Subject: Individual characteristics personality.

1. The concept of personality in psychology

Personality definition In a broad sense, human personality is an integral integrity of biogenic, sociogenic and psychogenic elements.

The biological basis of personality covers the nervous system, the glandular system, metabolic processes (hunger, thirst, sexual impulse), sexual differences, anatomical features, processes of maturation and development of the body.

The social “dimension” of personality is determined by the influence of the culture and structure of communities in which a person was raised and in which he participates. The most important sociogenic components of personality are social roles performed by her in various communities (family, school, peer group), as well as the subjective “I”, that is, the idea of ​​one’s own person created under the influence of others, and the reflected “I”, that is, a complex of ideas about oneself created from ideas other people about ourselves.

IN modern psychology there is no common understanding of personality. However, most researchers believe that personality is an evolving and individually unique set of traits that determine the image (style) of thinking of a given person, the structure of his feelings and behavior.

The basis of personality is its structure- connection and interaction of relatively stable components (sides) of personality: abilities, temperament, character, volitional qualities, emotions and motivation.

A person’s abilities determine his success in various activities. A person's reactions to the world around him - other people, life circumstances, etc. - depend on temperament. A person's character determines his actions towards other people.

Volitional qualities characterize a person’s desire to achieve his goals. Emotions and motivation are, respectively, people’s experiences and motivations for activity and communication.

Focus and personality stability Almost none of the researchers object to the fact that the leading component of the personality structure, its system-forming property (sign, quality) is focus- a system of stable motives (dominant needs, interests, inclinations, beliefs, ideals, worldview, etc.), which determines the behavior of an individual in changing external conditions.

Direction has an organizing influence not only on the components of the personality structure (for example, on undesirable traits of temperament), and on mental states (for example, overcoming negative mental states with the help of positively dominant motivation) and cognitive, emotional, volitional mental processes (in particular, high motivation in the development of thinking processes has no less value than abilities).

Direction, along with dominant motives, also has other forms of occurrence: value orientations, attachments, likes (dislikes), tastes, inclinations, etc. It manifests itself not only in various forms, but also in various fields human life activity. For example, we can talk about moral and political orientation (liberal or conservative), professional (“humanitarian” or “technical”) and everyday (person for home, for family or “for friends and girlfriends”).

Personality orientation is characterized by the level of maturity, breadth, intensity, stability and effectiveness.

Most psychologists believe that a person is not born as a person, but becomes one. However, in modern psychology there is no unified theory of personality formation and development. For example, the biogenetic approach (S. Hall, Z. Freud, etc.) considers the basis of personality development to be the biological processes of maturation of the organism, the sociogenetic approach (E. Thorndike, B. Skinner, etc.) - the structure of society, methods of socialization, relationships with others etc., psychogenetic (J. Piaget, J. Kelly, etc.). - without denying either biological or social factors, brings to the fore the development of mental phenomena themselves. It is probably more correct to consider that personality is not just the results of biological maturation or a matrix of specific living conditions, but a subject of active interaction with the environment, during which the individual gradually acquires (or does not acquire) personality traits.

A developed personality has developed self-awareness. Subjectively, for an individual, personality appears as his Self (“I-image”, “Self-conception”), a system of ideas about himself, which reveals itself in self-esteem, a sense of self-esteem, and the level of aspirations. Correlating the self-image with the real circumstances of an individual’s life allows the individual to change his behavior and achieve the goals of self-education.

Personality is in many ways a vitally stable formation. The stability of a person lies in the consistency and predictability of her behavior, in the regularity of her actions. But it should be taken into account that the behavior of an individual in certain situations is quite variable.

In those properties that were acquired and not laid down from birth (temperament, inclinations), the personality is less stable, which allows it to adapt to various life circumstances, to changing social conditions. Modification of views, attitudes, value orientations, etc. in such conditions is a positive property of a person, an indicator of his development. A typical example This is a change in the value orientation of the individual in the modern period, during Russia's transition to a market economy.

2. Abilities

The concept of abilities Let's move on to consider other aspects of personality. In the very general view abilities are individual psychological characteristics of a person that ensure success in activity, communication and ease of mastering them. Abilities cannot be reduced to the knowledge, skills and abilities that a person has, but abilities ensure their rapid acquisition, fixation and effective practical use. Success in activity and communication is determined not by one, but by a system of different abilities, and they can be mutually compensated.

Exists whole line ability classifications. Let us reproduce one of them, the most significant:

1)natural (or natural) abilities basically biologically determined, associated with innate inclinations, formed on their base, in the presence of elementary life experience through learning mechanisms such as conditioned reflex connections);

2)specific human abilities having a socio-historical origin and ensuring life and development in social environment(general and special higher intellectual abilities, based on the use of speech, logic, theoretical and practical, educational and creative). Specific human abilities are in turn divided into:

A) are common, which determine a person’s success in the most various types activity and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements, etc.), and special, determining a person’s success in certain types of activity and communication, where a special kind of inclination is required and them development (mathematical, technical, literary and linguistic, artistic and creative abilities, sports, etc.). These abilities, as a rule, can complement and enrich each other, but each of them has its own structure;

b) theoretical, determining a person’s propensity for abstract-logical thinking, and practical, underlying the propensity for concrete practical actions. The combination of these abilities is characteristic only of multi-talented people;

V) educational, which influence the success of pedagogical influence, a person’s assimilation of knowledge, skills, abilities, the formation of personality qualities, and creative, associated with success in creating works of material and spiritual culture, new ideas, discoveries, inventions. The highest degree of creative manifestations of personality is called genius, and the highest degree of a person’s abilities in a certain activity (communication) is talent;

G) ability to communicate, interact with people, namely, 1 but, human speech as a means of communication, the ability to perceive and evaluate people, socio-psychological adaptability to different situations, coming into contact with by different people, their location towards you, etc., and subject-activity abilities, related to the interaction of people with nature, technology, symbolic information, artistic images, etc.

A person capable of many and varied types of activity and communication has a general giftedness, that is, the unity of general abilities, which determines the range of his intellectual capabilities, the level and originality of activity and communication.

