and quickly passed behind the rest of the Roman army, reaching the rear of the right flank of the Spanish infantry. A sudden attack from the rear completely demoralized the Spaniards and, despite the heroic efforts of Hasdrubal, his army fell into a panic. Seeing that all was lost, Hasdrubal deliberately rode into the Roman cohort to die fighting. The Carthaginian army was hopelessly defeated: more than 10 thousand people died, and the rest was scattered; The Romans lost 2,000 men. Immediately after the battle, Nero returned to southern Italy in six days. According to legend, the first news that Hannibal received about the arrival of his brother in Italy was the head of Hasdrubal, catapulted to the Carthaginian camp. He sadly retreated to Bruttium.

207-206 SPAIN.

Despite the determined resistance of Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco, Scipio quickly extended his power over most of Spain. The high point of the campaign was the battle of the city of Ilipa (or Silpia) in Turdetania, where Scipio, with 48,000 men, decisively defeated the 70,000-strong Carthaginian army with a brilliant maneuver (206). Stretching out the center of his army in a manner somewhat reminiscent of Hannibal's formation at Cannae, Scipio used it in a completely different way. The center was drawn while the Roman general undertook a successful double encirclement with his wings. Carthaginian rule in Spain was ended. Soon after this, Scipio carried out a bold campaign in North Africa, where he entered into an alliance with Massinissa, Syphax's rival in the dispute for the Numidian throne.

206-204 HANNIBAL IS IN A POINT OF LIFE.

Hannibal held out incredibly well in Bruttia, despite the vast numerical superiority of the Romans and the low quality of his own troops compared to the Roman legions. The only significant military event among the many separate armed clashes of this period was the protracted battle of the city of Croton (modern Croton, 204), where Sempronius opposed him. In the same year his brother Magon landed in Liguria with a small army. Meanwhile, Scipio had been elected consul (205) and was now preparing an army in Sicily for an invasion of Africa.

Ruins of Carthage. All that's left of a great power

204 Invasion of Africa.

In his capacity as proconsul, Scipio sailed from Lilybaeum with a well-trained and superbly equipped army of about 30,000 men, many of them veterans of Cannae, eager to restore their honour. He landed near Utica and laid siege to the city. In all likelihood, in one of the first skirmishes of this campaign, Hannibal's brother, Hanno, died. The approach of a large Carthaginian army under the command of Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax forced Scipio to lift the siege and lay a fortified camp near the coast. A truce was concluded, and both armies went to winter quarters.

203 BATTLE UNDER UTIKA (or Itika).

Violating the truce, Scipio unexpectedly attacked the Carthaginian and Numidian camps, set them on fire and, having defeated the allied army, resumed the siege of Utica. Soon Hasdrubal and Syphax scored new army and here, not far from Utica, they met with Scipio in the battle on the Bagrad River, which ended with the victory of the Romans and the capture of Syphax.

203 RETURN OF HANNIBAL.

In desperation, the Carthaginian Senate began peace negotiations, simultaneously recalling Hannibal and Mago to the metropolis. During the ensuing truce, Hannibal sailed from Italy at the head of some 8,000 men, mostly Italians who remained loyal to their foreign leader. With several thousand more people, Magon, who was defeated in Liguria, set off on his way back, but on the way he died of his wounds. Upon the return of the commander, the Carthaginian Senate broke off peace negotiations and helped Hannibal to gather a new army around the nucleus of Italian veterans.

202 MARCH TO THE ZAMU.

With an army of about 45,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry, Hannibal headed inland, apparently trying to distract Scipio from the surrounding areas of the capital, systematically devastated by the Romans. Scipio followed him. Scipio's army consisted of 34,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry (including the Numidian reinforcements of Massinissa who joined him).

BATTLE OF ZAME 202 B.C.

When both troops had already taken up positions, Hannibal, according to some sources, tried to enter into negotiations with Scipio. The attempt was unsuccessful, and a battle ensued. Scipio's army was drawn up in the usual three lines, but with increased spacing between lines and maniples in column to create passages through which the Carthaginian war elephants could pass. Hannibal's infantry was also built in three lines - starting from Cannes, he began to borrow a lot from the Roman combat and tactical systems. However, with the exception of the Italian veterans and the few Ligurians and Gauls who returned with Magon, most of his troops were untrained recruits. The cavalry was especially weak - the branch of the army that brought Hannibal hardly all of his brilliant victories, which means that he was not able to apply his favorite maneuvers.

Against the attack of the war elephants, Scipio's tactics proved very effective, and the Roman and Numidian cavalry drove Hannibal's cavalry from the field. When the infantry converged, the Romans quickly dealt with the first two Carthaginian lines. Then the triarii attacked Hannibal's reserve. However, the Italian veterans of Hannibal showed amazing resilience - even at the moment when the Numidians of Massinissa, having stopped the pursuit of the Carthaginian cavalry, hit the rear of Hannibal's line, thereby deciding the outcome of the battle.

With few survivors, Hannibal retreated to Carthage. 20 thousand dead Carthaginians remained on the battlefield, and at least 15 thousand were captured. The Romans lost about 1,500 killed and perhaps another 4,000 wounded.

Battle of Zama in 202 B.C. The Last Battle of Hannibal.

202 WORLD.

Asking for peace, the Carthaginian Senate was forced to accept all the conditions of Scipio. The treaty provided for the transfer of a navy and war elephants to Rome; Carthage also assumed obligations without the sanction of Rome not to start any hostilities and over the next 50 years to pay an indemnity in the amount of 10 thousand talents (about 300 million dollars); the Numidian throne passed from Syphax to Massinissa.

THUS ended the Second Punic War, which dealt a crushing blow to Carthaginian dominance in the Mediterranean and finally broke its military and political power. For Rome, victory in this war had enormous consequences. From a large Italian state, Rome is now turning into a powerful slave-owning power, which, after the displacement of Carthage, finds itself in the position of unconditional hegemon of the entire Western Mediterranean.

Map of the Second Punic War 218-202 BC

202-183 THE TRAGEDY OF HANNIBAL

In the early post-war years, Hannibal was so successful in reviving the country that the Romans accused him of preparing to violate the terms of the peace treaty. Forced to leave Carthage, he joined Antiochus III, but was soon forced to flee again when Antiochus was defeated by the Romans. Persecuted by the Romans, he committed suicide in Bithynia (183).

NO other commander has ever faced so many disasters, nor such a terrifying numerical superiority on the side of the enemy, as Hannibal. His amazing ability to inspire fighting spirit in his men, the perfection of his tactical and strategic skills and his accomplishments in the war against the most dynamic and militarily effective nation in the world led many historians and military theorists to consider this Carthaginian commander the greatest military leader in history. However, objectivity does not allow us to put him above Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan or Napoleon; it is equally impossible to consider any of them significantly higher than Hannibal (comm. auth.).

Task 1. The second war between Rome and Carthage.

Task 2. Using the material of paragraph 47, fill in the table.

Task 3. List the tactics used by the commander Hannibal in the battle of Cannes.

