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How do polysemous words appear in a language? Many objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality have common features connected in space and time. This commonality is reflected in our concepts of objects and phenomena, which is reflected in language. At first the word appears as unambiguous and has direct meaning, which is directly and directly related to an object or phenomenon.
Portable is the meaning of a word whose appearance is due to the presence common features, combining one item with another. It is connected with the phenomenon of reality indirectly, that is, through another object. The figurative meaning appears as a result name transfer from one object to another, resulting in a word having multiple meanings.
Thus, the essence of polysemy is that some name of an object or phenomenon is transferred to another object, phenomenon, and then one word “serves” as a name for several phenomena simultaneously.
For example: 1) Dawn rises in the cold darkness(A.S. Pushkin) (dawn - bright illumination of the horizon before sunrise or after sunset). 2) And will a beautiful dawn finally rise over the fatherland of enlightened freedom?(A.S. Pushkin) (dawn - the beginning, the birth of something joyful). In the first case, the meaning of the word dawn is direct, in the second – figurative.
Depending on the basis on which the name is transferred from one phenomenon to another, they differ 3 main types of figurative meanings:
1. Metaphor.
2. Metonymy
3. Synecdoche
I. Metaphor- This is the most living, widespread and productive type of polysemy. This is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their similarity. The similarity of objects can be different, for example:
According to the form ( sewing needle - Christmas tree needle);
By location ( animal tail - airplane tail, women's hat - mushroom cap);
By function ( home apron - car apron, janitor sweeping - janitor at the car).
More complex are those metaphors when the name is transferred from the range of phenomena characteristic of man to the world of inanimate nature, and vice versa, for example: evil person- evil wind, warm suit - warm welcome,steel knife - nerves of steel.
The difficulty in understanding this kind of polysemy is that it is not always possible to determine what the similarities of objects and phenomena are. In this case, we talk about the similarity of phenomena by association, by deeper, hidden characteristics ( black pencil - black envy).
II. Metonymy- this is the transfer of a name from one subject to another, based on their contiguity. Two objects, phenomena, adjacent and closely related to each other receive the same name.
Types of adjacency:
Spatial: audience (room) - auditorium (group of listeners), school, class, institute, factory;
Temporary: winter (spend the winter somewhere, stay somewhere for the winter) – winter (withstand, endure the winter cold);
Material and products made from it: crystal ( special kind lead glass) – crystal (dishes);
The process and the result of this process: work (action) - work (result: final qualified work);
Action and location: entry (prohibited) – entry (closed);
Sign and thing: whiteness (bright, pure color of something.) – whiteness ( washing powder) and others.
III. Synecdoche- this is a transfer of name that occurs when naming an entire item by its part (most often) and vice versa, as well as by some detail of clothing, characteristic feature appearance, etc.
For example, words hand, face, mouth, head and others in their basic meaning name various parts of the human body, but each of these words, like synecdoche, can be used in the meaning “ Human": He was on the list of suspects persons. There are several in the family mouths .
IN colloquial speech and in the literature individual synecdoches are often used, which have not become commonly used.
For example: Peter had to leave Moscow - they hissed against him there beards (V.G. Belinsky); As a girl, she did not stand out in any way in the crowd of brown gymnasium students. dresses (I. Bunin)
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Language is a multifaceted and multifunctional concept. Determining its essence requires careful consideration of many issues. For example, the structure of the language and the relationship between the elements of its system, influence from external factors and functions in human society.
Defining figurative values
Already from junior classes In school, everyone knows that the same words can be used differently in speech. Direct (main, basic) meaning is one that is correlated with objective reality. It does not depend on the context or allegory. An example of this is the word “collapse”. In medicine it means a sharp and sudden drop in blood pressure, and in astronomy it means the rapid compression of stars under the influence of gravitational forces.
The figurative meaning of words is their second meaning. It arises when the name of a phenomenon is consciously transferred to another due to the similarity of their functions, characteristics, etc. For example, the same “collapse” was received. Examples relate to social life. Thus, in a figurative sense, “collapse” means destruction, the collapse of the unification of people as a result of the onset of a systemic crisis.
Scientific definition
In linguistics, the figurative meaning of words is their secondary derivative, associated with the main meaning by metaphorical, metonymic dependence or any associative features. Moreover, it arises on the basis of the logical, spatial, temporal and other correlation of concepts.
Application in speech
Words with a figurative meaning are used when naming those phenomena that are not the usual and permanent object of designation. They come close to other concepts through emerging associations that are obvious to speakers.
Words used figuratively can retain imagery. For example, dirty insinuations or dirty thoughts. Such figurative meanings are given in explanatory dictionaries. These words are different from the metaphors invented by writers.