Abilities, abilities and individual differences The vast majority of psychologists believe that makings- these are some genetically determined (innate) anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nervous system, which constitute the individual natural basis (prerequisite) for the formation and development of abilities. However, some scientists (for example, R.S. Nemov) believe that a person has two types of inclinations: innate (natural) and acquired (social).

Individual (individual psychological) differences- these are the features of mental phenomena (processes, states and properties) that distinguish people from each other. Individual differences, the natural prerequisite for which are the characteristics of the nervous system and brain, are created and developed in the course of life, in activity and communication, under the influence of upbringing and training, in the process of human interaction with the outside world in the broadest sense of the word. Individual differences are the subject of study in differential psychology.

Sometimes life depends on the speed of reaction, but even without extreme conditions, the ability to quickly respond to external events will be useful. Activate your reactions and your movements will become coordinated and precise.

Responsiveness is the brain's ability to quickly respond to external stimuli. Reaction speed is the time that passes from the moment of action of an external stimulus to the body’s reaction to it.

First, our senses perceive a stimulus and react to it: nerve impulses are transmitted from receptors (nerve endings) to the cerebral cortex. Here signal recognition, processing, classification and evaluation take place. Then the zone that controls body movements is connected, and the muscles are included in the work. Each such stage takes time.

All people have different reaction speeds. There are also extremes when the behavior of some resembles slow motion, while the reaction of others is lightning fast. For example, the Japanese secretary Miit puts 100 stamps in one minute. The fastest shooter in the world, J. Miculek, fires 5 shots from a revolver in half a second. Japanese Makisumi solves a Rubik's cube in 12.5 seconds.

It is curious that the fastest muscle reaction is in cold-blooded animals. For example, a palm salamander, having noticed a prey, throws out its tongue at a speed of 15 m per second. Mongooses have a quick reaction - thanks to it they have earned the reputation of the best snake hunters. Our beloved cats also have lightning-fast reactions.

For a person, a quick reaction, it would seem, has lost its former vital importance: he no longer needs to quickly dodge the paws of wild animals so as not to be eaten, or, conversely, hunt for them so as not to be left without lunch.

However, it would be a mistake to think that a quick reaction is of no use to us. It is necessary for athletes - football players, hockey players, tennis players, boxers, judokas, etc. And not only in order to set records, but also to avoid injuries. Quick reactions are required by representatives of many professions - pilots, drivers, captains, machinists, surgeons, etc. People with quick reactions are also preferred by many employers, for example in areas where it is necessary to quickly respond to market changes.

In fact, everyone needs a quick reaction in order to protect themselves as much as possible on the street and at home: to behave correctly in a critical situation that poses a threat to health or life.

Reaction speed is measured in ms - milliseconds. 1 second is 1,000 ms. The smaller this value is, the higher the reaction rate will be. For most people it is 230–270 ms. Indicators of 270 ms and above indicate a slow reaction. Fighter pilots and sports stars show results of 150 – 170 ms.

The fastest response occurs in people aged approximately 18 to 40 years. Its speed increases in the middle of the day - during the period of highest performance. In a tired person it decreases. This may not be noticeable if the work does not require quick reactions, but when performing complex actions, the possibility of making a mistake increases.

The reaction also slows down under the influence of alcohol and drugs. In addition, a person’s mental state matters: negative emotions depress nervous activity, which adversely affects his reactions, while positive emotions significantly accelerate them.

The type of stimulus also affects the speed of reaction: people react fastest to tactile and sound stimuli, somewhat slower to visual ones.

How to become faster

There are several ways to learn to respond faster:

1. Keep your brain busy

In older people, the processing of information entering the brain from the senses slows down. This happens by various reasons, including because most of them stop studying, do not strive to learn new things and do not want to leave their usual comfort zone. Idleness, watching meaningless programs that do not force the brain to strain, trigger the process of personality degradation, which also affects the speed of reaction.

To prevent the brain from atrophying over time, you need to constantly load it with work, set new tasks for it, and then you won’t have to complain about a slow reaction.

2. Eliminate bad habits

A person who has, as they say, “overindulged” has the false impression that under the influence of drinking he becomes more relaxed, free and is able to concentrate and control his behavior. But practice shows the opposite: due to the lack of quick reaction, drunk people very often become victims of crimes and participants in accidents.

3. Get enough sleep

It is impossible to constantly be in a state of maximum focus and concentration. A failure will certainly occur when we are unable to respond to danger in time. Therefore, periods of concentration should alternate with periods of relaxation. And proper sleep is a great opportunity to give the nervous system a “reboot” and replenish its energy reserves. In addition, with a lack of sleep, visual acuity decreases, which also negatively affects the speed of reactions.

4. Controlling emotions

First of all, you need to learn not to give in to fear. On the one hand, fear signals danger. On the other hand, it does not mobilize a person, but inhibits the process of information processing in the brain. Many people are familiar with the feeling when, in moments of danger, a person feels as if paralyzed and unable to move. His reactions are slow and he is unable to give an adequate response. It is possible to react correctly and quickly to a stimulus only in a state of absence of fear.

Thanks to special training that carries a semantic load, that is, simulating danger in real life, you can get rid of some fears and acquire skills rapid response, which will come in handy in a difficult situation.

For example, the sound of a click made by a partner can imitate a gunshot and serve as a signal to quickly jump to the side, duck down, or fall to the ground. The effect must be sudden - we must not control the stimulus, that is, the actions of our partner.

A pre-developed “plan” will help you get rid of fear, in particular falling on ice. For example, when falling on our back, we must quickly press our chin to our chest so as not to injure our head. In this case, we can replay our actions mentally. This will speed up our reaction, so that if we do fall, we will avoid injury.

5. Let's play

Games of football, volleyball, table tennis and tennis are great for developing quick reactions, so you should choose the one you like and start playing. You can practice juggling.

It is curious that the reaction rate is also developed computer games- this was proven by scientists from one of the American universities. During the experiment, players showed high results in quick decision-making not only in the game itself, but also in tests to determine reaction speed.