Hannibal formed his troops in a crescent, placing the best parts of the infantry and cavalry on the edges. Deceived the Roman army, allowing the crescent to sag, while surrounding the enemy army.

Task 4. Why is Hannibal considered an outstanding commander of antiquity?

Because he was a talented military leader who, with lesser strength, could defeat the enemy, thanks to his ingenuity and courage (the most striking sign is the Battle of Cannes).

Task 5. Using additional sources, find out which commanders subsequently repeated the crossing of the Alps.

The Russian commander Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov crossed the Alps in 1799.

Task 6. The Roman state in the 3rd century BC. – 2nd century AD

Task 7. Why did the Romans decide that "Carthage must be destroyed"? To whom do these words belong?

As long as Carthage was intact, it could regain its former power and create competition for Rome at sea. These words belong to the Roman senator Cato the Elder.

Task 8. Consider the picture on p. 237 of the textbook "Triumph in Rome".

1. What is a triumph?

Triumph is the solemn entry of the conqueror into Rome.

2. What honorary title did the commander wear during the days of triumph?

The commander bore the honorary title of emperor.

3. What in the picture indicates the special veneration of the winner?

The victorious commander was dressed in a purple toga woven with gold and held a branch of laurel in his hand.

4. With what words do warriors address the commander?

5. Who is leading the procession? Think: to be ahead in this case is a special honor or a special humiliation?

Ahead of the procession are prisoners captured in the conquered territories. This is a special humiliation.

6. Guess what fate awaits captive children and adults.

Captives will become slaves in the house or in the field, and strong men will become gladiators.

As you read the chapter, consider: what did the ancient historian mean when he wrote: “Scipio opened the way for the power of the Romans”? Why did the Romans give Scipio the honorary nickname African?

Having subjugated Italy, the Romans began to strive to capture the fertile island of Sicily.

Their attempts to take possession of Sicily were opposed by Carthage, the richest city in North Africa.

In addition to vast lands in North Africa, Carthage owned part of Spain and the islands in the Western Middle East.

Territory of the Roman Republic at the beginning of the war

about. Corsica ROME

about. Sardinia "V

X Places and years of the most important battles

Territory occupied by Rome as a result of the second war with Carthage

The second war between Rome and Carthage.

earth sea. He had a large army of mercenaries and a strong navy.

Nevertheless, Rome managed to win the first warrior with Carthage and take possession of Sicily. However, the power of Carthage was not broken, and both sides were preparing for new fights.

CARTHAGE

1. Hannibal's troops invade Italy. Without waiting for the Romans to attack, the young and talented Carthaginian commander Hannibal was the first to strike. Leaving Spain at the head of selected troops, he approached the Alps five months later. Hannibal's warriors were horrified when they saw huge mountains covered with glaciers nearby. There were no good roads, there was snow on the passes. Fifteen days the army climbed up, and then went down the narrow and slippery paths. People, pack animals, war elephants fell into the abyss. Hannibal was in a hurry, sparing neither himself nor the soldiers. Crossing the Alps cost him almost half of the troops. Once in the Po Valley, Hannibal announced to the Gauls who lived there that he was fighting

not with them, but with Rome for the freedom of the peoples of Italy. The Gauls hated the Romans who conquered them. They gave Hannibal food and horses, en masse joined his army.

Upon receiving the stunning news of Hannibal's appearance, the senate ordered the consuls to halt his advance. However, Hannibal defeated the consular armies in several battles. An ancient historian wrote: “There was no such work in which Hannibal would get tired in body or lose heart. He was the first to rush into battle and the last to leave the battlefield.

The road to Rome was open. Despair seized its inhabitants. But Hannibal understood that he could not take a well-fortified city. He moved to the south of the country, trying to raise the peoples of Italy to fight against Rome.

2. Battle of Cannae - 216 BC e. Rome managed to create a new large army. It was headed by the two newly elected consuls. Having overtaken the enemy near the city of Cannes, the consuls saw a vast

plain and argued. “Here we will give battle,” insisted one, “we have twice as many infantry as Hannibal.” Another consul objected: “The enemy cavalry is stronger than ours, and the plain is a great place for their actions. It is safer to take up defensive positions on the neighboring hills.”

On the day when the consul commanded, desiring battle, he ordered the troops to prepare for battle. This time the infantry lined up not in three lines, but in the form of a huge rectangle: 80 thousand legionnaires stood shoulder to shoulder. It was a formidable force! The small cavalry of the Romans was located on the sides. Hannibal foresaw that the onslaught of the legions would not be contained by his army. Therefore, he formed 40 thousand of his infantry in a crescent, turned to the enemy with a convex side.

The best parts of the infantry and cavalry stood at the edges of the crescent. “Thank the gods that they lured the Romans to this plain,” said Hannibal to his associates.

The Roman legions fell upon the enemy center with all their weight. The crescent of the Carthaginian army began to sag inward. "Victory!" the Romans shouted. But it was far from victory. The Spanish, Gallic and African horsemen of Hannibal swooped down on the Romans like a whirlwind. Having overturned the Roman cavalry, they began to enter the rear of the enemy infantry. At the same time, selected units of the Carthaginian infantry hit the enemy from the sides. The Roman army was surrounded. The legionnaires, knocked together, served as a good target for the enemy: every dart, every stone from the sling hit the target. At Cannae, 70,000 Romans fell, including the consul, who so objected to the battle.

All Rome was filled with sobs. There was not a family where someone close to them would not mourn. However
the senate refused even to listen to the ambassador Hannibal, who proposed peace negotiations. A new set of troops was announced. Thousands of Romans, already gray-haired and very young, stood up to defend their land.

3. End of the war. After the defeat at Cannae, the Romans avoided decisive battles - the war became protracted. Hannibal's calculation of the support of the inhabitants of Italy was justified only at first. He was not a liberator: Carthaginian mercenaries robbed everyone indiscriminately, devastating the country.

The young Roman commander Scipio, having put forward a bold plan to strike at the enemy capital, landed in Africa. After fifteen years of war in Italy, without experiencing a single defeat, Hannibal was forced to rush to the defense of Carthage.

In 202 B.C. e. near the city of Zama, south of Carthage, the last battle with the Romans took place. The advantage in the cavalry was on their side. Hannibal's army was defeated. This was the only battle lost by the great Carthaginian commander.

Under the peace treaty, Carthage lost all possessions outside of Africa, undertook to give Rome a navy, war elephants and pay a large sum

First Roman naval victory

Having started the first war with Carthage, the Romans did not have warships. They soon realized that without a navy they could not win. Then the axes clattered in the shipyards of Italy. And benches with oars were installed on the shore. Future rowers were put on them, of which few knew how to row. Commanders from morning to night taught beginners to simultaneously raise and lower the oars. Exactly one year later, the fleet was launched. On the bows of the ships, "browns" were installed - changeover bridges with hooks at the ends.

