Indirect exposure to humans is an exposure that occurs not through direct contact, but through changes in the abiotic and biotic environment.
The indirect effect is expressed in the fact that diseases can arise as a result of disruption of the natural balance.
So, with the help of the latest insecticides In Africa, during the Sahel era, large areas were freed from the tsetse fly, the carrier of the Nagana disease, which impeded the development of cattle breeding. The number of livestock increased sharply, which led to overgrazing of the meager savannahs by livestock; then, when drought came, hundreds of thousands of cattle fell victim to it, and people starved to death by the thousands.
Evaporation of dichlorvos is perhaps the most convenient method used to completely free residential areas from insects. Tapes used in households to control textile pests that evaporate this substance are considered
USA are toxic: they “cause birth injuries and death of fetuses in rats, and are therefore unsafe for humans.”
The long-distance transfer of technogenic substances has an indirect effect on humans. In the Moscow region, the average pH value in precipitation is 3-3.5 (the norm is 5.6). For example, acid precipitation, especially in the form of snow, is regularly observed in the Istra region. Such precipitation is dangerous to humans not so much through its direct effects as through its indirect effects. They worsen its physicochemical properties and disrupt plant nutrition, and therefore have a detrimental effect on animal health, increase the toxic effect of other pollutants, etc.
Main pollutants, their classification. Land plantings as a means of human protection
A pollutant is a subject of environmental impact, the amount of which is higher than the natural level. Pollution can be caused by any agent, including the purest, i.e. pollution is everything that is in the wrong place, at the wrong time and in the wrong quantity that is natural for nature, which takes it out of balance .
As already noted, according to origin they distinguish natural And anthropogenic pollution . Natural pollution arises as a result of natural, usually catastrophic processes. Anthropogenic pollution arises as a result of human activities, including their direct or indirect influence on the intensity of natural pollution.
Air pollutants. Air pollutants are mechanical, chemical, physical and biological.
Mechanical pollutants - dust, debris. They are formed during the combustion of fossil fuels and during the production of building materials. With this type of pollution, the most harmful particles are those with a diameter of up to 0.005 mm. Many diseases are associated with dusty air: tuberculosis, allergic diseases of the bronchi, etc.; a high concentration of dust in the air causes atrophy of the mucous membranes of the nose and bleeding.
Green spaces clear the air of dust and weaken the effect of other harmful impurities. For example, a spruce plantation
collects 32 tons of dust per 1 hectare from the air, pine - 36.4 tons, beech - 68 tons per 1 hectare. The forest, being able to filter annually up to 50-70 tons of dust on an area of 1 hectare, reduces the risk of disease from both the listed and many other diseases.
Chemical pollutants - these are substances that have penetrated into the ecosystem, either alien to it or present in it, but in concentrations exceeding the norm.
The most common toxic air pollutants are the following.
Carbon compounds: carbon dioxide CO 2, which is not harmful in small concentrations; carbon monoxide (CO), very toxic, but diffuses quickly in the atmosphere; unburned hydrocarbons or oxidized substances (aldehydes and acids).
Sulfur compounds: sulfur dioxide (SO 2), which can transform into sulfuric anhydride (SO 3) and in the presence of water or its vapor forms sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4).
Forest plantations can serve both as a mechanical barrier to gas and as protection against chemical pollution of the atmosphere.
One hectare of forest plantations absorbs in 1 hour all the carbon dioxide that is released during this time by 200 people, i.e. 8 kg. One broad-leaved tree with a crown projection of 150 m2 provides in 10 years the amount of oxygen needed for 2 years of life of one person.
Physical pollutants - These are excess sources of energy entering the biosphere from man-made causes.
One of the unfavorable factors of the urban environment is noise, which is random, non-periodic vibrations of sound of various physical natures. It has been established that noise within 30-40 dB is a comfort zone, above 120 dB is the pain threshold for a person.
Green spaces can provide protection from noise sources. More reliable protection from noise is achieved by installing noise barriers from noise sources.
Biological pollutants - species of organisms alien to the ecosystem. Pollution by microorganisms is also called bacteriological.
Particularly dangerous is special or accidental air pollution. strains of pathogenic microorganisms
mov, created in the laboratories of the armed forces of some countries.
Plants in an ecosystem are able to fight alien species with the help of specific substances they secrete, which are called phytoncides. For example, 1 m2 of air in a pine forest contains only 200-300 bacteria, i.e. 2 times less than in a mixed forest.
Water pollutants. The situation with drinking water in Russia is characterized as critical - it is a direct threat to public health. The impurities that affect the safety of drinking water resources are divided into the following categories.
Inorganic chemicals, which include mercury, cadmium, nitrates, lead and their compounds, as well as chromium and copper compounds. Toxic substances in wastewater are toxic to hydrobionts and often cause their death. For example, arsenic is lethal for planktonic crustaceans, daphnia and cyclops in concentrations of 0.25-2.5 mg/l, and for fish - 10-20 mg/l.
Organic pollutants can be of plant, animal and chemical origin. Vegetables include remains of paper, fruits and vegetables, vegetable oils and other pollutants of animal origin - physiological secretions of people, animals, residues of fat and muscle tissue, adhesive substances, etc. Organic chemical pollutants include oil and petroleum products, pesticides; wastewater; waste from tanning, pulp and paper, and brewing industries.
Bacterial and biological contaminants are various microorganisms, yeast and mold fungi, small algae and bacteria, including the causative agents of typhoid, paratyphoid, dysentery, as well as helminth eggs that come with the secretions of humans and animals. Self-cleaning agents are bacteria, fungi and algae. It was found that during bacterial self-purification, no more than 50% of bacteria remain after 24 hours, and 0.5% after 96 hours. The process of bacterial self-purification slows down greatly in winter.
Radioactive pollutants pose a great threat to the life of water bodies as ecosystems and human health. Their sources are tests of thermonuclear weapons under water, plants for purifying uranium ore and processing nuclear fuel for reactors, nuclear power plants, and radioactive waste sites.
Soil pollutants. The main soil pollutants are:
pesticides, used to control weeds, insects and rodents - pests of agricultural crops;
fertilizers;
oil and petroleum products;
industrial emissions .
The soils around large cities and large enterprises of non-ferrous and ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering, thermal power plants at a distance of several tens of kilometers are contaminated with heavy metals, lead compounds, sulfur and other toxic substances; landfills for household and industrial waste. A particular problem in the urban environment, associated exclusively with the high population, is the elimination household waste
, especially inorganic ones. Disposal of industrial and household waste to landfills leads to pollution and irrational use of land, pollution of the atmosphere, surface and ground waters, increased transportation costs and irretrievable loss of valuable materials and substances.
Self-test questions
In what forms does the influence of biosphere pollution on the human body manifest itself?
What are the sources of biosphere pollution?
What is the direct impact of biosphere pollution on humans?
What diseases are caused by biosphere pollution?
What is the indirect impact of biosphere pollution on humans?
Give examples of the indirect impact of biosphere pollution on humans.
Name the main air pollutants.
What protective measures are used to reduce at-
atmospheric pollution?
Name the main soil pollutants. What types economic activity
lead to soil pollution?
Humanity has existed on planet Earth for more than 2 million years and has had various impacts on nature since ancient times. People began to cut down forests to make way for the construction of settlements, then cities, and to exterminate animals, using their meat for food, and their skins and bones to create clothing and homes. Many representatives of the fauna have disappeared from the face of the planet, becoming victims of people. Consider the influence of people on animals.