6. Let's train

Exercises will be advisable only if you do them daily, and not from time to time.

Our subconscious, intuitive reactions (responsible for them) right hemisphere brain) faster than conscious, analytical ones, which are in charge left hemisphere. The huge role of the latter is undoubted, but at critical moments the subconscious is the first to react. And since it is the one that responds to the stimulus first, you can train your reaction speed by repeating the same movements many times – up to 200 at a time.

When starting training, it is worth deciding what exactly we will increase the reaction speed to: hearing, touch or visual stimulus. At first it is better to separate them, and only then train them all together.

We train the speed of auditory reaction. For example, two people are sitting at a table where some object lies. The third one walks around them and suddenly claps his hands. At this signal, everyone should try to be the first to grab this object.

We train the speed of reaction to touch. The one who is training should not see his trainer (you can blindfold him). One person sits at the table, the second, whom he does not see, should suddenly touch him on the shoulder. In response, he should clap his hands, jump to the side, etc.

We train the speed of visual reaction. This is very important because most information enters the brain through vision.

A game of firecrackers. The two stand opposite each other, both have their arms bent at the elbows and raised, palms facing their partner. One strikes the palm of the other with his palm. His task is to guess and remove in time the hand that his partner wants to hit.

As an option: both hands lie on the table in front of you. Each person takes turns trying to cover the other’s hand with one hand, and the other must have time to pull it away.

By the way, many people are familiar with these games from childhood.

But, of course, the most effective way to increase your reaction speed is to take up team sports, tennis or martial arts.

Capabilitiesare understood as individually stable human properties, determining his success in various activities. Temperament includes qualities on which a person’s reactions to other people and social circumstances depend. Character contains qualities that determine a person’s actions towards other people. Strong-willed qualities cover several special personal characteristics that influence a person’s desire to achieve his goals. Emotions and motivation- these are, respectively, experiences and motivations for activity, and social attitudes- beliefs and attitudes of people.

Outlining in general outline the essence of personality, we can move on to consider some myths about it.

There is a famous psychological test called "Who am I?" . In five minutes, a person is required to write on a piece of paper as many characteristics as possible that answer the question “Who am I?” These characteristics represent the most interesting material for analyzing what a person sees in himself (from the inside) and how he sees himself (from the outside). Based on these self-descriptions, it will be extremely convenient to consider “what the personality consists of.”

Quite often there are extremely general characteristics: who am I? – “person”, “personality”. There is no doubt that humanity is fundamentally united and people are united, that is, they are all connected by a common human essence, human nature, belonging to humanity, and this is more significant than what distinguishes them, separates them. Any person can say to another person the famous Kipling phrase: “You and I are of the same blood - you and I.”

There are also, on the contrary, characteristics that are purely individual. We will not go into an analysis of this kind of characteristics: it is very easy to write a detailed description of any person, including many of his individual features, but it is much more difficult to systematize these features.

Based on the goals that were formulated at the very beginning of this section, you should first of all focus on what unites people and what simultaneously distinguishes them, that is, on some common characteristics that are not inherent to everyone, but to more than one person .

Of these types of characteristics, first of all, typological “labels” should be mentioned. Labeling ourselves and others is one of our favorite ways of understanding personality. In self-descriptions, this is one of the favorite ways to answer the question “Who am I?”, and in everyday life - to the question “Who are you?” When we describe ourselves and others using such labels, we classify ourselves and others into certain types.

Introduction

The problem that will be discussed has occupied humanity for more than two and a half millennia. Every person becomes familiar with the concept of “temperament” early. After all, even in childhood, we notice that there are individual differences between us - some are more active and persistent, while others are slow and shy. It is in these features that temperament is manifested.

Temperament manifests itself in any type of activity (play, study, work), in gait, in gestures and in behavior in general. It includes qualities on which a person’s reactions to other people and social circumstances depend - the ability to quickly get involved in work, perseverance, sociability, speed of mood changes, patience. Temperament is a dynamic characteristic of a person and mental rhythm and tempo, the speed of the emergence of feelings and their stability depend on it.

Temperament is one of those psychological concepts that “everyone knows” about. When characterizing our acquaintances, we constantly use the names of different temperaments - we say about one: “typical choleric”, another we call “sanguine”, a third – “phlegmatic”, a fourth – “melancholic”. And we usually classify ourselves into one of four categories.

Relevance. Currently, psychology takes a holistic approach to the study of man. A person is considered both from the perspective of his inherent universal human properties and from the perspective of his unique individuality. And individuality is manifested in the traits of temperament, character, habits, prevailing interests, in the qualities of cognitive processes (perception, memory, thinking, imagination), etc. Therefore, in order to know a person, you need to consider all the traits, the most important of which is temperament, because it is the biological foundation on which the personality is formed as a social being, and the personality traits determined by temperament are the most stable and long-lasting.

The object of research is a person.

The subject of the study is temperament and its types.

The main purpose of this course work is to consider the history of study and the main types of temperament.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks are set in the work:

1. Consider the main approaches and theories of studying temperament;

2. Give general characteristics the concept of “temperament”;

3. Consider the basic properties and types of temperament.

History of the study of temperament

The doctrine of temperaments arose in ancient times. The word “temperament” (from the Latin Temperans) translated from Latin means “proper ratio of parts”; the Greek word “krasis” (ancient Greek ksjuyt, “merging, mixing”), which is equal in meaning to it, was introduced by the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. He believed that the world is formed from four elements and the human body is also a mixture of four elements, but connected in a certain proportion. Variations in the proportion of elements in individual people are directly associated by Hippocrates with the four types of fluid present in the body (blood, mucus, yellow and black bile). The degree of predominance of any liquid in this mixture determines the main four types of people:

1. Sanguine people, people with a predominance of blood in the general mixture. They are characterized by an excellent physique, high mobility, friendliness, insufficient love of work, and a penchant for pleasure;

2. Cholerics, people with a dominance of yellow bile, have a well-developed body and muscles, are energetic, active, strong in character, proud, more capable of arts and military affairs;

3. Phlegmatic people, people with a predominance of mucus, loose physique, sluggish, inactive, drowsy, do not have the subtlety of feelings necessary for practicing the arts and sciences, lack diligence and will;

4. Melancholic people, people with a predominance of black bile, gloomy with a melancholy character.

The Roman anatomist and physician Claudius Galen was the first to give a detailed classification of different types of temperament, based on the same humoral ideas of Hippocrates. It included 13 types, including those mentioned above. True, Galen’s psychological characteristics of these types of temperament were not rich, but over time they expanded more and more.

