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It's a shame, but even the closest people can deceive. However, not always such false - evil. Another thing is when the truth or not, your career, health or welfare depends on whether the person says. In this case false You must learn to recognize. What features can you understand that the interlocutor is lying?
Instruction
Analyze the meaning of the interlocutor's speech. The story of the liar often abounds with unnecessary details, with the help of which he is trying to make his narration convincing. If you ask him about concrete facts, a liar will tell you about small and uninteresting things, and about what you are inquired about, they will mention casual. Indirect answers also suggest that the interlocutor is trying to hide something. These include answers in the style of "Guess yourself" and answering questions. The signal of what you lie may be a fragmentation, frequent casing, unconditioned change in intonation and speech speed. This is because the liar focuses on the fiction and does not control himself a little. In addition, he may forget what exactly said and start pulling time or try to distract you.
Watch the signals that the body of the interlocutor serves you. Signs of lies - barriers that he puts between you. Such barriers can be hands in the area of \u200b\u200bthe nose and mouth with frequent yoke, cough, etc. If, with the question of a person removes back - his body gives the desire to leave. This is also told to variation from foot on foot. A lie also issues a clear inconsistency of speech and gestures. If a person says "right", but shows to the left, and excessively gesticulates, then, most likely, he lies.
Watch out for the emotions of the interlocutor. In the event that a person is lying, his emotions are manifested inadequately - too sooner or later. This is due to the fact that the liar does not follow the course of the conversation. Excessive surprise, joy should also cause suspicions - most likely they are fake.
Write the interlocutor. Liar always gives out itself to the fact that with a sharp change of the topic of conversation, relief will experience, and not surprise. Sincere person will always try to return to an unfinished topic. Try implicitly show your doubts about the truthfulness of the story. Liar in such a situation is embarrassed, and a truthful interlocutor will be angry, frowning.
Watch the movements of the eye of the interlocutor. If he looks up and left relative to you, he designed, comes up with a picture. If he looks up and right - it turns to visual memory, i.e. Remembers the real event. Looking left relative to you, a person comes up, right - recalls that he
What is logic? Many of us have thought about such a simple question. Or maybe someone knows why you need logic? Consider the main types, essence and forms of this process, starting from the very beginning.
Why do I need logic
Logic is one of the multiple sections of philosophy. This science is studying forms, methods and laws of conscious and intellectual activity aimed at the knowledge of certain processes. Based on the fact that this knowledge is obtained by mind, logic is optimal, and even - the right thinking. It allows you to study various processes and objects, without relying on experience, but rather the knowledge that was previously obtained. By accumulating data from various sources, we can intelligently push the theory, thereby penetrating the essence of the objects.
Types of logic
The famous philosopher Kant put forward the type of logic that transcendental called. He managed to successfully separate the logical consequence and the logical basis from real causes and consequences. He also recognized the existence of a formal type of logic. Further studies of this issue were repeatedly criticized by scientists such as Hegel, etc.
Form logic
What is a logical form? This is the optimal method of connecting the meaningful parts of reasoning. That is - a consistent chain: an object, research, proof, conclusion. The name emphasizes the interest of the extremely form of reasoning, and not the specific content of the subject being studied.
Essence of logic
It should be noted that the main function (it is the goal) of logic throughout its existence remained unchanged. This study of sequence and relationships, in accordance with which one may turn out from one allegation. Studying causal relationships, this science shows the conditions of proper thinking. And if the goal of logic remained unchanged, stable for long years, then the sphere of interest has suffered significant changes.
So why do you need logic?
This science helps each person to see a consequence and find his original source. To strive for the knowledge of the world through mental processes. Study and find something new and unknown.
Alexander Leonidovich Nikiforov
Logics
Logics
Preface
The biological view to which we belong is called "Homo Sapiens" - "Reasonable man" in Latin. Among our ancestors was a "man skillful", which began to produce the first stone tools; "Man straightened", Peteitront; Neanderthal, the immediate predecessor of the modern man. Our distinguishing feature compared to animals and predecessors is the presence of mind. But what is "mind"? It turns out that it is still extremely difficult to answer this question. We are much more about the structure of the substance, about stars and galaxies, plants and animals than the most important property of a person.
But there is one of the sides of the mind - the most important, perhaps - which is studied quite well. This is thinking, i.e. The ability to navigate the surrounding world, reason, build explanations of certain phenomena, make predictions. Science of thinking is called logic.