Deforestation Human influence on can be both positive and negative. First of all, people have been actively interfering with the life of wildlife since ancient times, destroying forests. Humanity needs wood, which is used in construction and industry. The planet's population is growing every year, so free space is also required where cities will be located. In the place of once dense forests, people create pastures.
Therefore, forests are being cut down. Wild fauna have nowhere to live, so their populations are declining year by year. In addition, forests are the green lungs of the planet, since trees release oxygen into the air through the process of photosynthesis. The fewer there are, the worse the air itself becomes, making the life of some species very difficult. If previously most of the North American continent was covered with dense forests, now cities are proudly located in their place. The tropics, known for their diverse fauna, used to cover more than 10% of the planet's surface, but now cover only 6%. Animals often disappear along with their “home.”
So, the first factor in the negative impact of people on animals is the destruction of forests, which leads to the death of entire species and even ecosystems.
Hunting
Since ancient times, one of the main ways of obtaining food for people has been hunting. Man learned to use spears and harpoons, bows and arrows in order to kill representatives of wild fauna as simply and safely as possible. However, the hunting of primitive people, the main purpose of which was to obtain food, did not turn out to be so destructive for animals; modern man did much worse with them. Meat was no longer valuable in itself, but animals were exterminated in huge quantities for their valuable fur, bones, and tusks. Therefore, many species were completely destroyed:
- An example of horrific cruelty and the most negative influence of humans on animals is Steller's cows. These good-natured, clumsy giants, to their misfortune, had very tasty tender meat and thick skin, which was used for making boats. Therefore, in less than 30 years of acquaintance with civilized people, they completely disappeared from the face of the earth.
- Great auks are inhabitants of North Antarctica. When people got here, they liked the meat and eggs of these birds, and began to stuff their pillows with soft fluff. As a result, the rare bird was destroyed.
- Black rhinoceroses had a very valuable horn, which made them desirable prey for hunters and poachers. Now this species is considered completely destroyed, and the animals themselves are rare and are under protection.
In addition to extinct animals that our descendants will never see again, we can give many examples of fauna whose numbers were sharply reduced by the thoughtless actions of people. These are elephants, tigers, koalas, sea lions, Galapagos tortoises, cheetahs, zebras, hippos. Next, we will consider the direct and indirect influence of humans on animals.
Nature pollution
The industry is actively developing, new factories are constantly opening, which, for all their usefulness, release toxic waste into the air, which turns out to be destructive for wildlife. Air and soil pollution are an example of human influence on animals, and the influence is negative.
For a plant to operate, it needs energy obtained by burning fuel, which includes wood, coal, and oil. When burning, they produce smoke, which contains the most carbon dioxide. It poisons the atmosphere and can even cause a greenhouse effect. Therefore, it is becoming increasingly difficult for representatives of wild fauna to survive in the conditions created by an insatiable civilization. The death of hundreds of animals is caused by acid rain, the consumption of poisoned water from reservoirs where modern enterprises dump their waste.
Ecological disasters
The negative impact of humans on animals can also be caused by a tragic accident. Thus, among the most terrible environmental disasters that led to the death of a large number of fauna representatives are the following:
- In 2010, an industrial tanker sank, nearly destroying Australia's main natural attraction, the Great Barrier Reef. More than 900 tons of oil got into the water then, so the event is rightfully considered one of the worst environmental disasters in terms of consequences. An oil slick with an area of about 3 km formed on the surface of the water, and only the prompt intervention of people saved nature from complete destruction.
- Methyl isocyanate leak in the Indian city of Bhopal in 1984. Then more than 40 tons of toxic fumes entered the atmosphere, which caused the death of thousands of people and animals.
- The explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant forever changed the natural world of Ukraine. The consequences of this monstrous disaster are still felt today.
There are many examples of horrific environmental disasters, all of which have an indirect impact on the world of wildlife and its fauna.
Swamp drainage
Despite the apparent benefit, this process leads to an imbalance in the ecological balance and can cause the death of animals. It entails the death of plants that need high humidity, which cannot but affect the reduction in the number and species of wild animals that used these plants for food. Thus, draining swamps is an example of the negative impact of humanity.
Use of pesticides
Wanting to get a rich harvest, people spray their fields with toxic substances that destroy bacteria and fungi that infect crop plants. However, representatives of the animal world also often become victims, who, having absorbed the chemical, die immediately or become infected.
Research
Science is moving forward with great strides. People have learned to create vaccines against diseases that a couple of centuries ago were considered incurable. But again the animals suffer from this. It is on them that experiments are carried out and new drugs are researched. On the one hand, there is a logic to this, but on the other hand, it’s scary to imagine how many innocent creatures died in agony in laboratories.
Reserves
In an effort to preserve rare and endangered species, people take them under their protection, opening various reserves, sanctuaries, and parks. Here the animals live freely, in their natural habitat, hunting them is prohibited, and their numbers are regulated by experienced researchers. All conditions have been created for the fauna world. That's an example positive influence humans on animals.
Helping natural treasures
The already mentioned Great Barrier Reef in Australia is an example of not only the negative, but also the positive impact of humanity on nature. Thus, a natural attraction is formed by corals - small-sized organisms that live in such vast colonies that they form entire islands. People have been protecting this natural treasure since ancient times, because coral reefs Many amazing sea creatures have found a home: parrot fish, butterfly fish, tiger sharks, dolphins and whales, sea turtles and many crustaceans.
However, the Great Barrier Reef is in danger: the coral polyps that form it are a favorite delicacy of the voracious crown-of-thorns starfish. In a year, one individual is capable of destroying more than 6 square meters. m of coral. Humanity is fighting these pests by artificially reducing their numbers, but this is quite problematic, since the only effective, yet safe for the ecosystem, method is to collect the crown of thorns by hand.
We examined the direct and indirect influence of humans on animals and can conclude that the negative impact is much more pronounced. People destroy entire species and make the lives of others impossible, numerous environmental disasters of the 20th-21st centuries. caused the death of entire ecosystems. Efforts are now being made to conserve and protect rare and endangered species, but so far the results have been disappointing.
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The direct impact is that design artists get a visual representation of what it will actually look like created product. The reverse is a more attentive attitude to the technological palette in order to select from existing opportunities those that are more consistent with the plan, and if this is not possible, purposefully orient the enterprise towards improving technology.
The direct impact is of a regulatory and corrective nature and consists of organizing public works, stimulating the creation of new jobs, developing a system of industrial training and retraining, stimulating or, conversely, restraining the development of production in certain regions, regulating the duration of the working day, week, month, international labor migration, organization seasonal work. Indirect impact on the labor market is to change management in the direction of stimulating or inhibiting the economy.
Only mandatory norms have a direct impact on the contract. Such influence occurs regardless of the will of the parties. Moreover, as has been repeatedly noted, the agreed will of the parties, which diverges from the imperative norm, is flawed, which means that in the event of a conflict between a contractual provision and such a norm, the latter has absolute priority. The dispositive norm is a different matter.
The legal impact also has a direct impact on the object of management, which consists in the application of legal norms regulating communications and relationships in the process of production management. The rules of law are expressed in legislative acts, regulations and other documents emanating from the state.