The Carthaginian fleet boldly moved towards the enemy. When the ships approached, the Romans hooked the "ravens" over the sides of the enemy ships. The Roman infantry rushed forward - and won. In Rome, in honor of the victory, a column was erected, decorated with rbstras - the prows of captured ships.

Roman warship. Ancient relief.

of money. The power of the most dangerous rival of Rome was broken. Rome became the master in the Western Mediterranean.

Test yourself. 1. For what purpose did Hannibal make the most difficult crossing of the Alps? What did he expect? 2. How did Hannibal manage to win the Battle of Cannae? 3. Why, after the defeat at Cannae, did the Senate refuse to negotiate with Hannibal? 4. What plan to fight Hannibal did the Roman commander Scipio implement? Work with the card "The Second War of Rome with Carthage" (see p. 228). Describe the territory of the Roman Republic and the possessions of Carthage. Find the locations of the most important battles. Remember who and when won them.

Prepare a report on the first naval victory of the Romans. Think. 1. Why was Hannibal's knowledge of several languages ​​especially important for the commander of the Carthaginian army? 2. It is known that, when fighting with Rome, Hannibal treated the prisoners in different ways: he ordered some to be imprisoned, and others to be released. How can this be explained?

Three wars between Rome and Carthage for hegemony in the Mediterranean. The Romans called the Phoenician population of Carthage Punami (Punians), hence the name of the wars among Roman historians.

By the beginning of the First Punic War, Rome managed to establish its dominance over all of Italy. The war began after mercenaries from Campania, who called themselves Mamertines, turned to Rome for help, captured the city of Messina in Sicily, on the shore of the strait separating the island from the Italian peninsula. The tyrant Hieron of Syracuse laid siege to Messina. Some of the Mamertines turned to Carthage for help, and the other to Rome, referring to their Italic origin. The Carthaginians landed at Messina. The Romans feared that the Carthaginians would be able to capture the largest Sicilian city of Syracuse and take control of the island that supplied Italy with bread. Under pressure from the popular assembly, the Roman Senate declared war on Carthage in 264.

The basic unit of the Roman army was the legion. During the Punic Wars, it consisted of 3,000 heavily armed and 1,200 lightly armed warriors without armor. Heavily armed warriors were divided into hastati, principes and triarii. 1200 hastati are the youngest warriors who have not yet had a family. They made up the first echelon of the legion and took upon themselves the main blow of the enemy. 1200 principles - middle-aged fathers of families formed the second echelon, and 600 triarii veterans - the third. The smallest tactical unit of the legion was the centuria, with hastati and principes numbering 60 people. The two centuries were combined into maniples. The triarii had half the centuria - only 30 people. Each maniple was joined by 40 lightly armed warriors. The maniples lined up in front at short intervals. In the second echelon, the troops were located in such a way that the maniples stood against the gaps between the maniples of the first echelon, and in the third, respectively, against the intervals in the second echelon. Thus, the battle formation of the legion left more room for maneuver than the phalanx.

There is no exact data on the battle formations of the Carthaginians. It can be assumed that they were similar to the Roman ones. However, the principle of manning the Carthaginian army was different than the Roman one. The army of Rome was a militia of civilian communities. At 9/10 it consisted of free Italian and Roman peasants, at 1/10 - from the townspeople. In fact, it was a militia, armed only for the period of the war. All Roman citizens between the ages of 17 and 45 were required to serve in the army. Only the poorest were at first exempted from this duty, and later they began to form light infantry from them. In peacetime, future legionnaires worked the fields or were engaged in crafts and trade.

There was practically no Punic rural population in Carthage. The city militia was relatively weak and intended to maintain internal order and the defense of the city walls in the event of an enemy attack. It consisted of 40 thousand infantry and one thousand horsemen. There was also a small "sacred squad", which consisted of representatives of the most noble Carthaginian families. Generals and senior officers came out of its ranks. The main part of the Carthaginian army was made up of soldiers put up by African territories dependent on Carthage (Libya), allied Numidia and hired in Greece, Gaul, the Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and Italy. All of them, not excluding the Libyans, in essence, were professional mercenaries who remained in the service in peacetime, did not know any other trade, except for the military, and lived on salaries and military booty. The army was rallied by the commanding staff, which consisted of the Punians. Her combat effectiveness largely depended on the timely payment of salaries. If there was no money in the Carthaginian treasury, then the mercenaries could rob or raise uprisings. In general, in terms of the quality of combat training, the army of Carthage was significantly superior to the army of Rome, however, it required much more funds for its maintenance and therefore was significantly inferior to its enemy in numbers.

In 264, the Roman troops crossed the strait, occupied Messana and laid siege to Syracuse Hieron made peace and an alliance with Rome. In 262, the Romans took the Sicilian city of Agrigentum (Akragant). 25 thousand inhabitants were sold into slavery. Only a few coastal cities remained on the island under the control of the Carthaginians. However, Roman successes in Sicily could not undermine the dominance of the Carthaginian fleet at sea, the largest in the Mediterranean. The Punic fleet consisted of more than 500 triremes and penteres (respectively, three and five-deck ships with three and five rows of rowers). Three-quarters of the crew were slave rowers. The sailors were recruited from the Punians. The Romans at the beginning of the war had practically no modern battle fleet However, the descendants of Romulus created it very quickly. By 260, the Romans already had 120 ships. sea ​​battle each of the parties sought to break through the enemy formation and ram the enemy ships, or, having hooked it overboard with hooks, board it. The Romans invented boarding bridges ("raven"). Such bridges were thrown onto an enemy ship, Roman infantry ran up to its deck and engaged in hand-to-hand combat with a crew inferior to it in numbers and unaccustomed to land combat. Later, the Romans began to install two battle towers on their ships - at the bow and at the stern of the ship. From there, the Vochans hit enemy sailors with arrows, darts and stones. True, in the first major naval battle near the Lipari Islands, the young Roman fleet was defeated. 17 Roman ships were blocked in the harbor of one of the islands, on which they tried to land troops, and captured by the Punians. However, the Romans soon took revenge. In the battle of Mila, not far from the same Lipari Islands, the fleet of the Roman consul Gaius Duilius destroyed or captured 50 of the 120 enemy ships. The Romans then occupied Corsica.

The Romans decided that now they had enough strength to finally crush Carthage. In the spring of 256, four legions under the command of the consuls Marcus Atilius Regulus and Lucius Manlius Volson set off for Africa in 330 ships. In a naval battle off the Sicilian Cape Ecnomus, the Carthaginian fleet of 350 ships was defeated, losing 94 ships against 24 from the Romans. The Carthaginians borrowed Roman boarding bridges, but the Romans had more numerous and better equipped infantry on board, which brought them success in boarding battles.