"When I take a consideration," wrote a hundred years ago English economist, philosopher and logic John Stewart Mill, - as a simple theory of conclusion, which little time is enough to acquire the full knowledge of its principles and rules and even significant experience in their application, I do not I find any apology for those who want to deal with some mental labor successfully, misses this study. Logic is a great pursuer of dark and intricate thinking; She scatters a fog hovering from us our ignorance and makes us think that we understand the subject, while we do not understand him. I am convinced that in modern upbringing nothing brings more benefits to develop exact thinkers who remain the right sense of words and proposals and are constantly onset against the terms of uncertain and ambiguous as logic. "
Yes, we need to be able to use, it is necessary and you can develop. And this teaches the only science - logic. Therefore, familiarity with it needs any person. Elephant is stronger than a person, the horse is faster, the eagle sees further and better. But the mind allows a person immeasurably to surpass them all and in force, and in speed, and in vigorous.
Chapter 1
The object and value of logic
What is studying logic
Of course, the subject of all science becomes quite clear only in the process of acquaintance with the science itself, so all the preliminary definitions of this subject remain incomplete and not very clear. Nevertheless, something should be started with something.
The logic is the science of forms and the laws of knowing thinking.
The logic is studying thinking, but not all, but only those mental processes that are aimed at finding and justifying the truth, to solve some task, to search for ways to overcome certain difficulties that get faces both in professional activities and in everyday life. Sometimes in the morning, looking at himself in the mirror, you might think: "At ... at what my nasty physiognomy I have today!" Such mental processes are almost not concerned, the study of them is a matter of psychology or even psychiatry. The logic is primarily interested in cognitive processes. Well, what is "knowing thinking"? Try to answer a few simple questions.
I have two coins in my pocket, which in the amount give 15 kopecks, but one of these coins is not a patch. What are these coins? Do you start thinking: 7 and 8 kopecks? There are no such coins. Maybe 2, 3 and 10 kopecks? But then three coins are obtained, and there are only two of them. Finally, the thought comes: one of them is not a patch, but the other can be a patch! Answer: 10 and 5 kopecks.
The night watchman died not at night, and during the day. Does he appoint a pension? You begin to remember that you know about pension legislation, then suddenly unheat: But he died, why is he a pension? Answer: No, not prescribe.
Can a decent person marry his sister of his widow? The word "decent" attracts your attention and you think: is it ethical to marry your wife's sister? But soon the thought comes: the wife is already a widow, which means that the person about whom is in question, died! It is clear that he cannot marry anyone, but the words "decent man" simply distract our attention from this decisive circumstance.
In all these cases, the decision of the decision comes down to the nomination of some assumption and the derivation of the consequences. If the consequences are not consistent with the terms of the problem, we discard the initial assumption and put forward a new one, etc. Despite the simplicity of the examples, the search for their solutions reproduces the main features of every cognitive process: the problem is an alleged decision - checking the solution and its discarding if it is not consistent with the terms of the task and with the truths known to us - the nomination of the new solution ... Logic is just exploring Those forms in which knowledge of thinking, and those general principles, which it must obey to achieve the goal.
Logic is only interested in the form of our thoughts, but not their content. The content of our thoughts is infinitely varied: we can think and reason about volcanoes and stars, about love and entrepreneurship, about the sausage, which is always lacking, and about electrons, from which you do not know where to go. However, all this diversity is placed in a relatively small number of forms. These forms and study logic. Figuratively speaking, the logic is interested in the vessels - bottles, buckets, barrels, and not that they are nalito. In a bottle that neither pour - Narzan, beer, wine - it will remain a bottle and it can be studied precisely as a bottle: explore its geometric shape, volume, wall thickness, etc. Similarly, the thinking forms, regardless of their content, have certain properties that studies logic.
In this regard, the logic is similar to the grammar, which we studied at school. Grammar also explores and describes the forms of language expressions, distracting from their content. To illustrate this circumstance, the famous Soviet linguist L.V. Scherba led the example of the next sentence fiction: "The Gloc Kazdress Ponto Boko Barak and Zing Street." We cannot say anything about the content of this proposal, but the knowledge of grammar allows us to argue that the word "Cool" is here to be subject to, "BEALLUAL" - the fault, "Barakh" - add-on, etc. We can talk about the kind, the number of our nouns, without having the slightest idea that they denote the appropriate words. Similar knowledge of the forms of thought gives us logic.