Developments in anatomy and physiology during the Renaissance led to innovations in explaining temperament types. They began to be increasingly associated with structural features of the body. For example, a number of scientists, in addition to the physical properties of blood, based the division on the differences in tissues and the width of the lumen of blood vessels. Light blood, loose tissue and moderately dilated vessels, according to these scientists, facilitate the course of life processes and give rise to a sanguine temperament. With significant density in the tissues, blood is retained in the vessels, the pulse becomes stronger and faster, the overall body heat increases - this creates choleric temperament. With dense blood and narrow vessels in the tissue, only the liquid, watery part of the blood appears, due to which a phlegmatic temperament is born. Finally, dense, dark blood with narrow tissue pores and wide lumen of blood vessels leads to the formation of a melancholic temperament.

Close to this theory was the point of view of I. Kant, who believed that the natural basis of temperament is the individual characteristics of the blood. Immanuel Kant gave a formal description of four types of temperament, which he divided into two groups. He considered the sanguine and melancholic types as temperaments of feeling, and the choleric and phlegmatic types as temperaments of action. This theory survived until late XIX- beginning of XX. For example, P.F. Lesgaft, a Russian anatomist teacher and doctor, believed that the width of the lumen and the thickness of the walls of blood vessels play a very important role in the origin of temperaments; choleric people have a small lumen and thick walls, which leads to fast and strong blood flow; sanguine people have a small lumen and thin walls, which contributes to fast and weak blood flow, etc.

Another anatomical direction in explaining the types of temperament concerned the structure of the central nervous system, since it is the brain that is most closely connected with those psychological characteristics, which characterize different temperaments.

Thus, Albrecht Haller, the founder of experimental physiology, who introduced the concepts of excitability and sensitivity, which are important for physiology and psychology, argued that the main factor in differences in temperament is the excitability of the blood vessels themselves through which blood passes. His student G. Vrisberg connected temperament directly with the characteristics of the nervous system. In his opinion, choleric-sanguine is caused by a large brain, “strong and thick nerves” and high excitability of the senses. People with a phlegmatic-melancholic temperament are characterized by a small brain, “fine nerves” and low excitability of the senses.

I. Genl proposed a theory of temperaments based on the “tone” of the nervous and muscular systems. From the point of view of this scientist, the tone of the nervous system in different people different. The larger it is, the easier a person is excited. A low degree of tone is characteristic of phlegmatic people - this is due to the general lethargy of movements, emotional inexcitability, and weakness of facial expressions. Sanguine and choleric people are easily excitable, but in the former the excitement passes quickly, while in the latter it lasts longer. The melancholic temperament is characterized, from Henle's point of view, by a discrepancy between strong, deep feelings and a poorly developed tendency to activity.

Close to this theory is the attempt of the French philosopher A. Foulier to build a theory of temperaments based on the doctrine of metabolism in the body. What Henle calls the tone of the nervous system, according to Fullier, comes down to a greater or lesser intensity of the processes of decay and restoration of substances in the tissues of the body, especially in the central nervous system. According to Fulier, in some cases the processes of decay of energy sources predominate, in others - the processes of recovery. Sanguine temperament is characterized by a predominance of recovery, a quick, but weak and short-lived reaction. Melancholic - a predominance of restoration of nervous substance, a slow but strong and long-lasting reaction. The choleric temperament is characterized by a rapid and strong disintegration, and the phlegmatic temperament is characterized by a slow and weak disintegration of the nervous substance.

A number of scientists in our country also adhered to the humoral-endocrine theory of the origin of temperament types. P.P. Blonsky believed that the characteristics of human behavior depend on how balanced and coordinated the sympathetic and parasympathetic departments of the autonomic nervous system work. Vagatonics are slow and calm. Sympathicotonics, on the contrary, are impulsive and decisive.

Gradually, scientists became increasingly convinced that the properties of temperament are most clearly manifested in those forms of behavior that are directly related to the energy expenditure of the body - with the ways of accumulating and spending energy and the quantitative characteristics of these processes. Therefore, most temperament researchers paid attention primarily to the emotional and motor reactions of the individual, especially emphasizing their intensity and course over time. A classic example of this approach is the typology of temperaments proposed by W. Wundt. He understood temperament as a predisposition to affect - this idea was expressed in the following thesis: temperament is for emotion what excitability is for sensation.

Adhering to this view, W. Wundt identified two bipolar properties of temperament: the strength and speed of change in emotion, thereby emphasizing the importance of the individual’s energy characteristics. Strong emotional reactions combined with emotional instability form a choleric temperament, a small strength of emotional reactions combined with their instability form a sanguine temperament, etc.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. a concept has been formed according to which there is a connection between physique and temperament properties. Such typologies are called constitutional typologies. Among them, the typology proposed by E. Kretschmer is most widespread. He argued that body type determines the mental characteristics of people and their predisposition to corresponding mental illnesses. After taking many measurements of people's body parts, E. Kretschmer identified four constitutional types.

1. Leptosomatic. It has a cylindrical body shape, a fragile build, tall, and a flat chest. The shoulders are narrow, the lower limbs are long, the bones and muscles are thin.

2. Picnic. He is characterized by excessive obesity, small or average height, big belly, round head on a short neck.

3. Athletic. He has good muscles, a large build, high or average height, broad shoulders and narrow hips.

4. Dysplastic. Its structure is shapeless and irregular. Individuals of this type are characterized by various physique deformations.