However, in most cases, when a transfer of meaning occurs, the imagery is lost. An example of this is such expressions as the spout of a teapot and the elbow of a pipe, the passage of a clock and the tail of a carrot. In such cases, there is a fading of imagery in
Changing the essence of a concept
The figurative meaning of words can be assigned to any action, sign or object. As a result, it moves into the category of main or basic. For example, the spine of a book or a door handle.
Polysemy
The figurative meaning of words is often a phenomenon caused by their polysemy. IN scientific language it is called "Polysemy". Often one word has more than one stable meaning. In addition, people who use language often have a need to name a new phenomenon that does not yet have a lexical designation. In this case, they use words that are already familiar to them.
Questions of polysemy are, as a rule, questions of nomination. In other words, the movement of things with the existing identity of the word. However, not all scientists agree with this. Some of them do not allow more than one meaning for a word. There is another opinion. Many scientists support the idea that the figurative meaning of words is their lexical meaning, realized in various variants.
For example, we say “red tomato”. The adjective used here is the direct meaning. “Red” can also be said about a person. In this case, it means that he blushed or blushed. Thus, a figurative meaning can always be explained through a direct one. But linguistics cannot give an explanation. That's just the name of this color.
In polysemy, there is also the phenomenon of unequal meanings. For example, the word “flare up” can mean that an object suddenly caught fire, or that a person blushed with shame, or that a quarrel suddenly arose, etc. Some of these expressions are more common in the language. They immediately come to mind when this word is mentioned. Others are used only in special situations and special combinations.
There are semantic connections between some meanings of a word, which make understandable the phenomenon when various properties and objects are named the same.
Trails
The use of a word in a figurative meaning can be not only a stable fact of language. Such use is sometimes limited, fleeting and within the context of only one utterance. In this case, the goal of exaggeration and special expressiveness of what is said is achieved.
Thus, there is an unstable figurative meaning of the word. Examples given use exists in poetry and literature. For these genres it is effective artistic technique. For example, in Blok one can recall “the deserted eyes of the carriages” or “the dust swallowed the rain in pills.” What is the figurative meaning of the word in this case? This is evidence of his unlimited ability to explain new concepts.
The emergence of figurative meanings of words of a literary-stylistic type are tropes. In other words,
Metaphor
In philology it stands out whole line various types transfer of names. One of the most important among them is metaphor. With its help, the name of one phenomenon is transferred to another. Moreover, this is only possible if certain characteristics are similar. Similarity can be external (in color, size, character, shape and movements), as well as internal (in assessment, sensations and impressions). So, with the help of metaphor they talk about dark thoughts and a sour face, a calming storm and a cold reception. In this case, the thing is replaced, but the attribute of the concept remains unchanged.
The figurative meaning of words with the help of metaphor occurs with varying degrees of similarity. An example of this is a duck (a device in medicine) and a tractor caterpillar. The transfer using similar forms is used here. The names given to a person can also carry a metaphorical meaning. For example, Hope, Love, Faith. Sometimes meanings are transferred based on similarity to sounds. So, the horn was called a siren.
Metonymy
This is also one of the most important types of title transfers. However, when using it, the similarities of internal and external characteristics are not applied. Here there is a contiguity of cause-and-effect relationships or, in other words, the contact of things in time or space.
The metonymic figurative meaning of words is a change not only of the subject, but also of the concept itself. When this phenomenon occurs, only the connections of neighboring links of the lexical chain can be explained.
The figurative meanings of words can be based on associations with the material from which the object is made. For example, earth (soil), table (food), etc.
Synecdoche
This concept means the transfer of any part to the whole. An example of this is the expression “a child follows his mother’s skirt”, “a hundred head of cattle”, etc.
Homonyms
This concept in philology means identical sounds of two or more different words. Homonymy is a sound coincidence of lexical units that are not semantically related to each other.
There are phonetic and grammatical homonyms. The first case concerns those words that are in the accusative or sound the same, but at the same time have a different composition of phonemes. For example, “twig” and “pond”. Grammatical homonyms arise in cases where both the phoneme and pronunciation of the words are the same, but the individual words are different, for example, the number “three” and the verb “three”. If the pronunciations of such words change, they will not be the same. For example, “rub”, “three”, etc.
Synonyms
This concept refers to words of the same part of speech, identical or similar in their lexical meaning. The origins of synonymy are foreign language and its own lexical meanings, general literary and dialect. Such figurative meanings of words also arise thanks to jargon (“to burst” - “to eat”).
Synonyms are divided into types. Among them:
- absolute, when the meanings of words completely coincide (“octopus” - “octopus”);
- conceptual, differing in shades of lexical meanings (“reflect” - “think”);
- stylistic, which have differences in stylistic coloring (“sleep” - “sleep”).
Antonyms
This concept refers to words that belong to the same part of speech, but have opposite concepts. This type of figurative meaning may have a difference in structure (“to take out” - “to bring in”) and different roots (“white” - “black”).