The legions landed at the Klupeya fortress, which they occupied without a fight. The rebellious Carthaginian mercenaries from among the Libyans went over to the side of the Romans. 20 thousand local residents were enslaved. But the consuls did not dare to besiege the well-fortified Carthage. The Punians sued for peace, agreeing to cede Sicily and Sardinia. However, the Romans put forward unacceptable conditions "the destruction of the Carthaginian fleet and the obligation of the vanquished to build ships for the needs of Rome. Then the Carthaginians hired a new army in Greece, headed by the Spartan Xanthippus. It was reinforced by Numidian cavalry and war elephants. Carthaginian garrisons from Sicily.The forces of the Romans were weakened by the return to Italy of two legions led by Volson.This had to be done because of the discontent of the legionnaires, who did not want to fight on the distant African coast.Italian peasants hurried home to have time to harvest their fields.In battle at Tunet, the Roman army was completely destroyed in 255. Of the 15,000 Roman infantry and 400 horsemen, only 2,000 people escaped, who, however, almost all died during the evacuation to Sicily, being caught in a storm. Tens of thousands of the Libyan allies of the Romans were almost completely destroyed .

After the victory at Tunet, the Punic troops were transferred to Sicily. However, the Romans defeated them at Palermo in 254 and an even more severe defeat under the walls of this city three years later, when the Punians lost 120 war elephants. Under the control of Carthage, only the ports of Drepanum and Lilibey remained in Sicily, but they were also besieged by the Romans. In the harbor of Drepanum, a great battle took place between the fleets of the consul Publius Claudius and the Carthaginian naval commander Atarba. The victory of the Carthaginians was complete Oni, taking advantage of the greater maneuverability of their ships and better preparation crews surrounded the Roman ships, destroying 80 out of 210 and capturing 100.

In 247, the talented commander Hamilcar Barca took command of the Carthaginian troops in Sicily. He, taking advantage of his dominance at sea, began to attack the Italian coast and capture prisoners from among the inhabitants of cities allied with Rome, in order to later exchange them for Carthaginian captives in the hands of the Romans. It was only in 242 that the Romans were able to build a new fleet of 200 ships and inflict a heavy defeat on the Carthaginian fleet at the Battle of the Egoth Islands. The Carthaginians lost 120 ships. After that, peace was signed in 241.

After the end of the First Punic War, Carthage threw its main forces into the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula. Hamilcar was killed in 228.

In 221, after the death of Hasdrubal, who was slaughtered by an Iberian servant, Hannibal led the Carthaginian army in Spain. In 218, he captured Sagunt, allied to the Romans. This was the reason for Rome to declare war on Carthage. The Romans, like the Punians, sought to new war, hoping to finally crush a dangerous opponent. The Second Punic War began. Now, unlike the First Punic War, both sides sought to completely subjugate the enemy state so that it could no longer play an independent political and commercial role in the Mediterranean.

Hannibal was about to invade the Apennine Peninsula through the Alps. The 16,000th army was left to defend Carthage, the same number of soldiers were in Spain. Hannibal himself, with a 92,000th army, moved to the Alps. He crossed the Ebro On the north bank of this river, Hannibal left 11 thousand soldiers under the command of Hanno, and he himself crossed the Pyrenees with most of the army. The Gallic tribes joined the Punians. Hannibal crossed the Rhone and in late autumn began to cross the snow-covered Alps. Having overcome them, the Carthaginian army descended into the Po valley and occupied Turin. The 6-month campaign cost Hannibal more than half of the army. Despite the Gallic replenishment, it now consisted of about 40,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. According to Titus Livius, 36,000 Carthaginian warriors could not endure the hardships of the campaign, becoming victims mainly of hunger, cold and disease, and, to a lesser extent, skirmishes with Iberian and Gallic tribes. But Hannibal ended up in Italy quite unexpectedly for the Romans, whose forces were scattered in different theaters of war.

The 24,000th Roman army was stationed in Spain, 27,000 Roman troops were stationed in Sicily, and 24,000 in Gaul and northern Italy. When the commander of the Roman army in Spain, the consul Krrnelius Scipio, rushing after Hannibal, approached the Rhone, the Carthaginian army had already broken away from him for three day marches and approached the Alps. Then Scipio returned part of the troops to Italy, and at the head of the rest he moved to Italy along the seashore to join the army of the consul Sempriony Long, who arrived from Italy. In December 218, near the Ticino River, Scipio encountered Hannibal, was defeated and was wounded. managed to save the main part of their legions from destruction and unite with the troops of Long near the city of Placentia. Both consuls took up a well-fortified position on the east bank of the Trebbia River and waited for the Carthaginians. They had 32,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry against Hannibal's 30,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry. The Carthaginian commander sought to challenge the Romans to battle. The Punic cavalry crossed Treb-biy and moved towards the Roman camp. According to the Roman historian Sextus Julius Frontinus, Hannibal, “having in front of him the camp of the consul Sempronius Longus separated by the river, in severe frost placed his brother Mago in ambush with selected soldiers. Then, in order to provoke the gullible Sempronius, he ordered the Numidian cavalry to drive up to its rampart, but at the first attack of ours, run along the fords known to the Romans. The consul, attacking them and pursuing them with an army that had not yet eaten, froze it, crossing the river in severe cold; when the Romans soon became numb and exhausted from hunger, Hannibal advanced his soldiers, whom he warmed with fire, oil and smoke for this purpose. Magon also played his role, having fulfilled his task to defeat the rear of the enemy. In the ambush detachment, located behind the stream behind the right flank of the Carthaginian army, Hannibal detached the "Holy Squad" - an elite cavalry unit, formed from representatives of the most noble families of Carthage.

When the chilled legions formed battle formation on the plain, Hannibal threw against them experienced Balearic shooters, whom Long countered with velite recruits. The latter could not withstand the attack and quickly retreated behind the line of heavily armed soldiers. Those, in turn, broke through the front of the Gallic infantry, which constituted the center of the Carthaginian army. The flanks of the Romans were attacked by the Numidian cavalry and an ambush detachment and were defeated. As Polybius wrote, “the rear ranks of the Romans, who fought in the center, were badly damaged by the attack of the soldiers from the ambush; and those that were in front, inspired by the difficulty of the situation, defeated the Celts and part of the Libyans and broke through the battle line of the Carthaginians. Only 10,000 Romans in the center were able to break through the Gallic infantry and retreat, maintaining battle order. The rest died, were captured or fled. Hannibal released captives from among the Roman allies without ransom, hoping to win them over to his side to fight against Rome.

The road to Rome opened before Hannibal, but he chose to spend the winter in Gaul.

After the victory at Lake Trasimene, Hannibal again did not go to Rome, but went to rich Apulia. From Apulia, his army went to Samnium, and then to Campania. Fabius Maximus, evading the battle, pursued Hannibal on the heels. Hannibal's forces were fading in small skirmishes with the enemy and from diseases. Meanwhile, the command of the Roman army from Fabius was transferred to the consuls Lucius Aemilius Paul and Gaius Terrentius Varro. The public expected decisive action from them.