Direct exposure is the infliction of a temporary irritant effect on the body, causing coughing, odor, headache and similar phenomena that occur when the threshold concentration of the substance increases.
The direct impact of water is observed during storms, in emergency situations, during fire-fighting and anti-radiation self-irrigation of premises. In some cases, marine electronic equipment is intended to operate submerged in water.
The direct effect of SONY is to reduce the blood's ability to carry oxygen. However, there is also a secondary effect. SONNY interferes with the sale of oxygen carried by the rest of the hemoglobin. This further reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen. In some cases, with exposures of 8 hours or more, concentrations of 10 to 15 ppm have resulted in some patients having impaired ability to distinguish between time intervals. There is evidence that exposure of 8 hours or more to a concentration of 30 ppm (35 mg/m3) leads to deterioration in performance on certain psychomotor tests. Exposures at higher concentrations cause psychological stress in patients with heart disease.
The direct effect of carboxyhemoglobin is to reduce the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood, in addition, it interferes with the release of oxygen carried by the rest of the hemoglobin, which further reduces the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood. Carbon monoxide is odorless and tasteless, which makes it especially dangerous.
The direct impact of wind on the joint being welded is unacceptable, since wind increases heat transfer and, as a result, increases the cooling rate of the area adjacent to the seam; therefore, the effect of wind is equivalent to an additional decrease in the ambient temperature during welding. To protect the joint from the direct action of wind, the ends of welded pipes and sections of small and medium diameters must be closed with wooden plugs, and for larger diameters with special plugs.
The government's less direct influence is based on the fact that taxes represent a cost and therefore determine the position of the firm's supply curve (chap. The government can impose a special tax that is approximately equal to the spillover cost per unit of output. With this tax, it attempts to reimpose the offending company external costs or spillover costs that the private firm would otherwise avoid, and thus eliminate over-allocation of resources.
Direct influence of the heating source on the thermocouple is not allowed. The method of preparing the surface of the samples and the size of the gap are established in accordance with the technological process of manufacturing the soldered product.
The direct effect of ultraviolet rays on the yeast in the yeast suspension is carried out in cascade (shelf) type fortifiers. In such vitaminizers, the yeast suspension from the upper distribution box thin layer flows down shelves arranged in a cascade and is exposed to irradiation. To increase the vitamin content, the suspension is passed through the cascade many times.
No direct impact of ultrasound with the parameters used in NDT on the health of flaw detectors was found. The intensity of the radiation used is hundreds of times less than that required by the state standard for equipment that creates ultrasound. It is recommended to design transducers with a housing separated from the piezo emitter by an air gap, which is taken into account by the vast majority of manufacturers. If the design of the converter does not provide for this, you should work with thread gloves.
There was no direct impact of Mongolian law on Russian law.
Yalta – 2015
Introduction
1. Modern ideas about the internal and external environment of the organization. Concept of business environment.
2. Internal environment of the organization.
3. External environment of the organization
Factors direct impact
Factors of indirect impact
4. Methods for analyzing the internal and external environment of an organization
5. Opportunities for improving the external and internal environment
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The most important concept in management is organization. Any organization is located and operates in an environment. Every action of all organizations without exception is possible only if the environment allows its implementation. The internal environment is its source vitality. It contains the potential necessary for the functioning of the organization, but at the same time it can be a source of problems and even its death. The external environment is the source that supplies the organization with resources. The organization is in a state of constant exchange with the external environment, thereby providing itself with the opportunity to survive. Naturally, these points should be the subject of constant attention from the manager. Therefore, the main task of this course work there will be a consideration of elements of the internal and external environment of the organization that are in constant interaction. As well as assessment and analysis of these factors using various methods.
Thus, the purpose of this work is to study the internal and external environment of the organization for more effective management decisions necessary for the successful operation of the enterprise (organization).
1. Modern ideas about the internal and external environment of the organization.
Concept of business environment
In management, the business environment is understood as the presence of conditions and factors that affect the functioning of the company and require management decisions aimed at eliminating them or adapting to them. The environment of any organization is usually considered to consist of two spheres: internal and external. The external environment, in turn, is divided into the microenvironment (or the working environment, or the immediate environment, or the environment of indirect influence) and the macroenvironment (or the general environment, or the immediate business environment, or the environment of direct influence).
The internal environment is understood as the economic organism of the company, including a management mechanism aimed at optimizing the scientific, technical and production and marketing activities of the company. When we talk about the internal environment of a company, we mean the global structure of the company, covering all manufacturing enterprises firms, financial, insurance, transport and other divisions included in the company, regardless of their location and field of activity.
The external environment is understood as all conditions and factors that arise in the environment, regardless of the activities of a particular company, but which have or may have an impact on its functioning and therefore require management decisions.
However, the set of these factors and the assessment of their impact on economic activity are different for each company. The conclusions of ongoing research or current events are accompanied by the development of specific tools and methods for making appropriate management decisions.
All enterprises operate in a specific environment, which determines their actions, and their long-term survival depends on the ability to adapt to the expectations and requirements of the environment. Distinguish between the internal and external environment of the organization. The internal environment includes the main elements and subsystems within the organization that ensure the implementation of the processes occurring in it. The external environment is a set of factors, subjects and conditions that are outside the organization and can influence its behavior.
Elements of the external environment are divided into two groups: factors of direct and indirect impact on the organization. The environment of direct influence (business environment, microenvironment) includes elements that directly influence the economic process and are similarly influenced by the functioning of the organization. This environment is specific to each individual organization and, as a rule, is controlled by it.
The environment of indirect influence (macroenvironment) includes elements that influence processes occurring in the organization not directly, but indirectly, indirectly. This environment is generally not specific to an individual organization and, as a rule, is beyond its control.
2. Internal environment of the organization
The manager forms and changes, when necessary, the internal environment of the organization, which is an organic combination of its internal variables. But for this he must be able to identify and know them.
Internal variables are situational factors within an organization.
The main variables in the organization itself that require management attention are goals, structure, objectives, technology and people.
Goals are specific end states or desired results that a group strives to achieve by working together.
The main goal of most organizations is to make a profit. There are three main types of organizational profit orientation:
Its maximization;
Getting a “satisfactory” profit, i.e. the essence is that when planning profit, it is considered “satisfactory” if the degree of risk is taken into account;
Minimizing profits. This option means maximizing the minimum expected gains while minimizing the maximum losses.
But not all organizations have profit making as their main goal. This applies to non-profit organizations, such as churches, charities. Non-profit organizations have diverse goals, but are likely to have a greater focus on social responsibility. The orientation determined by goals permeates all subsequent management decisions.
The structure of an organization is a logical relationship between management levels and functional areas, built in a form that allows the organization's goals to be most effectively achieved.
The core concept of the structure is the specialized division of labor. Characteristic feature is a specialized division of labor - assigning this work to specialists, i.e. those who are able to carry it out best from the point of view of the organization as a whole. An example is the division of labor between experts in marketing, finance and production.
A task is a prescribed job, series of jobs, or piece of work that must be completed in a predetermined manner within a predetermined time frame. From a technical point of view, tasks are not assigned to the employee, but to his position. Based on management's decision about the structure, each position includes a number of tasks that are viewed as essential contributions to achieving the organization's goals.
Organizational objectives are traditionally divided into three categories. This is working with people, objects, information.