Antonymy is observed in those words that express the opposing orientation of characteristics, states, actions and properties. The purpose of their use is to convey contrasts. This technique is often used in poetic and
Words, phrases, phrases and sentences - all this and much more is inherent in the concept of “language”. How much is hidden in it, and how little we actually know about language! We spend every day and even every minute next to him - whether we say our thoughts out loud or conduct an internal dialogue, read or listen to the radio... Language, our speech is a real art, and it should be beautiful. And its beauty must be genuine. What helps in finding the true beauty of language and speech?
The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. How does this happen? Let's understand this endless process when, as they say, words grow from words.
First of all, you should understand what the direct and figurative meaning of the word is, and what main types they are divided into. Each word can have one or a number of meanings. Words with one meaning are called unambiguous words. In the Russian language there are significantly fewer of them than words with many different meanings. Examples include words such as computer, ash, satin, sleeve. A word that can be used in several meanings, including figuratively, - ambiguous word, examples: house can be used to mean a building, a room for people to live, a family structure, etc.; the sky is the air space above the earth, as well as the location of visible luminaries, or divine power, conduction.
With polysemy, a distinction is made between the literal and figurative meaning of a word. The first meaning of the word, its basis, is the direct meaning of the word. By the way, the word “straight” in this context is figurative in nature, i.e. the main meaning of the word is “something straight, 
without bends” – is transferred to another object or phenomenon with the meaning “literal, expressed unambiguously.” So we don’t have to go far - we just need to be more careful and observant in what words we use, when and how.
From the above example it already becomes clear that a figurative meaning is a secondary meaning of a word that arose when the literal meaning of the word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object served as the reason for the transfer of meaning, there are different types of figurative meaning such as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche.
The literal and figurative meaning of a word can resonate with each other based on similarity - this is a metaphor. For example:
ice water – ice hands (by attribute);
poisonous mushroom – poisonous character (by attribute);
star in the sky - star in hand (by location);
chocolate candy – chocolate tan (based on color).
Metonymy is the selection of some property in a phenomenon or object, which by its nature can replace the others. For example:
gold jewelry - she has gold in her ears;
porcelain dishes - there was porcelain on the shelves;
headache - my headache went away.
And finally, synecdoche is a type of metonymy when one word is replaced by another on the basis of a constant, really existing relationship of part to whole and vice versa. For example:
He is a real head (meaning very smart, the head is the part of the body in which the brain is located).
The entire village took his side - every resident, i.e. the “village” as a whole, which replaces its part.
What can we say in conclusion? Only one thing: if you know the direct and figurative meaning of a word, you will be able not only to use certain words correctly, but also enrich your speech, and learn to beautifully convey your thoughts and feelings, and maybe one day you will come up with your own metaphor or metonymy... Who knows?
What is the literal and figurative meaning of the word
The plurality of meanings of a word is an aspect of linguistics and linguistics that attracts the close attention of researchers, since every language is a mobile and constantly changing system. Every day new words appear in it, as well as new meanings of words already known. For their correct use in speech, it is necessary to monitor the processes of formation of new semantic shades in the Russian language.
Ambiguous words
These are lexical units that have two or more meanings. One of them is direct, and all the others are figurative.
It is important to note what place ambiguous words occupy in the Russian language. Direct and figurative meanings are one of the main aspects of the study of linguistics, since the phenomenon of polysemy covers more than 40% of the vocabulary of the Russian language. This happens because not a single language in the world is capable of giving its specific designation to each specific object and concept. In this regard, there is a divergence in the meanings of one word into several others. This is a natural process that occurs under the influence of factors such as people’s associative thinking, metaphor and metonymy.
Aspects of polysemy: relationships of meaning
Polysemy implies a certain system of meanings of a word. How does this system arise? How do such two components as the literal and figurative meaning of a word appear? First of all, any lexical unit is formed in a language with the formation of a new concept or phenomenon. Then, as a result of certain linguistic processes, additional meanings appear, which are called figurative. The main influence on the formation of new meanings is exerted by the specific context in which the word is located. Many researchers note that polysemy is often impossible outside the linguistic context.
Words with direct and figurative meanings become so by reference to context, and their use depends on the choice of meaning in each specific situation.
Aspects of polysemy: semantic relations
It is very important to distinguish between concepts such as polysemy and homonymy. Polysemy is polysemy, a system of meanings put into the same word and connected with each other. Homonymy is a linguistic phenomenon that covers words that are identical in form (spelling) and sound design (pronunciation). Moreover, such lexical units are not connected in meaning and do not have common origin from one concept or phenomenon.
The direct and figurative meaning of a word in the light of semantic relationships between the various meanings invested in a particular word are the object of study by many scientists. The difficulty of studying this group of lexical units is that it is often difficult to find a common first initial value for polysemantic words. It is also difficult to separate completely unrelated meanings that have many common features, but are only examples of homonymy.