In the summer of 216, the Carthaginians captured the food warehouse of the Romans in a fortification near the city of Cannes. Hannibal camped here, hoping that the enemy would try to recapture the warehouse. The Roman legions, indeed, moved to Cannae and stopped 2 km from the city. On August 1, Varro led his troops into the field. Hannibal, still on the march, attacked the Romans with cavalry and slingers. However, Varro managed to deploy heavily armed warriors who, with the help of the velites, repelled the attack. Pavel took command the next day. He deployed two thirds of the army on the left bank of the Aufid River, and one third on the right bank, 2 km from the main camp. Hannibal deployed his entire army against the main forces of the Romans. On the morning of August 2, the Roman legions from both camps lined up in battle formation on the left bank of the Aufida. On the left flank, adjacent to the river, stood the Roman cavalry, on the right - the Allied cavalry. The infantry that made up the center had a deeper formation than usual. The allied light infantry stood in front. Hannibal built a battle formation in exactly the same way - from the flanks - cavalry, in the center - heavily armed infantry, and in front of it - slingers and archers. In the middle of his phalanx, he placed less experienced Gauls and Iberians, along the edges - battle-hardened Libyans. The Carthaginian commander, according to Polybius, addressed the troops with a short speech: “With victory in this battle, you will immediately become masters of the whole of Italy; this one battle will put an end to your present labors, and you will be the possessors of all the riches of the Romans, and you will become rulers and masters of all the earth. That is why no more words are needed - deeds are needed.

Against the 4,000th cavalry of the Roman allies, Hannibal threw 2,000 Numidian cavalry, but against 2,000 Roman cavalry he concentrated 8,000 people of the heavy Carthaginian ("Holy Squad"), Libyan and light Iberian cavalry. The Carthaginian cavalry scattered the Roman horsemen, and then hit from the rear by the cavalry of the Roman allies. Meanwhile, the Roman infantry pressed the Gauls in the center and came under attack from the two strongest Libyan wings. The Roman legions were in the ring. This is how Titus Livia describes the finale of the battle. When the Romans were already few and exhausted from fatigue and wounds, then they were put to flight, then they all dispersed and, whoever could, tried to find their horses in order to escape. The Romans rushed in all directions. 7 thousand people ran to the smaller camp, 10 thousand to the larger one, and almost 2 thousand to the very village of Cannes; these latter were immediately surrounded by Carthage and its horsemen, since the village of Cannae was not protected by any fortifications. . They say that 45 thousand 500 infantrymen, 2 thousand 700 horsemen and almost as many citizens as allies were killed ... "

There are conflicting reports about the losses at the Battle of Cannae. Titus of Livy claims that 48,200 Romans and their allies died, and 19.5 thousand were taken prisoner. Polybius believes that about 70 thousand Romans died, and only 3 thousand managed to escape. Eutropius claims that 60,000 infantry, 3,500 cavalry, and 350 senators and other nobles perished in the Roman army. Orosius speaks of 44 thousand killed, and Florus - of 60 thousand. Plutarch calls the figure of 50 thousand dead. According to him, 4,000 Romans were captured during the battle, and another 10,000 were taken later in both camps. The losses of the Carthaginians, according to Livy, amounted to 8 thousand killed, and according to Polybius - 5,700. The Romans lost the consul Aemilius Paul, 21 military tribunes and 80 senators.

However, the figures relating to Roman losses and the description of the course of the battle by Roman historians are not credible. And the question of the sources from which Roman historians got information about the battle of Cannae, as well as about many other battles, remains open. It is clear that the legionnaires who survived the battle, and even the centurions and tribunes, would not have been able to give a more or less complete picture of the battle. Only the surviving consul Terence Varron or one of the senior officers close to him could possess the relative completeness of information. However, judging by the reports of the same Plutarch, Titus Livius and Appian, the Roman military leaders already in the middle of the battle lost control of the troops and did not know exactly what was happening. Obviously, the true picture of Cannes could have been given to us by Hannibal or one of his closest associates, but, as far as is known, they did not leave memoirs, and if they did, they were not reflected in the historical tradition. The history was written by the victors, but Carthage was destroyed, and in the fire that engulfed the hometown of the victor at Cannae, the Punic evidence of wars with the Romans probably perished. There is every reason to believe that Roman historians drew information about the battle of Cannae from surviving ordinary soldiers and junior officers, whose stories merged into an epic narrative of a terrible disaster that befell the Roman army. To the defeated, of course, it seemed that the Punians were everywhere and that most of their comrades were dead, but whether this was actually the case is a big question.

It remains a complete mystery why the Roman infantry, which successfully pressed the Gauls, even being surrounded, could not, as in the battle of Trebbia, break through the weakened enemy front, allegedly deliberately made by Hannibal in the center much thinner than on the flanks, and escape? Livy states: “... After prolonged and repeated efforts, the Romans, with their dense formation, representing an oblique line, broke the enemy phalanx, which stood out from the rest of the formation, which was rare, and therefore very weak. Then, when the defeated enemies retreated in fear, the Romans began to advance on them and, moving through the crowd of fugitives who lost their heads in horror, at once penetrated first into the middle of the formation and, finally, without meeting any resistance, reached the auxiliary detachments of the Africans, who the retreat of both flanks remained in the center, which was significantly prominent and formerly occupied by the Gauls and Spaniards. When the soldiers who made up this ledge were put to flight, and thus the front line first straightened, and then, as a result of further retreat, formed another bend in the middle, the Africans had already moved forward on the sides and surrounded the Romans, who imprudently rushed to the center. enemies Pulling the flanks further, the Carthaginians soon locked up the enemies from the rear. From that moment on, the Romans, having ended one battle uselessly and leaving the Gauls and Spaniards, whose rear ranks they beat hard, begin a new battle with the Africans, unequal not only because the encircled fought with those around them, but also because the weary fought the enemy, whose forces were fresh and vigorous. The Roman historian does not explain in any way why the Romans suddenly stopped pursuing the already fled Gauls and Iberians. After all, the front ranks of their infantry, pursuing the Carthaginian center, still could not take part in the battle with the Africans who had come in from the flanks. It is also unclear why the Roman and allied infantry could not avoid the death. It cost nothing for the slingers to get away from the heavily armed enemy hoplites.

Even if we take the smallest of the figures cited in the sources of Carthaginian losses at Cannae - about 6 thousand killed, then this number should correspond to no less than 10 thousand wounded. In this case, by the end of the battle, Hannibal should have had no more than 34 thousand soldiers in the ranks. Each of them during the battle had to destroy at least one enemy warrior. And this despite the fact that only a minority of the army actually participated in hand-to-hand combat - only the fighters of the advanced ranks.