Changes in the nature and content of tasks are closely related to the evolution of specialization. As Adam Smith showed in his famous example of the production of pins, a specialist can significantly increase labor productivity. In our century, technological innovation and the systematic combination of technology and labor specialization have made task specialization deep and complex to a degree undreamed of by Smith.
Technology as a factor in the internal environment is much more important than many people think. Most people view technology as something related to inventions and machines, such as semiconductors and computers. However, sociologist Charles Perrow, who has written extensively about the impact of technology on organizations and society, describes technology as a means of transforming raw materials—whether people, information, or physical materials—into desired products and services.
Technology implies standardization and mechanization. That is, the use of standard parts can significantly facilitate the production and repair process. Nowadays, there are very few products whose production process is not standardized.
People are the backbone of any organization. People in an organization create its product, they form the culture of the organization, its internal climate, and what the organization is depends on them.
Due to this situation, people are the “number one thing” for a manager. The manager forms personnel, establishes a system of relations between them, includes them in the creative process of teamwork, promotes their development, training and advancement at work.
Inner life An organization consists of a large number of different activities, sub-processes and processes. Despite the huge variety of activities and processes, five groups of functional processes can be distinguished. These functional groups of processes are the following: production, marketing, finance, human resources, accounting (accounting and analysis of business activities).
In the field of production management, management carries out the following operations: management of product development and design; selection of a technological process, placement of personnel and equipment in the process in order to optimize costs; management of the purchase of raw materials, materials and semi-finished products; inventory management in warehouses; quality control.
Marketing management is designed to link the satisfaction of the needs of the organization's clients and the achievement of the organization's goals into a single consistent process. To achieve this, processes and activities such as: market research are managed; advertising; pricing; creation of sales systems; distribution of created products; sales
Financial management consists in the fact that management manages the process of movement of financial resources in the organization. To do this, the following is carried out: drawing up a budget and financial plan; formation of monetary resources; distribution of money between various parties that determine the life of the organization; assessment of the organization's financial potential.
Personnel management is associated with the provision of production and other areas with human resources (hiring, training and retraining).
Accounting management involves managing the process of processing and analyzing financial information about the operation of an organization in order to compare the actual activities of the organization with its capabilities, as well as with the activities of other organizations.
The main internal variables were discussed above. But it should be remembered that in management these variables should never be considered separately. No one will deny that the objectives of the organization influence the development of goals. In the same way, all other internal variables are interconnected and influence each other.
The internal environment of an organization can be considered from a static point of view, highlighting the composition of its elements and structure, and from the point of view of dynamics, i.e., the processes occurring in it. Elements of the internal environment include goals, objectives, people, technology, information, structure, organizational culture and other components.
People occupy a special place in the internal environment of an organization. The results of the organization ultimately depend on their abilities, education, qualifications, experience, motivation and dedication. The realization that an organization is, first of all, the people working in it, that they are the main resource of the organization, changes the attitude towards the staff. Managers pay great attention to selecting people, introducing them into the organization, training and developing employees, and ensuring a high quality of working life.
People working in an organization, their relationships and interactions form the social subsystem of the organization. The production and technical subsystem includes a complex of machines, equipment, raw materials, materials, tools, energy, which processes incoming resources into the finished product. The main characteristics of this subsystem are: the technologies used, labor productivity, production costs, product quality, and inventory volume. The financial subsystem carries out the movement and use Money In the organisation. In particular, maintaining liquidity and ensuring profitability, creating investment opportunities. The marketing subsystem is associated with meeting customer needs for enterprise products by studying the market, creating a sales system, organizing optimal pricing and effective advertising, as well as active influence on the market in order to create new needs to increase market share and increase profitability of sales.
3. External environment of the organization
Like internal environmental factors, external environmental factors are interrelated. The interconnectedness of environmental factors refers to the level of force with which a change in one factor affects other factors. Just as a change in any internal variable can affect others, a change in one environmental factor can cause changes in others.
The external environment is not constant; changes occur in it all the time. Many researchers have pointed out that the environment of modern organizations is changing at an increasing speed. Given the complexity of operating in a highly fluid environment, an organization or its units must rely on a greater variety of information to make effective decisions regarding its internal variables. This makes decision making more difficult.
The direct impact environment is also called the immediate business environment of the organization. This environment forms such environmental subjects that directly influence the activities of a particular organization.
From point of view systematic approach organization is a mechanism for transforming inputs into outputs. The main types of inputs are materials, equipment, energy, capital and labor. Suppliers provide the input of these resources. Obtaining resources from other countries may be more advantageous in terms of prices, quality or quantity, but at the same time dangerously increase environmental factors such as exchange rate fluctuations or political instability.
All suppliers can be divided into several groups - suppliers of materials, capital, labor resources.
Laws and government bodies. Many laws and government agencies affect organizations. Each organization has a specific legal status Whether it is a sole proprietorship, a company, a corporation, or a non-profit corporation, is what determines how an organization can conduct its business and what taxes it must pay.
As is known, the state in a market economy influences organizations both indirectly, primarily through the tax system, state property and budget, and directly - through legislative acts.
Consumers. The famous management specialist Peter F. Drucker, speaking about the purpose of the organization, singled out, in his opinion, the only true purpose of business - creating a consumer. By this we mean the following: the very survival and justification of the existence of an organization depends on its ability to find a consumer of the results of its activities and satisfy their needs.
They become important in modern conditions and various associations and associations of consumers that influence not only demand, but also the image of companies. It is necessary to take into account factors influencing consumer behavior and their demand.
Competitors. The influence of such a factor as competition on the organization cannot be disputed. The management of each enterprise clearly understands that if it does not satisfy the needs of consumers as effectively as competitors do, the enterprise will not stay afloat for long. In many cases, it is competitors, not consumers, who determine what kind of output can be sold and what price can be charged.
Indirect environmental factors or the general external environment usually do not affect the organization as noticeably as direct environmental factors. However, management needs to take them into account.
The indirect impact environment is usually more complex than the direct impact environment. Therefore, when studying it, they usually rely primarily on forecasts. The main environmental factors of indirect impact include technological, economic, sociocultural and political factors, as well as relationships with local communities.
Technology is both an internal variable and an external factor of great importance. As an external factor, it reflects the level of scientific and technological development that affects the organization, for example, in the areas of automation, information, etc.
Management must also be able to assess how the organization's operations will be affected. general changes state of the economy. The state of the global economy affects the cost of all inputs and the ability of consumers to buy certain goods and services, and the ability of an organization to obtain capital for its needs.
Every organization operates in at least one cultural environment. Therefore, sociocultural factors, among which attitudes predominate, life values and traditions influence the organization.
Socio-cultural factors influence the formation of population demand for labor Relations, level wages and on working conditions. These factors also include the demographic state of society.
Certain aspects of the political environment are of particular importance to organizational leaders. One of them is the sentiment of the administration, legislative bodies and courts towards business. Political stability is of great importance for companies with operations or markets in other countries.
For almost all organizations, the prevailing attitude of the local community in which this or that organization operates is of paramount importance as an environmental factor of indirect influence. Almost every community has specific laws and regulations regarding business that determine where a particular enterprise can operate.
While the environmental factors described above affect all organizations to some extent, the environment of organizations operating in international level, is characterized by increased complexity. The latter is due to a unique set of factors characterizing each country. Economy, culture, quantity and quality of labor and material resources, laws, government institutions, political stability, and level of technological development vary from country to country. When carrying out the functions of planning, organizing, stimulating and controlling, managers must take such differences into account.