Truthfulness and correctness
We have already mentioned the word "truth" several times. It's time to explain it. Questions about what is the truth is it possible to get it and how the philosophy is investigated. Here we will limit ourselves to a brief explanation sufficient for logic purposes.
The idea is called true if it matches its subject, i.e. Represents the object, the situation, the state of affairs as they exist in reality by themselves. If the thought does not correspond to his subject, distorting it, it is called false. For example, the idea that Russian composer A.P. Borodin was a chemist, is true, since Borodin really belongs to a number of works and discoveries in the field of chemistry. However, the idea that bananas grow on an apple tree will be false, because it gives a distorted idea of \u200b\u200ban apple tree.
The logical correctness of the reasoning is its compliance with the rules, the laws of logic. If you rely on true data and argue correctly, then you will always get a true conclusion. This logic guarantees. To cancellation, it is possible to argue correctly, but proceed from the wrong parcels. In this case, you can come to any conclusion - both true and false. As they say, it follows from lies anything. For example, if you received the parcel "All tigers feed on the grass", then from it you can do as a true conclusion: "Some herbivorous stripeds" and false - "Some herbivores have tigers." It is important to keep in mind the following: Logic cannot say whether those or other parcels are true - this is the task of specific sciences and everyday practice - but it helps us to make our reasoning right. If you rely on false, your reasoning can lead you anywhere. If you rely on the truth, the correct reasoning will only lead you to the truth.
Thinking and language
The knowledge of the logic is always expressed in the language, so the logic considers the thought in its language expression. Sometimes we will just talk about words and suggestions, meaning their mental content. Of course, there are thoughts that it is difficult for us to express in the language, "everyone came across this: sometimes a schoolboy or a student on the exam seems to understand everything, but can not say anything. With such thoughts, logic can not have things, cannot study them and analyze, they remain "inside" individual consciousness. It is assumed that the knowing thinking of all people is approximately equally and does not depend on their national affiliation, social status and cultural differences. The natural languages \u200b\u200bon which people of different peoples speak quite significantly differently, in what we are looking to make sure when we start learning foreign languages. The logic studies the forms of thought, not the language, therefore its laws and principles are valid for all thinking, regardless of which language shell it is represented. Take, for example, the following two language expressions:
Snow Is White, Der Schnee IST Weiss.
They consist of different signs and are generally significantly different from the other. However, both express the same thought that in Russian is transmitted by the offer "Snow Bel". The thought is general that it is typical of all these three completely different language expressions. This thought is studying logic. Nevertheless, the fundamental characteristics of the language have an impact on our idea, so logic often have to take into account the characteristics of the language expression of thought.
Stages of development of logic
Logic is one of the oldest sciences, arranged in an independent discipline. Its creator is considered an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384-322 BC).
Aristotle's appeal to the systematic presentation of logical knowledge and the development of logic was due to a large extent in public need. A citizen of an ancient polis actively participated in the life of his little state. He regularly attended the national assembly, which discussed issues of war and peace, urban construction, trade, etc., participated annually in the elections of government officials and himself repeatedly could occupy certain positions. For the departing of state posts in ancient Greece, no payment was supposed, so few people sought them. Sometimes citizens were forced to resort to the lot to appoint someone to command the army, to oversee the markets or public water pipelines. The antique Greeks were enjoyed a lot with pleasure, and the Greek court did not know the prosecutors and lawyers, the plaintiff and the defendant themselves should have come to the judges and the audience. From the ability to clearly state the essence of the case and convincingly substantiate their claims often depended the outcome of the case. In short, a good citizen needed a certain educational to fulfill its civil duties and the implementation of its civil rights.
So there was a general education in ancient Greece and the teachers were highly appreciated, they were called sofilas (from the Greek word "Sofia" - wisdom), which meant the originally "sage" or "wisdom teacher". They taught children with a letter, the basics of science, brought up the ability to clearly and convincingly speak, to defend their opinion in disputes. Over time, however, the sophists began to invent the techniques aimed at fooling the interlocutor to imagine the enemy in a funny or stupid form, inspire distrust of the truth, and lie, on the contrary, to present in the snow-white riza truth. Such unscrupulous techniques and tricks received the name "Sophism", and the word "Sofist" acquired that negative shade, which has been preserved until now. Here are examples of some sophisons, preserved in the writings of the ancient authors:
"What you did not lose, you have. You did not lose horns. Consequently, you are horny. "
"Sitting stood. Who got up, he stands. Consequently, sitting standing. "
Since the time of antiquity, the next story has reached us. The famous Sofist Protagora was a student named Evatle, who studied right. The teacher and the student concluded a contract according to which Eutat was supposed to pay for training only after he won his first process. However, finished learning, Evatle was in no hurry to act in court. The patience of the teacher dried up, and he filed on his student to court.