The fantasticness of the numbers of Roman losses in the battle of Cannae, as well as in other battles of the Second Punic War, is evident from the following example. According to my calculations, in those battles for which Roman historians cite data, the Romans should have lost a total of 90 thousand people killed in the period between 218 and 209 only in the Italian theater of operations. Adding here losses in those battles for which historians do not give data (and among these battles - such large ones as at Ticin and Trebbia), in smaller skirmishes, during sieges, as well as in the Spanish theater of operations, we get at least 180 thousands of dead Romans and their allies during this period, even assuming that among the dead Roman historians included those who died from wounds. However, at that time, losses in battle were significantly less than losses from disease. After all, even in the second half of the XIX century, in the period Crimean War, the number of deaths from diseases was 2.2 times more number killed on the battlefield and died of wounds. In the ancient world, sanitation was much worse than in Europe in the 19th century, and killing a person with cold steel is incomparably more difficult than with bullets and shells (for some reason, everyone who takes on faith losses of tens and hundreds of thousands of dead is forgotten in the wars of antiquity and the Middle Ages). As we remember, according to Livy, only the alpine campaign cost Hannibal 36 thousand who died from the hardships of the journey through snow-covered passes. Therefore, it can be assumed that in the Second Punic War the losses of the Roman army who died from diseases were higher than in the armies of the period of the Crimean War, and at least 3 times the number of those killed and died from wounds. Then, for every 180,000 who died in battle, there should be at least 540,000 who died of disease. In this case, the total irretrievable losses of the Romans and their allies for the period 218-209 would have amounted to about 720 thousand people. If Livy is to be believed, the losses were distributed roughly equally between the Roman citizens and their allies. Consequently, in the first nine years of the Second Punic War, 360,000 Roman citizens were to die. Meanwhile, census data show a much more moderate decline in this category of the population. In 231/230, there were 270,213 eligible military service Roman citizens, and in 210/209 - only 137,108. For comparison, I note that in the early years of the First Punic War, their number increased, mainly due to the granting of citizenship rights to new categories of Italians. In 265, there were 282,234 Roman citizens, and in 252 - already 297,797. It can be assumed that from 231 to 218 the number of Roman citizens of military age also increased by 15 thousand - both for demographic reasons and due to new converts to Roman citizenship. Then the irretrievable losses of the Romans themselves due to military operations should be estimated at 150 thousand people, including here those who were still in captivity in 209. Therefore, there is no doubt that the data on Roman losses contained in the writings of ancient historians are exaggerated several times.

If we assume that the figure of 5700 killed on the Carthaginian side at Cannae is closest to the truth, then the Roman losses killed (probably, along with those who died from wounds) can be estimated at 2-3 times more, i.e., 12-18 thousand people . It is interesting that the Italian historian P. Cantalupi estimated the Roman losses killed in the Battle of Cannes with approximately the same figures. late XIX century - from 10.5 to 16 thousand. He, however, believed that the data on the number of Roman troops at Cannae were exaggerated by about a factor of two. I, unlike Cantalupi, believe that these data are true, but the death toll was significantly exaggerated by Roman historians due to those who were able to leave the battlefield and scattered around the surroundings. These men clearly violated the principles of Roman valor, and historians have preferred to declare them dead than to admit that they fled for their lives. It is known that of those fugitives who reached Rome, two legions soon formed. Apparently, the rest, who found shelter in other areas, were again drafted into the army in subsequent years. The same happened to those who fled after the battles of Trebbia and Lake Trasimene. Sooner or later, but most of them returned under the legionary eagles. Here, probably, lies the secret of the surprisingly rapid revival of the military power of Rome after the most difficult defeats of 218-216 and the amazing mobilization ability of the population of Italy subject to it. Probably, unlike later Roman historians, Hannibal was much more aware of real losses Romans at the battle of Cannae, and this was one of the main reasons why he did not dare to besiege Rome. The Carthaginian commander was well aware that tens of thousands of legionnaires who fled the battlefield would again be called to the banner. For a long siege, the relatively small army of Hannibal had neither sufficient siege equipment nor reliable food supply bases.

If Roman historians overestimate Roman losses by a factor of three, then their true value for 218-209, taking into account the above calculations, can be estimated at 60,000 killed and died from wounds and 180,000 died from diseases. During the last years of the war, Roman losses can be proportionally estimated at 30,000 dead and 90,000 dead from disease. During the Second Punic War as a whole, the Roman army lost 90,000 killed and died of wounds and 270,000 died of disease.

It is impossible to calculate the losses of the Carthaginians on the basis of Roman sources, since they are exaggerated there to a much greater extent than the losses of the Romans. One can only assume that they were smaller than those of Rome, since the Carthaginian army was significantly inferior to the Roman one in numbers. Russian military historian N.P. Mikhnevich believed that in the Second Punic War, Rome lost 300 thousand killed, and Carthage - 140 thousand killed and 100 thousand died of disease. The number of those killed on both sides is significantly exaggerated here, and the Roman army probably suffered from diseases no less than the Carthaginian. But Mikhnevich's assumption that the losses of the Carthaginians in battle were about half the losses of the Romans, perhaps not far from the truth. Here, both the military art of Hannibal and more high level training professional army of Carthage. Its losses can be estimated at 45,000 killed and died of wounds and 135,000 dead from disease.

After the defeat at Cannae, the Romans called into the army all capable of bearing arms, starting from the age of 17, and formed 4 legions. The state redeemed 8,000 slaves, who made up two more legions. Hannibal did not dare to go to Rome. And it was not only the lack of siege weapons. The population of the city of several hundred thousand people could field a new army, both at the expense of those who escaped from Cannes, and by conscripting into the army all who could bear arms. The siege would inevitably drag on for months, if not years. Hannibal's army needed to be supplied all this time. Only Italy could be the supply base, since it was not necessary to count on the arrival of significant supplies from Carthage. To create a solid supply base on the Alenninsky peninsula, it was necessary to place Punic garrisons in a number of cities and to attract allies from among the Italic tribes recently conquered by the Romans. Only after that it was possible with some chance of success to approach the walls of Rome.

The Carthaginian army moved south. Many Samnite tribes went over to the side of Hannibal. In the Campaign, Hannibal was supported by the largest city of Capua, but in the south of Italy, in the region of Magna Graecia, Naples, Cuma and Nola remained loyal to Rome. Hannibal made an alliance with the Macedonian king Philip V, and in Sicily, the tyrant of Syracuse, Hieronymus, went over to the side of Carthage. The Romans, avoiding decisive battles, limited themselves to actions against the communications of Hannibal's army and the Italian cities that had gone over to his side. Against Philip in the Balkans, a coalition was formed from the Aetolian Union, a number of Greek cities and the Pergamon king Attalus I. The Macedonians eventually won this war, and the Romans were forced to cede some of their possessions in Illyria to them in 205. However, Philip could not help Hannibal directly in Italy.

In 213, a strong Roman army was sent to Sicily, led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus. She laid siege to Syracuse, but only two years later she was able to capture the heavily fortified city. The great scientist Archimedes, who was killed by legionnaires during the capture of Syracuse, took an active part in the creation of combat vehicles for the Syracusans.

The Romans in 212 laid siege to Capua, enclosing it with a countervalence and circumvalence line. Hannibal went to the rescue of Capua, but could not break through the circumvalence line. Then in 211 he went to Rome, hoping to force the Romans to abandon the siege of Capua. However, the Romans understood that the Carthaginian commander did not have the strength to besiege the beautifully fortified "eternal city", and did not leave Capua. Hannibal, having ravaged the environs of Rome, retreated to the south. Soon Capua capitulated. Its inhabitants were sold into slavery. In 209, the Romans achieved another important success: the army under the command of Fabius Maximus took Tarentum.