When an organization begins to conduct business outside the domestic market, the corresponding procedures are subject to modification to suit certain specific environmental factors. As a group of researchers points out: “The firm must determine in what respects the new environment differs from the more familiar one at home, and decide how to change management theory and practice in the new environment.” However, analyzing the factors of the international environment is a difficult and urgent task.
3.1 Direct impact factors
The direct impact environment includes factors that directly affect the organization's activities.
The following environmental factors of direct influence are distinguished:
consumers, suppliers, intermediaries, authorities, laws, trade unions, competitors.
In relation to the organization under study, the most important of them are the following: consumers, suppliers, authorities and the laws they issue, competitors.
Let's take a closer look at each of the listed factors.
Suppliers and consumers are the most significant elements of the external environment for a company. As mentioned above, the role of consumers is played by the company’s clients, because they use the services of this enterprise. Suppliers also play an important role, because... at what prices fuel and track superstructure will be purchased, such will be the transportation tariffs.
These two factors are placed in first place in terms of importance for the organization due to the fact that in activities in this area, because The lower the transportation rates, the more customers there will be. Naturally, the more clients a company has, the more opportunities it has for development, the more globally its activities can be deployed and, accordingly, the greater the amount of profit received.
Among the most significant factors of the external environment of direct impact, one can also note the authorities and the laws they issue. They can both stimulate and restrict the activities of this type of organization (by direct or indirect methods), because monopolist company.
The main factors in the direct impact environment are resource suppliers; consumers of products and services; competitors; government bodies and regulations that directly affect the activities of the organization.
Analysis of the direct impact environment involves consideration of individual factors and their interactions.
Suppliers ensure that the organization's needs for various resources are met. Main types of resources: material, labor, financial, information.
Providing material resources includes the supply of raw materials and semi-finished products, components and assemblies, equipment, energy in accordance with the volumes and structure of needs within a specified time frame, subject to other conditions being met.
Providing financial resources includes justification of the volume and structure of the necessary resources, relationships with investors, financial and commercial structures, the budget, and individuals.
For modern organization The importance of providing management with quality information is increasing. This could be information about sales markets, competitors' plans, government policy priorities, new product developments, etc.
A special place is occupied by providing the organization with labor resources that correspond to it in quantity, structure, level of general and professional training, and age. The most significant here is the attraction of highly qualified senior managers, as well as the training of capable managers, including within the organization.
Consumers purchase produced goods or services. Depending on the volume of demand, small and large consumers are distinguished. Taking into account the requests of the latter is a necessary condition for the successful operation of the organization. Depending on the attitude towards consumers, we can talk about different strategies of the organization: sell already produced products; produce products that the consumer needs; form your consumer, convincing him of the need to purchase the products that will be produced.
State and municipal bodies also directly influence the organization, and therefore belong to the environment of direct influence. These are tax and sanitary inspections, statistical authorities, etc.
As a result of the organization's interaction with suppliers and consumers, a system of economic relations is formed - one of the most important characteristics of the environment of direct influence.
Another characteristic is the state of the market environment. Here, first of all, the nature of the environment is determined - monopoly (pure, natural), oligopoly or monopolistic competition.
Competitors may compete for various objects. Traditionally - for product sales markets. Currently, it is also a struggle with manufacturers of substitute products for consumer money.
Resources can also be objects of competition: labor, material and financial, scientific and technical developments, etc.
Government influence is exercised through legislation and the activities of government bodies. Labor relations between employees and employers, tax and customs relations, labor protection, production conditions for certain types of products, consumer protection, environmental load on the environment, etc. are regulated by law.
State bodies, according to the nature of the functions they perform, can be divided into supervisory and regulating ones. In this case, they are used various ways and methods of influencing organizations - issuing licenses, setting tax rates and quotas, regulating prices and tariffs, determining construction sites, etc.
3.2 Indirect impact factors
The indirect impact environment consists of factors that do not have a direct and immediate impact on the organization's activities.
Environmental factors of indirect influence have a more complex structure and multifaceted nature. They are influenced by the organization to a lesser extent than direct environmental factors. Information about the indirect impact environment is often incomplete. As the impact of this environment on the competitiveness of an organization increases, it is necessary to rely on subjective assessments rather than on analytical data.
Technology as an environmental factor of indirect influence characterizes the general level of productive forces. This is the most dynamic factor in this environment. The level and pace of technology change varies significantly across industries. However, the most knowledge-intensive industries and productions are Computer techologies, telecommunications systems, manufacturing synthetic materials- have a significant and increasing impact on other organizations and the effectiveness of their activities. The labor-intensive and capital-intensive stages of production development have been replaced by high-tech technologies that allow saving traditional resources.
Inflation rates, unemployment, tax rates and bank loans, forms and extent of government support for business, etc. directly affect the organization’s relationships with suppliers and consumers, and the behavior of competitors. For example, the establishment of tax benefits contributes to the influx of capital, and therefore facilitates the satisfaction of the need for financial resources. The forecast of rising inflation encourages increasing inventories and obtaining loans. The increasing demand for material and financial resources also makes their acquisition more difficult.
The state of the economy as an environmental factor of indirect influence includes a number of characteristics.
Firstly, these are the most General characteristics economic system - population size, availability and use of resources, type of government, monetary system, currency position, sectoral structure of the economy, parameters of the domestic market, volume, structure and geography of exports and imports, etc.
Secondly, this is an analysis of the general conditions for the development of entrepreneurship: characteristics of economic stability, the presence of market and technical infrastructure, the legislative framework, investment climate, conditions for the formation of new market entities, forms and scope of government regulation of the economy.
Thirdly, this is a specific state, stage of economic development, including an assessment of the economic situation, the level and rate of inflation, and the phase of the economic cycle.
Sociocultural factors are manifested in social values and attitudes, priorities, national traditions that influence the activities of the organization. Every country has ideas about ethical business practices, required service quality standards, and acceptable levels of environmental impact. Typical examples of such factors that must be taken into account by the organization are the Japanese tradition of lifetime employment, the green movement and the demand for natural fur products; perceptions that women are risk averse and their promotion to senior management positions.
Some social attitudes change with age. Relatively young workers strive for independence at work and willingly accept responsibility. At an older age, the desire to maintain one’s status, the desire for social security, etc. come to the fore. This influence of environmental factors must be taken into account in motivation systems.
Political factors determine the general political situation in the country, its level of stability and predictability. A high level of political risk leads to a slowdown in scientific and technical renewal of production, obsolescence of the structure, and a decrease in the competitiveness of national enterprises in the competition.
However, even in a relatively stable situation, clashes occur between various economic entities and political forces and lobbying groups representing their interests. In the transitional economy of Russia, this is a clash of three complexes - military-industrial, fuel and energy and agricultural. Currently, the struggle is in the area of privatization of former state property, as well as for the distribution budget funds. It is clear that the solution to these problems, on the one hand, is determined by political factors, and on the other, influences them.
The policies of local authorities have a significant impact on employment in the region and the location of enterprises, their impact on the environment, production and use natural resources, creation of production, technical and social infrastructure.
For example, the number of development sites is always limited. Currently, local authorities are more interested in allocating them for the construction of production facilities rather than housing. The reason for this is that employees pay income tax at their place of work.