"Evatle in any case will be forced to pay me," said Protagor. - He either won this process, or will lose it. If you win - pays due to our contract with him; If he loses - pays due to the court sentence. "
"Nothing like this," argued, in turn, Evatle. - Indeed, I will either win the process, or lose it. If you win - the decision of the court will free me from payment; If I lose - I will not pay for our contract. "
The student, as you can see, turned out to be worthy of my teacher! Puzzled by such a turn of the case, Protagoras dedicated to this dispute with Evatl, a special essay of "Trial about the board", which, unfortunately, did not come to us. And if you publicly begin to ask, for example, such questions (negotiating before you will answer only "yes" or "no"):
"Do you stop beat your mother?", "Do you stop drinking brandy in the morning?" etc. Here you can fall into a light tetanus: say even "yes", at least "no" - they still find themselves in a stupid position.
Feeling that you are slightly inflated, but what's the matter, it is difficult to say. Sophisticatics began to interfere with the public life of the Greeks, as, however, it prevents us and now. Aristotle systematized the logical knowledge known by that time, adding a lot of new things to them, and wrote several writings in which it introduced logic as a means of protecting the truth and exposure of sofics and lies. In this capacity, it serves people for more than two millennia. A significant contribution to the development of logic was made by medieval scholars and the Latin terminology introduced by them.
In the middle of the XIX century. Logic survived its scientific revolution: mathematical (symbolic) logic appeared and began to grow and began to grow, applying mathematical means and methods for analysis of reasoning. It was she who laid the theoretical foundations for the subsequent development of programming languages \u200b\u200bfor computer equipment. Aristotelian logic has since become traditional since then.
In Russia until 1917, logic was taught in high school grams of gymnasium, and Russian logic made a significant contribution to the development of this science. However, soon after the October Revolution, logic - for a variety of reasons - in Russia disappears. Only in the late 40s. She again returns first to legal institutions and universities, then into pedagogical and other universities, and in recent years, the logic again begins to penetrate the school.
Why do you need to familiarize with logic?
In our pragmatic age, facing something new for yourself, people first ask:
"Why do I need it?" Alas, simple curiousness gradually disappears, and eternal chase per career, success, just for a piece of bread almost never leaves the time and efforts on occupations that do not bring immediate benefits. Therefore - why? Why should I read this book? Perhaps the following considerations will seem attention to you.
First of all, the acquaintance with logic tears us to think exactly and clearly state their thoughts. Many people are not able to associate two words at all. Others say, but so incoherently and vague that they will not understand anything. Logic promotes the formation of a connected and clear speech.
Logic brings up the ability to justify their ideas and solutions and convince other people. If you are able to justify your thought, the solution of one question or another, then your speech will not only be clear, but also convincing. Whatever the activities you do it, often this is a necessary condition for its success.
More importantly, the acquaintance with logic gradually forms the habit of analyzing his and other people's reasoning. Logic arms us and means allowing to detect, accurately designate and eliminate the argument error. She helps us to cope with demagogy and sophistry, eliminates us from the earthly simpleness that easily pushes us into the arms of sweet rogues. Apply, for example, to you with such a reasoning: "I am a person, and you are not me, therefore you are not a man." And even if you feel that something is wrong here, can you objely worthy? Unlikely. At best, there is something like "Fool himself!" And move away with a sense of intellectual humiliation. Acquaintance with logic will give you the opportunity to determine what kind of reasoning, what requirements it should satisfy and which of these requirements here is broken. Pointing to all this, you will shake the demagogue or ignorant, and it will already go away from you by sprinkling ashes.
Logic will teach you to argue. And in everyday life, and in professional activities we often have to join the controversy in different reasons. We, as a rule, do not know how to argue, and our clashes most often end with a cross, cry, or even a fight. Having become acquainted with the logic, you will learn to correctly defend your opinion, refute the erroneous belief of your opponent, find compromises, expose unscrupulous techniques and tricks.