In Spain fighting proceeded with varying degrees of success. In 211, the Carthaginians defeated an army led by the Scipio brothers Gnaeus Cornelius and Publius Cornelius. Both Roman generals died in battle. In 210, a Roman army arrived on the Iberian Peninsula under the command of Publius Cornelius Scipio the Younger, the son of a murdered commander. In 209, she took New Carthage, the main Punic base in Spain. During the assault, the Romans took advantage of the low tide and broke into the fortress from the sea, where the fortifications were weaker. After the fall of New Carthage, many Spanish tribes went over to the side of the Romans. In 208, Hasdrubal of Spain moved to the aid of Hannibal and in 207 appeared in Northern Italy. Hannibal found out about this and moved from Brucium to Apulia, hoping to connect with his brother somewhere near Rome and try to besiege the enemy capital. Before that, during the campaign of 208, the Carthaginians managed to defeat the army of the consuls Marcellus and Crispius, and the first of them was killed, and the second was wounded and soon died. After that, Hannibal released the Punic garrison in Locri, besieged by the Romans. Those, in turn, took revenge on the sea. In the battle near Klupeya, the Punic squadron of 83 ships was defeated.

The Romans at that time had 23 legions in Italy. Part of the troops, led by the consul Claudius, was supposed to tie down the army of Hannibal, and the other, under the command of the consul Mark Livy, moved towards Hasdrubal. The latter, in turn, wasted time on an unsuccessful siege of Placentia. Meanwhile, another consul, Gaius Claudius Nero, joined Marcus Livius with his army. In the battle of the Metavra River, the Carthaginian army was defeated by the superior forces of the Romans, and Hasdrubal himself was killed. last try his brother Ma-gon undertook to help the army of Hannibal. In 205, he crossed from Spain to the Balearic Islands, and then to the Ligurian coast of Italy with 12,000 infantry and 2,000 horsemen. However, the Romans blocked it, and, despite the support of the Ligurians and Gauls, Magon could not help Hannibal. In Spain, the Punians also suffered new setbacks, and their long-time ally, the Numidian king Massanassa, began to seriously think about going over to the side of the Romans.

In 204, Scipio landed in Africa with an army of 30,000. The Numidians allied with Carthage opposed him. Scipio defeated the Numidians, overthrew their king Syphax from the throne and transferred the throne to his son Massinissa, who by that time had already become a Roman ally. In 203, the Senate of Carthage recalled Hannibal from Italy. Realizing the weakness of his army, the Carthaginian commander entered into negotiations with Scipio, but he demanded capitulation from the Punians. On October 19, 202, at the city of Zama, five passages from Carthage, the last battle of the Second Punic War took place. Hannibal had 35 thousand infantry, up to 3 thousand cavalry and 80 war elephants, which, however, had not yet been properly trained. The Carthaginian army was dominated by recruits, while the Roman army was dominated by experienced veterans. In order to let the elephants through, Scipio left significant intervals between the maniples and placed the maniples at the back of the head, and not in a checkerboard pattern. Early in the battle, the Roman cavalry and their Numidian allies scattered the few Carthaginian cavalry. Hannibal attacked the Romans in the center with elephants and light infantry. However, the Roman javelin throwers with their weapons, as well as the strong noise of pipes and horns, frightened the elephants, and they turned back, trampling their own infantry.

Taking lightly armed warriors and elephants to the rear, Hannibal threw heavy infantry into battle. The first ranks of the Libyans were pushed back by the Roman legionnaires, but then the more experienced Macedonians and the militia of Carthaginian citizens stepped in to stop the onslaught of the enemy. Then Hannibal moved around the flanks of the Romans a third line, consisting of veterans of the Second Punic War, against which Scipio put up a line of triarii veterans. The stubborn battle lasted for several hours, until the Roman cavalry, returning to the battlefield, struck at the rear of the Carthaginians. Hannibal's army took to flight.

According to Polybius, the Punic army at the Battle of Zama lost 20,000 killed and 10,000 captured, and the Romans 2,000 killed. The winners got 133 banners and 11 elephants. The numbers of Carthaginian losses seem exaggerated many times over, but the outcome of the battle, favorable for the Romans, of course, is beyond doubt.

In 201, Carthage was forced to agree to humiliating peace conditions. The entire navy of 500 ships had to be handed over to the Romans, who immediately burned it. Of all the possessions of the Punians, only a small territory adjacent to Carthage remained. Now the city had no right to either wage war or make peace without the permission of Rome and had to pay an indemnity of 10 thousand talents within 50 years. As a result of the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic won hegemony in the Mediterranean basin for six hundred years.

The defeat of Carthage was predetermined by the inequality of human resources. Rome and its Italian allies, according to Polybius, were able to field 700,000 infantry and 70,000 horsemen during the war. Carthage did not have such capabilities. The Libyans, Numidians, Gauls and Iberians who served in the Punic army were significantly inferior in number to the Italians and could not, with all their desire, put at the disposal of Hannibal and other Carthaginian commanders a comparable number of soldiers. The military genius of the victor at Cannae was powerless here, as was the superiority of the Carthaginian professionals over the Roman militias.

In 149, Rome launched the Third Punic War to wipe Carthage off the face of the earth and thereby eliminate a serious commercial competitor. The war of Carthage with the Numedian king Massanassa, an ally of Rome, was used as a pretext for the attack. In this war, which took place in 150, the Punians not only were defeated, but also acted as violators of the peace treaty, according to which they could not wage war without the permission of Rome. The camp of the Carthaginian commander Hasdrubal was surrounded by the Numidians, and only a smaller part of his 58,000-strong army was able to break into Carthage. In Rome, mobilization was announced and open preparations for war began. The Romans demanded capitulation from Carthage - recognition of the supreme power of Rome. Meanwhile, Utica, the largest Carthaginian region in Africa, surrendered to the mercy of the Romans. After that, in 149, Rome formally declared war on Carthage, hoping to conquer the city, replenish the Roman treasury with its wealth, and enslave the Carthaginians. A military party prevailed on the Capitol, led by Marcus Porcius Cato, a veteran of the Second Punic, who repeatedly repeated that "Carthage must be destroyed." The leader of the "peace party" Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasika believed that it would be enough to place a Roman garrison in Carthage, preserving its inhabitants not freedom and property, but also the right to self-government, but he failed to enlist the support of the majority of senators.