Indirect environmental factors vary significantly across countries. This must be taken into account by organizations involved in international business.
It is clear that the degree of influence of environmental factors of indirect influence on the organization's implementation of various types of international business will differ significantly. This influence will be most significant when creating joint ventures, less when making capital investments, especially portfolio investments, and even less when issuing licenses.
The influence of specific environmental factors of indirect influence will also be different. A general prerequisite for effective international business is the political situation in the country where the organization operates. International business is significantly influenced by the state of the economy and the development of technology. In some cases, for example, when exporting certain consumer goods, sociocultural factors can play a decisive role. When locating new production facilities, it is necessary to seek support from local authorities.
4 Methods for analyzing the internal and external environment of an organization
Analysis of the external environment is an assessment of the state and prospects for the development of the most important, from the point of view of the organization, subjects and environmental factors: industry, markets, suppliers and a set of global environmental factors that the organization cannot directly influence.
Exists a large number of methods for analyzing the internal and external environment of an organization, consider some of them:
SWOT analysis is the determination of the strengths and weaknesses of an enterprise, as well as the opportunities and threats emanating from its immediate environment (external environment).
§ Strengths - advantages of the organization;
§ Weaknesses - shortcomings of the organization;
§ Opportunities - advantages of the organization in the market;
§ Threats.
In contrast to the analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of SNW, the analysis also offers an average market condition (N). The main reason for adding a neutral party is that “often, in order to win the competition, it may be sufficient for a given organization to be in state N relative to all its competitors in all but one key position, and only one in state S.”
PEST analysis is a tool designed to identify political (Policy), economic (Economy), social (Society) and technological (Technology) aspects of the external environment that may affect the company's strategy. Policy is studied and regulates power, which in turn determines the company's environment and obtaining key resources for its activities. The main reason for studying economics is to create a picture of the distribution of resources at the state level, which is the most important condition for the activity of an enterprise. No less important consumer preferences are determined using the social component of PEST – Analysis. The last factor is the technological component. The purpose of her research is considered to be to identify trends in technological development, which are often the causes of changes and losses in the market, as well as the emergence of new products.
It is convenient to use an environmental profile to compile a profile of the macroenvironment, the immediate environment and the internal environment separately. Individual environmental factors are recorded in the environmental profile table. Each factor is given an expert assessment.
The impact of pollutants on animals can be both direct and indirect. The direct effect of harmful substances from the atmosphere on animals is insignificant, since the amount of pollutants absorbed is relatively small. The secondary, indirect impact is much more serious, since animals receive contaminants in their feed.[...]
Impact - the direct impact of human economic activity on the environment natural environment. The following types of impact are distinguished: intentional and unintentional, direct and indirect (mediated). The first type of human economic activity includes mining, construction of hydraulic structures, deforestation (for arable land and pastures, for timber production), etc. Unintentional impacts arise as a side effect with the first type of impact, in particular, open-pit mining of minerals leads to a decrease in groundwater level, air pollution, the formation of man-made landforms (quarries, waste heaps, tailings), etc. In turn, the above impacts can be both direct and indirect. Direct impacts (irrigation) directly affect the environment - they change the composition and structure of soils, lead to secondary salinization, etc. Indirect impacts occur indirectly, i.e. through chains of interrelated influences.[...]
Indirect impact earth's crust to other structural parts geographic envelope manifests itself through the relief of the earth's surface. Relief affects wind speed and direction, temperature and humidity of surface layers of air. Underwater ridges, changing the direction of deep currents, affect the circulation of ocean waters as a whole and complicate water exchange between the seas and oceans. The morphology of the earth's crust regulates the degree of development and productivity of the terrestrial and underwater biostrome with the significant difference that at extreme altitudes the biostrome degrades in the former (nival landscapes), while in the latter its structure becomes more complex and productivity increases.[...]
The impact of airborne blast on a person can be indirect or direct. In case of indirect damage by air blasts, destroying buildings, dragging them into motion great amount solid particles, glass fragments and other objects weighing up to 1.5 g at speeds up to 35 m/s. Thus, with an excess pressure of about 60 kPa, the density of such dangerous particles reaches 4500 pieces/m2. The largest number of victims are victims of indirect exposure to air blasts. [...]
The indirect impact of photooxidants on vegetation is associated mainly with their influence on the formation of acidity in atmospheric precipitation and on chemical and biological processes in soils under the influence of strong acids (see Chapter 6).[...]
Human impact on the animal world. Z.KOS VOZDSIS 1 kitty can whine directly and indirectly. Indirect impact occurs due to changes in habitat (draining of swamps, plowing of steppes, construction of dams, cities, roads, etc.). The negative impact of humans on animals is increasing.[...]
The indirect effect of heat stress on aquatic organisms leads to an increase in their susceptibility to disease, changes in the solubility of gases and an increase in the rate of reaction of toxic and other chemicals in water, favoring the replacement of normal algal flora with less desirable green and algae and .[...]
Indirect impacts occur indirectly - through chains of interconnected influences. Thus, intentional indirect impacts are the use of fertilizers and the direct impact on crop yields, and unintentional ones are the effect of aerosols on the amount of solar radiation (especially in cities), etc.[...]
Indirect impact is a change in living conditions as a result of anthropogenic pollution of air, water, and the use of pesticides and mineral fertilizers. The penetration of alien plant species (introduced species) into plant communities is also of certain importance. [...]
Of the indirect human impacts on biotic communities, for example, their pollution by industrial emissions is important. [...]
The indirect effect of aerosol on clouds also refers to the effect associated with the influence of an increase in the number of condensation nuclei in industrial and polluted regions on the microphysics and optical properties of clouds. Quantitative estimates of the influence of this effect on the radiative properties of clouds can be obtained if the optical parameters (volume extinction coefficient, single scattering albedo and scattering indicatrix) of particles consisting of a mixture of substances with different refractive indices are known.[...]
By indirect impact we mean such changes in the environment that, without having a harmful effect on the human body, worsen normal living conditions, for example, increase the number of foggy days, affect green spaces, etc. [...]
The direct impact on the environment, for example, during clearing and leveling of the route, will be the disruption of micro- and macrorelief, and the indirect impact will be a reduction in pasture areas. The consequences of direct and indirect impacts will be primary and secondary, respectively.[...]
The indirect impact environment refers to factors that cannot have a direct immediate impact on operations, but nevertheless affect them. We are talking about such factors as the state of the economy, scientific and technological progress, sociocultural and political changes, general education and professional level labor resources, environmental literacy of the population, the influence of group interests and events significant for the organization in other countries.[...]
Anthropogenic impact can be direct - the extermination, reproduction and settlement by humans of both individual species of animals and plants, and entire biocenoses. Indirect impact is carried out by changing the habitat of organisms: climate, river regime, plowing of land (development of virgin lands), etc.[...]
One of the types of indirect impact of transport facilities on public health and wildlife is transport pollution of the environment.[...]
It is noted that indirect exposure leads to a decrease in the required dose £>0 when the radiation level decreases to that of the environment. With direct exposure, the opposite trend is observed: O0 increases as the level of absorbed radiation decreases, provided that at low radiation levels the dominant mechanism is the direct effect on genes. This leads to a large difference between the expected and observed effect.[...]