Still, the most important thing - logic produces habit to think. Modern life forces a person to know a lot, so school and higher education systems are built in such a way as to invest a student as much information as possible. But they, as a rule, do not teach think, do not seek to develop this precious ability of a person. Therefore, many do not like and do not know how to think. Instead of thinking and finding your solution to certain problems, we willingly rely on the opinion of some television broadcaster, friends or acquaintances. Of course, it is difficult to think, hard thinking takes so much forces as miner or hammer spends. But after all, it is necessary to think if you do not want to live all your life with a doll, which is twitching for the ropes of deft manipulators. And when thinking becomes a habit, it begins to deliver pleasure. So the athlete, Khrushi Spine, pouring down later, develops his muscles with moans. But then, what delight gives him the game of these muscles, when each body of the body sings about the joy of bodily being!
It is for this purpose that a wide variety of tasks are included in the book. They are simple, but still make you think slightly. Think! But this is not a logic tutorial. For a deeper acquaintance with this science, you need to refer to the special literature.
Chapter 2.
Word and concept
Our household and professional conversations, speeches, disputes consist of words and suggestions. We assume that you know how to distinguish the word or phrase from the sentence, and we first take on the analysis of words - exactly of them, as of the bricks, are built "buildings" of our reasoning.
Among the words used by us are the most important names, and it is precisely most of the words. Well, of course! Words and are needed primarily in order to somehow signify, call the items around us, phenomena, events. We are well aware of the class of our own names, say, "Peter", "Ivan Kuzmich", "Adelaide Mitrofanovna", "Alexander Pushkin", "Moscow", etc. But after all, the words "house", "Bereza", "Red" is also symbols, i.e. Names of certain objects or properties! Even meeting an unfamiliar subject, we immediately give him a name - "unfamiliar subject"; And if we met the thing that we do not know how to call, we still call it - "a thing without behalf." In short, all items, properties, the relationship of the world around us, any object of our attention can be called some name.
The name is the expression of a language denoting a separate subject, the totality of objects, property or attitude.
We see that logic significantly expands our everyday understanding of what a name is. In everyday life, we consider names only our own names denoting individual, sole objects in kind. But the designations of groups of objects, relationships, properties are also naturally treated as their names! Of course, it may seem somewhat unusual, and if the question is "what is your name?", You will answer:
"My name is a man," asked can surprise slightly. However, science often departs from everyday common sense, penetrated into the essence of things. So here: the logic highlights the most important function of our words - something to designate, and from this point of view, almost all of them are names.
Concept
Language is used to express thoughts. Names not only denote certain objects, but one or another idea is also expressed. This thought (more precisely, the form of thought) is called the concept.
The concept is the form of thought expressed by the name.
When we call a separate subject or group of items, for example, the "current president of Russia" or "Chicken", we simultaneously think about some features, properties of these objects, about their appearance, origin, attitude to other objects, etc. The first of the above names is a specific person, but at the same time expresses the idea of \u200b\u200bthe state-owned device of modern Russia and the head of the Russian state. The second name denotes the extensive class of objects and at the same time expresses the idea that it is birds, and home that they carry eggs, do not know how to fly, etc. These are the thoughts expressed by the names, and are concepts.
Any concept is expressed in the name and all the name expresses the concept. Therefore, in the future, we often do not interfere with the differences between them. However, it should be remembered that the name is the expression of the language, and the concept is a thought.
There is no tight connection between the names and concepts: the same concept can be expressed by different names and the same name can express different concepts. This is manifested in synonymy, when two words express the same concept - for example, "brave" and "brave", and in homonymy, when one word is used to express two different concepts - for example, "onions" from which they shoot, and "Onions", which eaten. It is in the absence of a tough connection between the names and concepts lies a source of misunderstanding between people, errors in reasoning, demagogy and sophistic. Writer V. Nabokov said that one German linguist translated Pushkinsky "At Lukomorya ..." by turnover "on the shore of the onion sea ..." he confused weapon with a plant!
1) You are a pilot of the aircraft flying from New York to Moscow. During the flight on board, a terrorist is announced, requiring planting a plane in Lisbon. The crew does not know what to do. Passengers in panic. How old is the pilot of the plane?
2) There is a small child on the way and hurts: "And I have a mother, and my father, but sorry, I'm not my son!" Who is the child?
Each concept or associated name has the volume and content.
For example, in the concept of "tree" such properties are thinking: to be a plant, have a root, barrel, crown. These properties and form the content of the concept of "tree".
The scope of the concept has many of those objects, each of which belongs to the properties included in the content of the concept.