With the named types of body structure, Kretschmer correlates the three types of temperament he identified:

1. Schizotimic. Has a leptosomatic or asthenic physique. Closed, prone to emotional fluctuations, stubborn. Has difficulty adapting to the environment, prone to abstraction.

2. Cyclothymic. Has a picnic build. Emotions fluctuate between joy and sadness. Easily communicates with the environment, realistic in his views.

3. Ixothimic. Has an athletic build. A calm, unimpressive person, with low flexibility of thinking, often petty.

Somewhat later, the concept of temperament put forward by W. Sheldon, which was formulated in the 1940s, gained popularity in the United States. Sheldon's ideas are based on the assumption that the structure of the body determines temperament, which is its function. They identified three types:

1. Endomorphic. Mainly internal organs are formed from the endoderm. The physique is relatively weak, with excess adipose tissue.

2. Mesomorphic. Representatives of this type the muscular system, which is formed from the mesoderm, is well developed. Stable strong body, has great mental stability and strength.

3. Ectomorphic. Skin and nervous tissue develop from the ectoderm. The body is fragile and thin, the chest is flattened. Relatively underdeveloped internal organs and physique. The limbs are long, thin with weak muscles.

According to Sheldon, these body types correspond to certain types of temperaments, which he named depending on the functions of certain organs of the body: viscerotonics (Latin viscera - “insides”), somatotonics (Greek soma - “body”), cerebrotonics (Latin cerebrum - “ brain").

However, the typologies of E. Kretschmer and W. Sheldon were criticized even by adherents of constitutional concepts of temperament. Critics pointed out their excessive static nature and ignorance of changes in the relationships between the psyche and the structure of the body; drew attention to the fact that these theories did not provide a satisfactory explanation of the relationship between physique and temperament.

An attempt to transfer the doctrine of types of temperament to a new scientific basis was made by I.P. Pavlov, who in a publication in 1927 began to understand temperament as a type of higher nervous activity. They identified three main properties of the nervous system:

1. The strength of the process of excitation and inhibition, depending on the performance of nerve cells;

2. Balance of the nervous system, i.e. the degree of correspondence between the excitation force and the braking force (or their balance);

3. Mobility of nervous processes, i.e. the rate of change from excitation to inhibition and vice versa.

The strength of excitation reflects the performance of the nerve cell. It manifests itself in functional endurance, i.e. in the ability to withstand long-term or short-term, but strong excitation, without passing into the opposite state of inhibition.

Inhibitory power is understood as the functional performance of a nerve cell during the implementation of inhibition and is manifested in the ability to form various inhibitory conditioned reactions, such as extinction and differentiation.

Speaking about the balance of nervous processes, Pavlov meant the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition. The ratio of the strength of both processes decides whether a given individual is balanced or unbalanced, when the strength of one process exceeds the strength of the other.

The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the speed of transition from one nervous process to another. The mobility of nervous processes is manifested in the ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. A measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa. The opposite of mobility is the inertia of nervous processes. The nervous system is more inert the more time or effort it takes to move from one process to another.

I.P. Pavlov found out that the combination of properties of the nervous system, which determines the individual characteristics of conditioned reflex activity and temperament, he called the type of the nervous system, or the type of nervous activity.

I.P. Pavlov distinguished 4 main types of nervous system:

1. Strong, balanced, agile (“lively” according to Pavlov - sanguine temperament);

2. Strong, balanced, inert (“calm” according to Pavlov - phlegmatic temperament);

3. Strong, unbalanced type with a predominance of the excitation process (“unrestrained” type, according to Pavlov - choleric temperament);

4. Weak type (“weak”, according to Pavlov - melancholic temperament).

I.P. Pavlov understood the type of nervous system as innate, relatively weakly susceptible to changes under the influence of environment and upbringing.

Significant contribution to the development of the theory of temperament in domestic psychology contributed by B.M. Teplov. His works devoted to the study of the properties of temperament determined not only modern look on the problem of temperament, but also formed the basis for the development of further experimental studies of temperament. Teplov considered stable mental properties that characterize the dynamics of mental activity to be the properties of temperament. He explained individual characteristics of temperament different levels development of certain properties of temperament (emotional excitability, excitability of attention, strength of emotions, anxiety, etc.)

Famous psychophysiologist V.M. Rusalov, based on the concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed in the late 1980s. his interpretation of the properties of temperament. Rusalov, based on the theory of the functional system of P.K. Anokhin, which includes four blocks - storage, circulation and processing of information (block of afferent synthesis), programming (decision making), execution and feedback - identified four properties of temperament associated with them , responsible for the breadth or narrowness of afferent synthesis (the degree of tension in the interaction of the organism with the environment), the ease of switching from one behavioral program to another, the speed of execution of the current behavioral program and sensitivity to the discrepancy between the real result of an action and its acceptor.

In accordance, instead of two parameters of temperament - activity and sensitivity - four components were already identified: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. Thus, temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, must be understood as the main characteristics functional systems, providing integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain and the entire nervous system as a whole.

From the point of view of this concept, temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense of the word that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment.

Thus, according to Rusalov, the psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system themselves or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties give rise to.

We can conclude that there is no single point of view about the natural foundations of temperament and its types. But modern scientists still agree on the following. First of all, they believe that the type of temperament is determined not by the combination of those three simple properties of the nervous system that Pavlov spoke about, but by many different properties. They also recognize that a person can possess and manifest different types of temperament in work and in communication. And the organic basis of temperament is some features of a person’s genotype, on which the properties of the nervous system depend.

Capabilities are understood as individually stable properties of a person that determine his success in various types of activities.

Temperament includes qualities on which a person’s reactions to other people and social circumstances depend. A person’s complex of individual-typological properties of his nervous system primarily determines temperament, on which the individual style of activity further depends.

Character contains qualities that determine a person’s actions towards other people. Strong-willed qualities cover several special personal characteristics that influence a person’s desire to achieve his goals.

Emotions and motivation - these are, accordingly, experiences and motivations for activity, and with social settings- beliefs and attitudes of people.