After the declaration of war, the Carthaginians had no choice but to defend themselves with all available forces and means, despite the colossal inequality of economic and military power. The Roman army was led by the consul Manius Manilius, and the fleet by another consul, Lucius Marcius Censorinus. Secret instructions ordered them not to enter into any negotiations with the enemy, but to wipe Carthage off the face of the earth. The Carthaginian embassy, ​​which arrived in Rome after the start of the war, announced the complete and unconditional surrender of the city. The Roman response was ambiguous. They seemed to welcome the "wise decision" of the Carthaginians and were ready to give them freedom, as well as the possession of all property, both public and private. However, at the same time, the fate of the city of Carthage itself was silent, and all promises to the Punians remained valid only if, within 30 days, the Carthaginians handed over to the Romans 300 hostages representing the most noble families of the city. The authorities of Carthage hurried to send the hostages, not knowing that the Roman Senate confirmed the order to the consuls, who had already landed in Utica, to destroy the city. When the hostages were delivered, the consuls also demanded the release of all the weapons stored in Carthage. As a result, the Romans received 200,000 sets of infantry weapons and armor and 2,000 catapults. And only after disarming the once formidable enemy, the consuls presented the main demand of the Senate: all residents must leave Carthage and settle anywhere in the countryside that belonged to the city, at a distance not closer than 80 stadia (about 15 km) from the sea. This doomed the Carthaginians, who lived by maritime trade, to vegetate in poverty. After the Carthaginian ambassadors announced the Roman demands to the townspeople, the leaders of the aristocratic party, who called for submission to the Romans, were killed. The Democrats won the Council of Thirty. The gates of Carthage were locked, and all the workshops of the city were mobilized for the manufacture of weapons and the construction of ships. All the slaves who joined the ranks of the army were also freed. Its commander was Hasdrubal, who had recently been sentenced to death by his opponents. After the defeat from Massanassa, he had only 20 thousand soldiers left who made up the field army, but soon the number of soldiers increased several times due to those who were supposed to defend the city walls. Every day, the Carthaginians produced 140 shields, 300 swords, 1000 arrows for catapults and 500 darts and spears, as well as several dozen catapults. Warships were urgently built, for which copper statues were melted down and used wooden beams city ​​buildings. The women gave their hair to weave ropes, and their gold jewelry to buy weapons and food.

The Romans, who were going to take Carthage without a fight, were not ready for the immediate start of the siege. While they were storing food, the Punians had time to prepare for defense. Manilius attacked the city along the narrow isthmus that connected Carthage with the mainland of Censorinus from land and tried to approach the weakly fortified corner of the fortress from the sea. However, the legions met with strong resistance, and the army of Hasdrubal hit them in the rear. His subordinate Hamilcar Famea attacked the Romans, who were logging for siege engines, and killed about 500 people. The besieged fought off two attacks. After this, Manilius abandoned attacks across the isthmus. Instead, the Romans filled up the swamp, located between the sandbar and Carthage, and moved two large battering rams to the walls of the city, with the help of which they made a breach. But the Carthaginians pushed back the Romans and burned both battering rams at night. In the Roman camp, due to swamp fumes, illnesses began, and they were forced to retreat to the seashore.

Meanwhile, the Punians, using small sailing boats loaded with brushwood and tow as fire-ships, burned almost the entire enemy fleet. Censorinus departed for Rome in the autumn of 149, and Manilius took charge of the siege. He decided that he must first defeat Hasdrubal's army in Libya. Here the Punians exterminated the Roman foragers and made it very difficult to supply the troops under the walls of Carthage. At Neferis, Hasdrubal defeated Manilius, who retreated back to Carthage.

After a series of failures, the Romans were forced to call for help from the Numidians, without whom they first thought to do without. Massanassa is already dead. Power was divided among his three sons. One of them, Gulussa, who commanded the army, led the fight against the troops of Hasdrubal and Hamilcar Famey. Soon Fameya, with part of the detachment, went over to the side of the Romans, realizing the hopelessness of the situation of Carthage. The command of the Roman army passed to the new consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesonius. In the summer of 148, he unsuccessfully besieged the city of Hippo Diarit and, having lost all siege weapons, returned to the camp under the walls of Utica. On top of all the troubles, the military leader Bitiya with 800 horsemen ran from Gulus-sa to Hasdrubal. The Carthaginians tried to win over the Numidians to their side, but did not succeed here. But they managed to restore their control over Libya, relying on the help of local tribes.

The Senate expressed extreme displeasure at the prolongation of the war. Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, who was considered a talented commander and distinguished himself in several skirmishes with the Punians, was elected consul for 147. Before his arrival in Utica, an attempt to take Carthage by landing from the sea failed. Only with heavy losses landed on the shore of the Roman soldiers managed to evacuate. Aemilian abandoned military operations in Libya and concentrated all his forces for the siege of Carthage. Hasdrubal's army also approached here.

At first, Aemilian decided to take possession of the Carthaginian suburb of Megara. The Romans broke in there as a result of a night attack, but could not hold Megara and retreated to their camp. During the raid in Megara, the Romans killed not only male warriors, but also women and children. In response to this sortie, Hasdrubal betrayed the excruciating execution of the captured legionnaires. Their limbs and genitals were cut off, their eyes gouged out, and then the dying were thrown off the walls. Soon, Aemilian pushed the Carthaginian field army outside the city walls and now could not be afraid of sudden attacks from the rear. Then the Romans dug up the isthmus with two ditches, creating a new camp here. A stone wall was erected against Carthage. A stone tower was erected in the middle of the camp, and on it was another tower, a quadrangular, wooden one, from which the whole of Carthage was visible. The Punians dug a new canal that connected the city to the sea. The entire Punic fleet, which consisted of 50 triremes and several dozen small craft, attacked the much more powerful Roman fleet in a desperate attempt to break the blockade. Most of the Carthaginian ships perished. The Romans also suffered losses, but for them this damage was less noticeable.

After several unsuccessful attempts, the Romans took possession of the embankment from which they could threaten the Carthaginian harbors. A wall was built on the embankment flush with the walls of Carthage. With an overwhelming advantage both in the number of troops and in the amount of siege equipment, the Romans steadily squeezed the ring around Carthage.

In the winter of 147/46, Aemilian drove the few Punyan garrisons out of Libya. The most fierce fighting took place at Neferis, taken with the help of the Numidians of Gulussa. In the spring of 146, the Romans stormed the Carthaginian harbor of Coton, where the legionnaires plundered the temple of the fire god Reshef. Until they divided the 1,000 gold talents that were in it among themselves, all the attempts of the commanders to force them to continue the battle were useless. Then the Romans were able to break into the main urban area - the fortress of Birsu. Every building here had to be taken with a fight. Women, old people and children perished in fires and under the rubble of collapsing buildings. The defenders of the city capitulated. 30,000 men and 25,000 women came out from behind its walls. All of them were enslaved.

Only 900 Roman defectors, not hoping for mercy, took refuge in the temple of the god Eshmun and continued to fight. Here was Hasdrubal with his wife and two small children. However, he soon secretly left the temple and surrendered to the mercy of Aemilian. The defectors set fire to the temple and burned alive in it. Hasdrubal's wife committed suicide after killing her children. For several days the Romans plundered Carthage. They were forbidden to touch only gold, silver and dedications in temples. Gold and silver jewelry and coins, as well as jewelry, entered the Roman treasury. Carthage was literally wiped off the face of the earth. His lands were divided between Utica and Numidia, and part of the Carthaginian territory was turned into the Roman province of Africa, ruled by a praetor.