For example, the scope of the concept of "tree" form all those objects that have the properties listed above, i.e. All trees growing on Earth. The concept of the "table" will include all existing tables, in the scope of the concept of "students" - all people who are learning somewhere, etc. It should be borne in mind that the content of the concept is a set of properties, and the scope of concept is a variety of items with these properties.
Anagrammas are words in which letters are rearranged, for example, the "table" - "post". If the permutation of letters is made on some system, then the cipher is obtained. It is not always easy to guess what word was originally. Try!
3) Shimnah, Teurr, Fecri, Yezazol, Labojak, Dorrop, Sorats, Two, RMOO, Naven, Diplork, Stowz, Surdle, Koraze, Casim, Lukab, Trix.
Classification of concepts
In terms of volume, the concept is divided into three groups.
The concepts in the amount of which only one object includes, is called single.
They are expressed, as a rule, by the names of their own or equivalent expressions, for example: "Moon", "Paris", "Napoleon", "author of Iliad", "First cosmonaut", etc.
Common concepts are in terms of which more than one item is included, i.e. Two or more. For example, "River", "Mountain", "Planet", "House", "Dog", etc.
Finally, the concepts will be empty, which does not include a single real object.
Such concepts have content, i.e. They think the set of some properties, but there are no objects in the surrounding world, which would have these properties, for example: "Mermaid", "Centaur", "Baba Yaga", "Man who lived 1000 years old", etc. In the concept of "mermaid" such properties are trying: to the belt, a woman below the belt is a fish, lives in the water, goes to the shore. But there are no creatures with the properties listed. Therefore, the concept of "mermaid" is empty in volume. The use of empty concepts requires special caution. If, let's say, the concept of "Bank account Mr. D." Empty by volume, and you argue as if it had a volume, you can make a mistake.
They say that a kind of doctor from Toulouse, wanting to enjoy, placed such an announcement in the local newspaper: "In connection with the departure abroad, I sell the house and all the property, including the rare historical relic, namely the Wolter-Child Skull. And what do you think? Within one week, the newspaper received more than 100 requests from citizens about the price of this precious relic!
It is said that about 30 years ago, young guides of the St. Petersburg "Hermitage" were entertained in the same way. They started a group of simple visitors to the hall, where the skull of man's ancestors were put up, and they began to tell a serious look: "You see Skull Peter I at 5 years old, but his skull at the age of 20, but he became so 50 years old! " Some visitors noted with interest the changes that the Emperor's skull was holding time.
Specific concepts belong to subjects, things, persons with independent existence
Abstract concepts relate to properties or relations I objects.
The difference between specific and abstract concepts is as follows. For example, the house, the white house, the horse is independently existing items and the concepts of them are concrete. But "whiteness" or "horse" is the properties of objects that exist only in connection with objects, therefore, the corresponding concepts are abstract. Abstract will be the concepts "above", "big", "red", "goodwill", etc.
Lynnikov Alexander
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Why do I need logic if there is physics
Linnikov Alexander Olegovich, student 10 "b" class MBOU SOSH №1 them. Kolesnik A.S.
art. Otradnaya, Otradnensky district
This aphorism belongs to an unknown author, but he could belong to many great physicists who have changed the idea of \u200b\u200bmodern science.
Consider the famous philosophical tasks of Zenon.
Achilles runs ten times faster than a turtle, and is behind it at a distance of a thousand steps. When will he catch up the turtle?
The proposed solution from the point of view of logic and philosophy is quite unconvincing: during the time, for which the Achilles runs up this distance, a hundred steps will crash in the same side. When Achilles runs a hundred steps, the turtle will crawl about ten steps, and so on. The process will continue to infinity, Achilles will never catch up to the turtle.
From the point of view of physics, everything is solved quite simply. To do this, it suffices to use simple kinematics formulas.
Fig. 1. Solving the problem about Achilles and Turtle in terms of physics
That is, the meeting time is enough simply, knowing only physical quantities.
The second task concerns the flying arrows.
Flying arrow N. evizhna, as at every moment of time she takes equal position, that is, it rests; As it rests at every moment of time, it rests at all times, that is, there is no point in time in which the arrow makes movement.
The logic of the philosophical solution is difficult.
Physics explains this task from the point of view of the relativity of the movement. Indeed, if you consider the reference system connected with only an arrow, you can agree with philosophers. But, much more often, physics considers the fixed system associated with the Earth. In this system, an arrow is moving, and it is possible to calculate its speed, acceleration, move, understand whether it will fall into the target. That is, solve certain vital tasks.