Types of temperaments

Temperament is a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of the course of mental processes and human behavior, their strength, speed, occurrence, cessation and change. The properties of temperament can only be classified conditionally among the actual personal qualities of a person; they rather constitute his individual characteristics, since they are mainly biologically determined and innate. Nevertheless, temperament has a significant influence on the formation of a person’s character and behavior, sometimes determines his actions, his individuality, therefore it is impossible to completely separate temperament from personality. It acts as a connecting link between the body, personality and cognitive processes.

The idea and doctrine of temperament in its origins go back to the works of the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. He described the main types of temperaments, gave them characteristics, but connected temperament not with the properties of the nervous system, but with the ratio of various fluids in the body: blood, lymph and bile. The first classification of temperaments was proposed by Galen, and it has survived to this day in a relatively little changed form. The last known description of it, which is also used in modern psychology, belongs to the German philosopher I. Kant. This is what we will use.

I. Kant divided human temperaments (manifestations of temperament can also be seen in higher animals) into two types: temperaments of feeling and temperaments of activity. In general, “only four simple temperaments can be established: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic” 1. Of these four types of temperament, the feeling temperaments include sanguine and its opposite, melancholic. The first is characterized by the fact that with it sensations arise in the nervous system and in the human mind quite quickly and outwardly manifest themselves strongly, but internally they are not deep enough and long-lasting. With a melancholic temperament, the external manifestations of sensations 2 are less vivid, but internally they are quite deep and lasting.

The sanguine temperament of activity characterizes a person of a very cheerful disposition. He seems to be an optimist, full of hope, a humorist, a joker, a joker. He quickly ignites, but cools down just as quickly, losing interest in what just recently excited him and attracted him to himself. The Sanguine person promises a lot, but does not always keep his promises. He easily and gladly comes into contact with strangers, is a good conversationalist, all people are his friends. He is distinguished by kindness and willingness to help. Intense mental or physical work quickly tires him.

The melancholic temperament of activity, according to Kant, is characteristic of a person of the opposite, mostly gloomy, mood. Such a person usually lives a complex and intense inner life, attaches great importance to everything that concerns him, has increased anxiety and a vulnerable soul. Such a person is often reserved and especially controls himself when making promises. He never promises what he is unable to do; he suffers greatly from the fact that he cannot fulfill this promise, even if its fulfillment depends little on him directly.

Choleric temperament of activity characterizes a hot-tempered person. They say about such a person that he is too hot, unrestrained. At the same time, such an individual quickly cools down and calms down if they yield to him or meet him halfway. His movements are impetuous, but short-lived.

The phlegmatic temperament of activity refers to a cold-blooded person. It expresses a tendency towards inactivity rather than towards intense, active work. Such a person slowly comes into a state of excitement, but for a long time. This replaces his slowness in getting to work.

Note that in this classification of temperaments according to Kant, properties are repeatedly mentioned that relate not only to the dynamic characteristics of a person’s psyche and behavior, but also to the nature of the typical actions he performs. This is not accidental, since in the psychology of an adult it is difficult to separate temperament and character. In addition, the properties of temperament exist and are manifested not on their own, but in a person’s actions in various socially significant situations. A person's temperament definitely influences the formation of his character, but character itself expresses a person not so much as a physical being, but as a spiritual being.

Each of the presented types of temperament in itself is neither good nor bad (if you do not connect temperament and character). Manifesting itself in the dynamic characteristics of the human psyche and behavior, each type of temperament can have its own advantages and disadvantages. People of sanguine temperament have a quick reaction, easily and quickly adapt to changing living conditions, have increased performance, especially in the initial period of work, but towards the end they reduce their performance due to rapid fatigue and loss of interest. On the contrary, those who are characterized by a melancholic type of temperament are distinguished by their slow entry into work, but also by greater endurance. Their performance is usually higher in the middle or towards the end of work, rather than at the beginning. In general, the productivity and quality of work of sanguine people and melancholic people are approximately the same, and the differences relate mainly only to the dynamics of work in different periods.

The choleric temperament has the advantage that it allows one to concentrate significant efforts in a short period of time. But when long work a person with such a temperament does not always have enough endurance. Phlegmatic people, on the contrary, are not able to quickly gather and concentrate their efforts, but in return they have the valuable ability to work long and hard to achieve their goal. The type of person’s temperament must be taken into account where the work makes special demands on the specified dynamic features of the activity.

Properties of temperament

TO The properties of temperament include those distinctive individual characteristics of a person that determine the dynamic aspects of all his types of activity, characterize the peculiarities of the course of mental processes, are more or less stable in nature, persist for a long time, appearing soon after birth (after the central nervous the system takes on specifically human forms). It is believed that the properties of temperament are determined mainly by the properties of the human nervous system, which we examined in the previous chapter of the textbook, discussing the problems of abilities.

Soviet psychophysiologist V.M. Rusalov, relying on a new concept of the properties of the nervous system, proposed on its basis a more modern interpretation of the properties of temperament 1. Based on the theory of the functional system of P. Kanokhin, which includes four blocks of storage, circulation and processing of information (the block of afferent synthesis, programming (decision making), execution and feedback), Rusalov identified four associated properties of temperament, responsible for the breadth or narrowness of the afferent synthesis (the degree of tension in the interaction of the organism with the environment), the ease of switching from one behavior program to another, the speed of execution of the current behavior program and sensitivity to the discrepancy between the real result of an action and its acceptor.

In accordance with this, the traditional psychophysiological assessment of temperament changes and instead of two parameters - activity and sensitivity - it already includes four components: ergicity (endurance), plasticity, speed and emotionality (sensitivity). All these components of temperament, according to V.M. Rusalov, are biologically and genetically determined. Temperament depends on the properties of the nervous system, and they, in turn, are understood as the main characteristics of functional systems that provide integrative, analytical and synthetic activity of the brain and the entire nervous system as a whole.

Temperament is a psychobiological category in the sense that its properties are neither completely innate nor dependent on the environment. They, as the author puts it, represent a “systemic generalization” of the initially genetically specified individual biological properties of a person, which, “included in the most different types activities, gradually transform and form, regardless of the content of the activity itself, a generalized, qualitatively new individually stable system of invariant properties” 1 .