The following classification of impact partially coincides with the classification of the impact of pollution sources on various environments. This is a classification based on the direct and indirect consequences of a particular impact. In the case of direct exposure, the source of exposure, e.g. industrial enterprise, has a direct effect on the environment, which is both transit (i.e. directly perceiving certain types of pollution, in which transportation and partial transformation, as well as dispersion of pollutants occur) and depositing (i.e. accumulating and/or transforming pollutants). In the case of indirect exposure, a complex analysis of the transfer of the pollutant to one or more depositing media is required, as well as from the point of view of identifying the pollution as belonging to a specific enterprise. [...]
ANTHROPOGENIC LOAD - the degree of direct and indirect impact of people and their economy on nature as a whole or on its individual ecological components and elements of landscapes, natural resources, species of living things, etc.).[...]
Atmospheric aerosol has both direct and indirect effects on climate. Aerosol particles scatter and absorb solar and thermal radiation and, therefore, have a direct impact on the radiation regime of the atmosphere. [...]
ANTHROPOGENIC DESERT - a desert that arose as a result of the direct or indirect impact of humanity on nature. Area of P. a. is constantly growing and currently reaches 10 million km2 (6.7% of the land surface). There is an opinion that all the deserts of the world are of anthropogenic origin.[...]
An environmental factor is any element of the environment that can have a direct or indirect impact on a living organism at at least one of the stages of its individual development, or any environmental condition to which the organism responds with adaptive reactions. When the regimes of environmental factors change, or certain components of the natural environment deviate from some norm required by the body, disturbances in vital activity are possible, up to the point of incompatibility of these deviations with life. When living conditions change, the body goes through a series of successive states - from comfortable to pathological (Fig. 7).[...]
An ecological factor is any element of the environment that can have a direct or indirect impact on a living organism at at least one of the stages of its individual development, or any environmental condition to which the organism responds with adaptive reactions. [...]
ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS are components and phenomena of inanimate, inorganic nature that directly or indirectly affect living organisms. Among them, the dominant role is played by climate ( solar radiation, light mode, temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, pressure, etc.); then there are edaphic (soil), important for animals living in the soil; and, finally, hydrographic, or factors of the aquatic environment. Solar radiation is the main source of energy that determines the heat balance and thermal regime of the biosphere. Thus, the total solar radiation arriving at the earth's surface in the direction from the equator to the poles decreases by approximately 2.5 times (from 180-220 to 60-80 kcal/cm2 year). Based on the radiation regime and the nature of atmospheric circulation, they are distinguished on the Earth's surface climatic zones. However, solar radiation, in turn, serves as the most important environmental factor influencing the physiology and morphology of living organisms. The existence on the surface of our planet of large zonal types of vegetation (tundra, taiga, steppes, deserts, savannas, tropical rainforests, etc.) is mainly due to climatic reasons; and they are closely related to climatic zonation.[...]
For example, the most polluting sector of the environment - mining and metallurgy - has a direct and indirect impact on the biosphere. Direct influence consists of using a significant area of land for the construction of quarries and underground mines, the construction of processing plants and metallurgical plants, as well as for overburden dumps, tailings dumps, slag dumps, etc. At the same time, significant agricultural lands are torn away and destroyed. Indirect influence spreads over significantly longer distances and manifests itself in deposition of gases, dust and chemicals, surface deformation, damage to vegetation, a decrease in the productivity of agricultural land, livestock and fisheries, changes chemical composition and dynamics of movement of surface and groundwater. All this has an impact not only on the natural system, but also on the social and hygienic situation associated with the life of human society in accordance with B. Commoner’s four laws.[...]
ECOLOGICAL DISASTER -!. A natural anomaly (prolonged drought, mass death of livestock, etc.), often arising on the basis of the direct or indirect impact of human economy on natural processes, leading to adverse economic consequences or even the death of the population of a certain region. 2. Accident technical device(nuclear power station, tanker, etc.), which led to acutely unfavorable changes in the natural environment and, as a rule, to the mass death of living organisms.[...]
DAMAGE FROM ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION - actual and possible losses of the national economy associated with environmental pollution, including direct and indirect impacts, as well as additional costs for eliminating the negative consequences of pollution, as well as losses associated with deterioration in public health, reduction in activity working period and people's lives. The release of contaminants contributes to equipment corrosion and building structures, brings losses to related areas of economic activity. Energy production is a major contributor to the global anthropogenic impact on the environment. In most cases, its impact is characterized as a change in the natural level of flows of chemical substances (methane, lead, cadmium, mercury, etc.) in the natural environment.[...]
In this case, indicators can be expressed in various types. For example, when assessing the characteristics of physical processes and operations, including their direct and indirect environmental impacts, such as energy consumption or consumption of raw materials, quantitative indicators should be used; depending on the method of processing information and its further use, the quantitative values of indicators can be absolute (for example, when determining the volume of emissions into the atmosphere) or specific (energy intensity); Financial indicators can be used to estimate savings and costs; can be used qualitative indicators in the absence of the possibility of using quantitative ones.[...]
In place of cleared forests, the process of renewal of taiga ecosystems takes 100 years or more. In the northern taiga regions, at the site of those killed by industrial pollution(mainly S02) forests form a “lunar landscape”. For example, in the vicinity of Monchegorsk there is no vegetation within a radius of 15 km and the soil cover is completely burned. The level of cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases in the population in such areas is significantly higher compared to others where such production is absent. Since the Kostomuksha region is the youngest industrial region in the north of Fennoscandia, there are no negative consequences yet external manifestations. However, data from remote space sensing of the state of forests show that in 1992, pollution from the plant’s chimney spread 25 - 30 km in the northeast direction, and in the southwest it reached the territory of the city (Litinsky, 1997).[... ]
An environmental audit is an independent study of all areas of an enterprise’s economic activity, carried out to determine the extent of its direct and indirect impact on the state of the environment. Its tasks are to bring environmental activities in accordance with the requirements of legislation and regulations, optimizing the use of natural resources, reducing energy consumption, reducing waste, preventing emergency discharges and man-made disasters.[...]
In the content of ecological relations, two structural elements are distinguished - socio-ecological relations that develop between people in their artificial environment and indirectly affect the natural environment of people and real-practical relations, which include, firstly, human relations directly to the natural environment habitat, secondly, relations in the material and production spheres of human life associated with the process of appropriation by man natural forces, energy and matter and thirdly, man’s relationship to the natural conditions of his existence as a social being.[...]
Anthropogenic (technogenic) relief is a set of forms of the earth's surface modified or created by human activity. Almost the same as technogenic relief, but includes indirect impacts through erosion processes (ravines, shifting sands, etc.). Significant impacts on the relief of the earth's surface are exerted by: mining (especially open-pit mining), construction of canals, pipelines, reservoirs, etc. As a result, man-made relief forms appear on the earth's surface: quarries, shafts, excavations, mounds, pits, embankments, waste heaps and etc.[...]
The importance of taking into account edaphoclimatic environmental conditions when comparing vegetation of different climatic zones becomes even more obvious. Thus, in the forest zone one of the leading factors of indirect impact industrial emissions vegetation is affected by soil acidification [Zaikov, Maslov, 1991; Horvath, 1990], while in the study area this is practically not manifested, since chernozems have a high acid-neutralizing ability. [...]