Interesting physical paradoxes. These include a hydrostatic paradox. In 1648, the paradox demonstratedBlaise Pascal . He put in a closed barrel, filled with water, a narrow tube and, rising to the balcony of the second floor, poured the water mug into this tube. Due to the small thickness of the tube, the water in it rose to a high height, and the pressure in the barrel increased so much that the bull fastenings could not stand it, and she cracked.
From the point of view of logic, no matter how much water mug could break the barrel, the weight of this water is too low. But physics easily proves that the pressure on the bottom and the vessel walls does not depend on the mass of the liquid, and depends only on the height of the pillar of this liquid. That is, the rise of 3 meters up leads to an increase in pressure 3 times. And this is a significant amount.
And absolutely no logic is amenable to the so-called MPEMBA effect.IN 1963.tanganik schoolboy Erasto Mpemba became interested in the reason that the hot mixtureice cream freezes faster than cold. He addressed the clarifications to the physics teacher, but he only laughed at the student, saying the following: "This is not the worldphysics, and MPEMB physics. "
The same question of MPemba asked Dennis Osborne to School, Professor of Physics. Experimental verification confirmed the presence of the effect, but did not give it an explanation. IN1969. in the journal " Physics Education"A joint article of MPMBE and Osborne, describing the effect. In the same year, George Kell from the Canadian National Research Council published an article with a description of the phenomenon in "American Journal of Physics ».
There are several options for explaining this paradox:
- Hot water evaporates faster from the container, thereby reducing hisvolume, and the smaller volume of water with the same temperature freezes faster. In hermetic containers, cold water should freeze faster.
- Availability of snow lining in the freezerrefrigerator . The container with hot water is shoved under him with snow, thereby improving thermal contact with the wall of the freezer. Cold water container does not shove under himsnow. In the absence of snow lining, the cold water container must freeze faster.
- Cold water begins to freeze from above, thereby worsening the processes of heat emissions andconvection So heat loss, while hot water begins to freeze from below. With additional mechanical stirring of water in containers, cold water should freeze faster.
- The presence of crystallization centers in cooled water - substances dissolved in it. With a small number of such centers, the conversion of water into the ice is difficult and possibly even its hypothermia when it remains in a liquid state, having a minus temperature. With the same composition and concentration of solutions, cold water should freeze faster.
But a unambiguous answer to the question - which of them provide one hundred percent reproduction of the effect of the MPEMBE - and was not received.
That is, here, too, logic turned out to be powerless, but such methods of physics, as observations and experiments were at the height.
Let us turn to modern education.
The logic was mandatory subjects in gymnasiums and universities of pre-revolutionary Russia. In our country, then many textbooks on logic and books on the problems of laws and forms of thinking were published.
All outstanding and great people of Russia studied the logic and perfectly owned it. More than two hundred years ago M.V. Lomonosov in his book "Quick Guide to Eloquence" brilliantly proved that the key to oratorical eloquence should be sought in logic. Great Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky completely fairly the foundation of a reasonable speech saw in the right logical thinking, and the Grand Russian scientist K. Timiryazev considered the indispensable duty of every citizen to develop the ability to logical thinking.
The foundations of logic developed Aristotle. Logic is the only science that 2300 years is taught. Naturally, she was taught in Russia for a long time. The Bolsheviks came to power at the end of 1917 and already in 1918 banned to teach logic at school and in higher educational institutions.
After the Great Patriotic War, in 1946, Stalin introduced the teaching of logic in high school. After the war, Stalin, probably, began to trust the Russian people, believing that the people would not direct against the Communists "Theoretical Weapons". However, when Khrushchev began another struggle with the overload of students: the logic as a training item was again banned, but they left as a fragment in the course of psychology. And then the psychology was thrown out of the school program. Currently, logic is not a mandatory subject at school.
That is, we can conclude: there is no logic in the modern formation!
In the project of education reform "Our New School" addresses the issues of overloading students "unnecessary sciences". According to the new federal state educational standards in high school, that is, in 10-11 classes, physics is not a mandatory subject for studying. That is, physics in modern education will not be either.
There are no physicists or logic!
References:
- Federal State Educational Standards (GEF).
- Project "Our New School"
- Wikipedia.org electronic encyclopedia materials
Logic is a great pursuer of dark and intricate thinking; She scatters a fog hovering from us our ignorance and makes us think that we understand the subject, while we do not understand it.