In accordance with the two main types of human activity - objective activity and communication - each of the identified properties of temperament should be considered separately, since it is assumed that they manifest themselves differently in activity and communication.

One more circumstance characterizing the connection between temperament and the properties of the nervous system should be paid attention to. The psychological characteristics of temperament are not the properties of the nervous system themselves or their combination, but the typical features of the course of mental processes and behavior that these properties give rise to.

Let us consider these properties in relation to cognitive processes, objective activity and human communication. The corresponding properties include activity, productivity, excitability, inhibition and switchability.

The active side of perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking is characterized, respectively, by the extent to which a person is able to concentrate, concentrate his attention, imagination, memory and thinking on a certain object or its aspect. Pace is manifested in how quickly the corresponding mental processes work. For example, one person remembers, recalls, considers, imagines, thinks about solving a problem faster than another.

The productivity of all of the listed cognitive processes can be assessed by their products, by the results obtained over a certain period of time. Productivity is higher where you manage to see, hear, remember, remember, imagine, and decide more in the same amount of time. Productivity should not be confused with performance. A person who has highly productive (in the indicated sense of the word) cognitive processes does not necessarily have increased performance, i.e. ability to maintain a given pace of work for a long time.

Excitability, inhibition and switchability characterize the speed of occurrence, cessation or switching of a particular cognitive process from one object to another, the transition from one action to another. For example, some people take longer than others to engage in mental work or switch from thinking about one topic to another. Some people remember or recall information faster than others. It should also be kept in mind here that these differences do not define people's abilities.

In relation to objective activity, activity means the strength and amplitude of the movements associated with it. They are instinctively wider in an active person than in a less active person. For example, increased temperamental activity in sports gives rise to wider and stronger movements in an athlete, included in various exercises, than in someone whose temperamental property is weakly expressed. A more active person has a more extensive handwriting, his letters are taller, and the distance between them is greater than that of a less active individual. A person with increased activity finds it more difficult to perform weak, subtle, small-amplitude movements, while a person with reduced activity finds it more difficult to perform strong and sweeping movements.

The pace of work in subject activity is determined by the number of operations, actions, movements performed per unit of time. One person prefers to work at a fast pace, another at a slow pace.

The productivity of actions related to movements depends on the activity and pace of work, if no additional requirements, other than frequency and intensity, are imposed on the corresponding actions.

In human communication, the discussed properties of temperament manifest themselves in a similar way, only in this case they relate to verbal and non-verbal interaction between person and person. In an individual with increased activity, speech, facial expressions, gestures, and pantomime are more pronounced than in a person with reduced activity. More active people tend to have a stronger voice. The rate of their speech, as well as the rate of emotionally expressive movements, is quite high.

The communication style of highly and weakly excitable people differs significantly. The former react faster, make contact more easily, and adapt better in communication than the latter. Inhibited individuals stop communication more easily and are less talkative than those whose inhibitory reactions are slow. These latter are often distinguished by the fact that they talk a lot, do not let go of the interlocutor and create the impression of being annoying. They have difficulty switching in communication from one topic to another, from one person to another. The “productivity” of their communication, i.e. the ability to communicate and perceive information per unit of time is also greater than that of people of the opposite type - inactive and slow-paced.

Temperament and individual style of activity

A certain combination of temperamental properties, manifested in a person’s cognitive processes, actions and communication, determines his individual style of activity. It is a system of dynamic features of activity depending on temperament, which contains work techniques typical for this person.

An individual style of activity is not limited to temperament; it is also determined by other reasons and includes skills and abilities formed under the influence of life experience. An individual style of activity can be considered as the result of adaptation of the innate properties of the nervous system and the characteristics of the human body to the conditions of the activity performed. This device should ensure the achievement of the best results in activities at the lowest cost.

What we, observing a person, perceive as signs of his temperament (various movements, reactions, forms of behavior) are often a reflection not so much of temperament as of an individual style of activity, the features of which may coincide or diverge from temperament.

The core of the individual style of activity determines the complex of properties of the nervous system that a person has. Among those features that relate to the individual style of activity, two groups can be distinguished:

1. Acquired through experience and having a compensatory nature in relation to the shortcomings of the individual properties of the human nervous system.

2. Contributing to the maximum use of a person’s existing inclinations and abilities, including the beneficial properties of the nervous system.

Temperament and personality

Personality and temperament are interconnected in such a way that temperament acts as a common basis for many other personal properties, especially character. He, however, determines only the dynamic manifestations of the corresponding personal properties.

Personality traits such as impressionability, emotionality, impulsiveness and anxiety depend on temperament. Impressiveness is the strength of influence of various stimuli on a person, the time they are retained in memory and the strength of the reaction to them. The same stimuli have a greater impact on an impressionable person than on an insufficiently impressionable person. An impressionable person, in addition, remembers the corresponding influences longer and retains his reaction to them longer. And the strength of his corresponding reaction is much greater than that of a less impressionable individual.

Emotionality is the speed and depth of a person’s emotional reaction to certain events. An emotional person attaches great importance to what happens to him and around him. He is much more likely than a unemotional person to have all sorts of bodily reactions associated with emotions. An emotional individual is one who is almost never calm, is constantly in the grip of some kind of emotion, in a state of heightened excitement or, on the contrary, depression.

Impulsivity is manifested in unrestrained reactions, in their spontaneity and appearance even before a person has time to think about the current situation and make a reasonable decision about how to act in it. An impulsive person first reacts and then thinks whether he did the right thing, often regretting premature and incorrect reactions.

An anxious person differs from a low-anxious person in that he too often experiences emotional experiences associated with anxiety: fear, apprehension, fears. It seems to him that much of what surrounds him poses a threat to his own “I”. An anxious person is afraid of everything: strangers, telephone calls, exams, tests, official institutions, public speaking, etc. The combination of the described properties creates an individual type of temperament, therefore, in characterizing it, it is no coincidence that we were forced from time to time to deviate from purely dynamic descriptions and include characterological personal qualities in them. Those manifestations of temperament that ultimately become personality traits depend on training and upbringing, on culture, customs, traditions, and much more.