The main independent factors in soil evolution are climate change and human activity. Climate change is the most important factor in the evolution of soils and the geographical environment. Changes in biota - also important factor, but mainly subject to climate influences. Human activities are characterized by a wide variety of direct and indirect impacts on soils and their anthropogenic changes. Indirect impacts (natural processes provoked by humans) are carried out through the transformation of biota, processes of sedimentation, and erosion. Among the direct impacts, the most common are arable ones, and the most intense impacts are on roadside and urban soils (Alexandrovskaya, 1985, 1996; Aleksandrovskaya et al., 2000, 2001, 2002; Aleksandrovsky et al., 1997a; Alexandrovskaya et al, 2000, 2001, 2002 ).[...]
TECHNOSPHERE: 1) part of the biosphere, radically transformed by man into technical and man-made objects (buildings, roads, mechanisms, etc., into the anthropogenic environment); 2) part of the biosphere (according to some ideas, over time the entire biosphere), transformed by people through direct and indirect influence technical means in order to best meet the socio-economic needs of humanity.[...]
The mechanisms for maintaining the spatial distribution of individuals in a population can be very diverse. In lower organisms, influence on each other is widespread with the help of chemicals (phytoncides in onions and garlic, etc.) secreted by the body (allelopathy), as well as indirect influence (for example, shading of individuals of their own species by faster growing trees). In highly organized animals, the regulation of the spatial structure of populations is carried out due to higher nervous activity, regulating behavior, reproduction and other life processes of the body.[...]
Our country has a generally recognized priority in developing the world's first standard for atmospheric air purity. Soviet hygienic science determines the level of maximum permissible concentration of a substance based on its complete harmlessness and the absence of direct or indirect effects on the body. In other words, this is a scientifically based hygienic standard. Currently, such standards have been approved for 150 substances that are most often found in the atmospheric air of populated areas. To detect early reactions of the body, subtle physiological, biochemical, clinical and other methods are used, including the study of electrical currents in the brain. Hygienic standards allow sanitary authorities to assess the degree of air pollution in any area and require the use of effective measures to reduce harmful emissions. Hygienic standards underlie all practical activities of sanitary authorities and are the initial data when designing industrial and civil engineering.[ ...]
Our experiments have shown that when protococcal algae are exposed to CuCl2 and copper complexes at a concentration of 0.5-5.0 mg Cu!l, after 3-4 hours the cells lose about 75% of potassium, thereby changing the K/Na ratio in the medium . The accumulation of potassium in the nutrient solution has been shown to have an indirect effect on the viability of algal cells (Tatus, 1964).[...]
An ecological disaster is an irreversible phenomenon in nature, representing one of the states of nature, manifested in a natural anomaly (Greek anomalía - deviation from the norm, from the general pattern). Examples of natural anomalies are prolonged drought, mass death of livestock, which often arise due to direct or indirect impacts human activity to natural processes leading to acutely unfavorable economic consequences or mass death of the population of a certain region.[...]
The proposed criteria, characteristics and assessments of classes of the state of the hazardous environment according to the characteristics of the manifestation of technogenic factors are not strictly mandatory and can be considered as advisory, requiring further development and clarification. In particular, for some components of the OS, a more detailed classification of the PS state can be proposed, the indirect impact on the biota of certain types of technogenesis can be taken into account, and the role of biotic criteria can be strengthened, allowing negative processes to be identified at an early stage.[...]
NOISE POLLUTION - noise perceived by humans as a nuisance, one of the options for physical pollution of the environment. ECLECTIC (gr. eklego - I choose) - a mixture of different artistic styles, compositional techniques and forms without taking into account the nature of the local landscape, the internal logic of constructing the ensemble. ECOLOGICAL FACTORS - components of the environment that directly or indirectly affect living organisms.[...]
At the same time, the damage caused to nature as a result of natural forces and anthropogenic activities is compared. It is noted that the consequences of human activity are often inferior in scale to natural impacts, but significantly exceed them in the speed of manifestation. A line is drawn between the direct effects of pollution (for example, the effect of toxins on the body, the occurrence of mutations and genetic changes) and the indirect effects (for example, climate change), when the resulting effect (in particular, a decrease in soil fertility) may appear much later. The author many times emphasizes the need for an integrated approach to discussing any case of violent invasion of an ecosystem and eliminating its consequences.[...]
When considering the nature of mantle convection, one should emphasize the leading role in its occurrence of the process of chemical-density differentiation of the earth's matter. However, we should not forget about the contribution of the thermal component of convection. This contribution is determined both by the direct heating of the mantle matter and the decay of radioactive elements scattered in it, and by the indirect effect of additional heating of the matter due to the dissipation of the energy of viscous flows in the mantle, as well as the influence of cold oceanic lithospheric plates plunging into the mantle. Judging by energy estimates, the contribution of radiogenic heat to the convective mass turnover of mantle matter does not exceed 10%. The dissipative component of the thermal energy of convection and its part determined by the cooling of the oceanic lithosphere is drawn from the gravitational energy of the very process of differentiation of earthly matter. Therefore, when determining the nature of the tectonic (or more precisely tectonic-magmatic) activity of the Earth, it should be associated not just with gravitational, but precisely with gravitational-thermal convection. In the future, as a synonym for this concept, we will widely use the term “chemical-density convection,” meaning by it that density inhomogeneities in the mantle arise not only due to changes in the chemical composition, but also due to its temperature inhomogeneities.[...]
The main feature of environmental legislation at the present stage is the increase in its active role in regulating economic relations, in introducing environmental rules into regulations governing planning, design, construction, commissioning, operation of enterprises, equipment and other facilities that have a direct and indirect impact on environment.[ ...]
The next operation is the identification of different biotopes within each ecotope. A biotope is an environmental space transformed by currently existing edificatory species, among which the first place is occupied by woody species plants. Of course, we must take into account the fact that in most cases the distribution of trees across a territory is created under direct or indirect human influence.[...]
The President of Russia ensures the coordinated functioning and interaction of government bodies in the field of environmental assessment. The procedure for conducting state environmental assessment is approved by the Government Russian Federation. The terms of reference of the subjects of the Federation in the field of environmental assessment include, in particular, the following: obtaining information about objects of environmental assessment, the implementation of which may have a direct or indirect impact on the environment within the territory of a given subject; delegation of experts to participate as observers in meetings of expert commissions of the state environmental assessment of objects of the above nature.[...]
The term “ecology” was introduced by the German scientist E. Haeckel in 1866 (derived from the Greek meaning dwelling, shelter, tsology - science). It studies the interaction of organisms with the environment and with each other. The environment is the environment for human habitation and production activities, the content of which is characterized by interaction with inanimate nature(climate, relief, etc.) and living organisms. The concept of “environment” includes social, natural and artificially created physical, chemical and biological factors, that is, everything that directly or indirectly affects human life and activity.[...]
Increased engine operating time between oil changes, not provided by improvement operational properties the oil used and its operating conditions in engines leads to a faster increase in oil consumption due to waste, and ultimately, instead of saving, there may be excess oil consumption. It is generally accepted that oil waste depends mainly on the design of the engine, and reducing waste is a task of engine building; engine operating time between oil changes and its increase is the task of the oil refining industry. In fact, the properties of the oil can have a significant impact on its loss for a given technical condition of the engine, and also indirectly affect the change in oil loss, accelerating or slowing down the change in the technical condition of the engine.