John Stewart Mille
Our thinking obeys logical laws and flows in logical forms, regardless of the science of logic. People think logical, not even knowing that their thinking obeys logical laws. But does it follow from this that the study of logic is unnecessary? Knowledge of laws and forms of thinking, their conscious use in the process of knowledge increases culture of thinking, produces skill to think more "competently", develops a critical attitude towards its own and strange thoughts. Therefore, the look like the study of logic does not have a practical value, is untenable.
Logic systematizes the correct ways of reasoning, as well as typical errors in reasoning. It provides logical tools for an accurate expression of thoughts, without which it is ineffective by any mental activity, starting with training and ending with research and development.
Logic helps to prove true narrowings and refute false, she teaches thinking clearly, concisely, right. Logic need to all people, workers of various professions.
The highlight of the logic as a special branch of knowledge contributed to two circumstances:
in antiquity, people knew that the accuracy of output knowledge depends not only on truth;
to convince, it is necessary not only to speak well, but also to own various techniques for building conclusions and evidence - therefore logic was used theoretically and practically in everyday intellectual speech activity.
As an independent science, logic has developed more than two thousand years ago, in the fifth century BC. Its founder is the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (348 - 322 BC). This logic is called formal, as it originated and developed as a science of forms of thinking. It is also called traditional, or Aristotelian logic.
Also, the development of logic is associated with such well-known scientists as Francis Bacon, René Descartes, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and others.
English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626) developed the theory of induction, which became the most important stage in the development of logic. This logic is called formal, as it originated and developed as a science of forms of thinking.
The French philosopher Rene Decartes (1569 - 1650) made a criticism of medieval scholasticism, he developed the ideas of deductive logic, formulated the rules of scientific research set out in the composition "Rules for the leadership of the mind".
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 - 1716), formulated the law of a sufficient basis that put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bmathematical logic that was developed only in the XIX - XX centuries.
In the second half of the XIX century, the methods of calculus developed in mathematics begin to be widely applied. Such methods were called mathematical, or symbolic logic. Symbolic logic - intensively developing area of \u200b\u200blogical studies in a modern time, including many sections, for example: the logic of statements, the logic of predicates, probabilistic logic, etc.
In order to determine what logic is, we must find out what human knowledge is. The goal of knowledge is to achieve the truth with the help of thinking, the goal of knowledge is the truth. The logic is the science, which shows how the thinking should be made and what rules it should be obeyed to be achieved by truth. With the help of thinking, the truth is achieved, and sometimes it is not achieved. That thinking, with which the truth is achieved, should be called correct thinking.
Thus, logic can be defined as a science of the laws of proper thinking, or the science of laws that are subject to proper thinking.
This concept can be given a few more definitions.
The term logic comes from the Greek word "Logos", which means "thought", "word", "mind", "pattern", and is used both to designate the set of rules, which is subject to the process of thinking, reflecting reality and to designate science about The rules of reasoning and those forms in which it is carried out. Also, logic is the science of the rules of thinking, which studies thinking as a means of knowledge, and the laws of mental processes aimed at finding and justifying the truth.
The task of logic is to teach a person to consciously apply the laws and forms of thinking and on this basis it is more logical to think and, therefore, more correctly know the world around.
To think logical - it means to think exactly and consistently, not allow the contradictions in your reasoning, to be able to clear the logical errors. These qualities of thinking are of great importance in any field of scientific and practical activity.
Logical thinking is necessary for us in order to analyze and apply previously received information. It helps us for solving various tasks (starting from the creation of the shortest path to the house and before developing a large-scale business plan). Logical thinking allows you to separate the main one from the secondary, find relationships and fully analyze the situation. Thanks to logic, we can provide an rationale for different phenomena, consciously approach to solve important problems and to competently share their thoughts.
In choreography, logical thinking is also necessary. Without it, it is unlikely to be a good teacher-director. The room must be logically built. All laws of dramaturgy are observed. But if this is not done, the setting loses any meaning. Movement and character, musical accompaniment and style of execution should also be logical. Logically, rebuilding in drawings should be carried out, and the costumes correspond to their area. Only then the choreographic number will be able to completely convey the meaning laid in it, and will be truly interesting.
The presence of logical thinking from the choreographer helps him wider looking at the world around the world, it is better to notice the details. Such qualities help him invent and incarnate more exciting stories. Logic also allows us to correctly and rationally compile the work plan of classes, which saves the time of both the balletmaster itself and the performers.