Temperament to some extent influences the development of human abilities, especially those that include movements with such essential characteristics as pace, reaction speed, excitability and inhibition. First of all, these are abilities that include complex and precise movements with a complex trajectory and uneven pace. These also include abilities associated with increased performance, resistance to interference, endurance, and the need for long-term concentration.

Character- this is a set of stable personality traits that determine a person’s attitude towards people and the work performed. Character is manifested in activity and communication (like temperament) and includes what gives a person’s behavior a specific, characteristic shade (hence the name “character”).

Character can be found in the characteristics of the activities that a person prefers to engage in. Some people prefer the most complex and difficult activities; for them it is a pleasure to seek and overcome obstacles; others choose the simplest, hassle-free paths. For some, it is important with what results they completed this or that work, whether they managed to surpass other people. For others, this may not matter, and they are content with the fact that they did the job no worse than others, achieving mediocre quality.

When communicating with people, a person’s character is manifested in his behavior, in the way he responds to people’s actions and actions. The manner of communication can be more or less delicate, tactful or unceremonious, polite or rude. Character, unlike temperament, is determined not so much by the properties of the nervous system as by a person’s culture and upbringing.

A person’s character is what determines his significant actions, and not random reactions to certain stimuli or prevailing circumstances. The action of a person with character is almost always conscious and deliberate, and can be explained and justified, at least from the position of the actor. When talking about character, we usually put into our idea of ​​it a person’s ability to behave independently, consistently, regardless of circumstances, showing his will and perseverance, determination and perseverance. A spineless person in this sense is one who does not show such qualities either in activity or in communication with people, goes with the flow, is dependent on circumstances, and is controlled by them.

In its formation, development and functioning, a person’s character is closely related to temperament. The latter represents the dynamic side of the character. Character, like temperament, is quite stable and little changeable.

There is a division of human personality traits into motivational and instrumental. Motivational encourage, direct and support activities, and instrumental give it a certain style. Character can be considered one of the instrumental personal properties. It is not the content that depends on it, but the manner in which the activity is performed. True, as was said, character can also be manifested in the choice of the goal of action. However, when the goal is defined, the character acts more in its instrumental role, i.e. as a means to achieve a goal.

Let us list the main personality traits that make up a person’s character. Firstly, these are those personality properties that determine a person’s actions in choosing goals (more or less difficult). Here, rationality, prudence, or the qualities opposite to them can appear as certain character traits. Secondly, the character structure includes traits that relate to actions aimed at achieving set goals: perseverance, determination, consistency and others, as well as alternatives to them (as evidence of a lack of character). In this regard, character comes closer not only to temperament, but also to the will of a person. Thirdly, the composition of character includes purely instrumental traits directly related to temperament: extraversion-introversion, calm-anxiety, restraint-impulsiveness, switchability-rigidity, etc. The peculiar combination of all these character traits in one person allows us to classify him as a certain type. In the next section of the chapter we will look at the typology of characters.

Typology of characters

Attempts to construct a typology of characters have been made repeatedly throughout the history of psychology. One of the most famous and early of them was the one that was proposed by the German psychiatrist and psychologist E. Kretschmer at the beginning of our century. Somewhat later, a similar attempt was made by his American colleague W. Sheddon, and today by E. Fromm, KLeongard, A. Elichko and a number of other scientists.

All typologies of human characters were based on a number of general ideas. The main ones are the following:

1. A person’s character is formed quite early in ontogenesis and throughout the rest of his life it manifests itself as more or less stable.

2. Those combinations of personality traits that make up a person’s character are not random. They form clearly distinguishable types that make it possible to identify and build a typology of characters.

3. Most of people in accordance with this typology can be divided into groups.

E. Kretschmer identified and described the three most common types of human body structure or constitution: asthenic, athletic and picnic. He associated each of them with a special type of character (later it turned out that the author did not have the proper scientific basis for this).

1. Asthenic the type, according to Kretschmer, is characterized by a small thickness of the body in profile with average or above average height. Asthenic is usually thin and thin man, due to his thinness, seeming somewhat taller than he actually is. An asthenic person has thin skin of the face and body, narrow shoulders, thin arms, an elongated and flat chest with underdeveloped muscles and weak fat accumulations. This is basically the characteristic of asthenic men. Women of this type, in addition, are often short.

2. Athletic The type is characterized by a highly developed skeleton and muscles. Such a person is usually of medium or tall height, with broad shoulders and a powerful chest. He has a dense, high head.

3. Picnic the type is distinguished by highly developed internal body cavities (head, chest, abdomen), a tendency to obesity with underdeveloped muscles and the musculoskeletal system. Such a person is of average height with a short neck sitting between the shoulders.

The type of body structure, as was shown by Kretschmer and partly confirmed by the latest research in the field of psychogenetics, in a certain way correlates with a tendency to mental illness. For example, manic-depressive psychosis most often affects people with extremely pronounced picnic features. Asthenics and athletes are more prone to schizophrenic diseases.

Diseases, according to Kretschmer, are “caricatures of certain normal personality types” 1 . That guy normal people, which in its psychological characteristics resembles schizophrenics, Kretschmer called “schizo-thymic”; those who resemble patients with manic-depressive psychosis are called “cyclothymics.” “Schizothymics” are characterized by such character traits as aristocracy and subtlety of feelings, a tendency to abstract thinking and aloofness, coldness, selfishness and authority, dryness and lack of emotions. “Cyclothymics” are described by him as people with cheerfulness, talkativeness, carelessness, sincerity, energy, a penchant for humor and an easy perception of life.

Although Kretschmer's typology was constructed speculatively, it contained a number of vitally true observations. Subsequently, it was indeed discovered that people with certain type body structures are prone to diseases, which are accompanied by accentuations of the corresponding character traits. Later character classifications were based mainly on descriptions of these accentuations. One of them belongs to the famous domestic psychiatrist A. Elichko. This classification is based on observations of adolescents.