Aspects of polysemy: categorical connection
Of particular importance for scientists in the aspect of researching the topic “Direct and figurative meaning of a word” is the explanation of polysemy from the point of view of cognitive categoricality. This theory suggests that the language system is an extremely flexible structure that can change in connection with the acquisition of new concepts about a phenomenon or object in the human mind.
Many researchers are inclined to believe that polysemy appears and develops according to certain laws, and is not caused by spontaneous and unsystematic processes in language. All meanings of a word are initially in the human mind, and are also a priori embedded in the structure of language. This theory already affects not only aspects of linguistics, but also psycholinguistics.
Characteristics of direct value
All people have an intuitive idea of what the literal and figurative meaning of a word is. If we speak in the language of ordinary people, the direct meaning is the most common meaning that is put into a word; it can be used in any context, directly pointing to a specific concept. In dictionaries, the direct meaning always comes first. Below the numbers are figurative meanings.
All lexical units, as mentioned above, can be divided into single-valued and polysemous. Unambiguous words are those that have only a direct meaning. This group includes terms, words with a narrow subject-matter, new, not yet very common words, proper names. Possibly influenced by developmental processes language system words in these categories may take on additional meanings. In other words, lexical units representing these groups will not necessarily always be unambiguous.
Characteristics of figurative meaning
This topic will definitely be chosen by any Russian language teacher at school for certification. “Direct and figurative meaning of the word” is a section that takes up a lot of important place in the structure of studying Russian speech, so it is worth talking about it in more detail.
Let's consider the figurative meaning of lexical units. The additional meaning of a word that appears as a result of indirect or direct nomination is called figurative. All additional meanings are related to the main meaning metonymically, metaphorically or associatively. The figurative meanings are characterized by blurred meanings and boundaries of use. It all depends on the context and style of speech in which the additional meaning is used.
Particularly interesting are cases when a figurative meaning takes the place of the main one, displacing it from use. An example is the word “bulda”, which originally meant a heavy hammer, and now a stupid, narrow-minded person.
Metaphor as a way of transferring meaning
Scientists highlight different types figurative meanings of words depending on the method of their formation. The first of these is metaphor. The main meaning can be transferred by similarity of features.
Thus, they distinguish similarities in shape, color, size, actions, feelings and emotional state. Naturally, this classification is conditional, since similar concepts can be metaphorically divided into the previously listed categories.
This classification is not the only possible one. Other researchers distinguish metaphorical transfer by similarity depending on the animation of the object. Thus, the transfer of the properties of an animate object to an inanimate one, and vice versa, is described; animate - to animate, inanimate - to inanimate.
There are also certain patterns in which metaphorical transfer occurs. Most often this phenomenon refers to household items(a rag as a tool for cleaning the floor and a rag as a weak-willed, weak-willed person), professions (a clown as a circus performer and a clown as someone who behaves stupidly, trying to seem like the life of the party), sounds characteristic of animals (mooing as the sound that makes cow, and as slurred speech of a person), diseases (ulcer as a disease and as satire and evil irony in human behavior).
Metonymy as a way of transferring meaning
Another aspect important for studying the topic “Direct and figurative meaning of a word” is metonymic transfer by contiguity. It represents a kind of substitution of concepts depending on the meanings inherent in them. For example, documents are often called papers, a group of children at school is called a class, etc.
The reasons for such a transfer of value may be as follows. Firstly, this is done for the convenience of the speaker, who seeks to shorten his speech as much as possible. Secondly, the use of such metonymic constructions in speech may be unconscious, because in Russian the expression “eat a bowl of soup” implies a figurative meaning, which is realized with the help of metonymy.
Using words figuratively
During practical classes in Russian, any teacher will certainly require examples to be given for the section being studied. “Polysemantic words: direct and figurative meanings” is a topic that is replete with visual illustrations.
Let's take the word "burdock". Direct meaning this concept- a plant with large leaves. This word can also be used in relation to a person in the meaning of “narrow-minded”, “stupid”, “simp”. This example – classic use metaphors to convey meaning. Adjacency transfer can also be easily illustrated with the phrase “drink a glass of water.” Naturally, we drink not the glass itself, but its contents.
So, the topic of figurative meanings is intuitively clear to everyone. It is only important to understand how the transformation of the direct meaning of the word occurs.
Direct and figurative meaning of the word. What examples can you give?
The direct meaning of the word strictly correlates with a certain thing, attribute, action, quality, etc. A word can have a figurative meaning based on points of contact, similarity with another object in form, function, color, purpose, etc.
Examples of the meaning of words:
table (furniture) - address table, table No. 9 (diet);
black color - back door (auxiliary), black thoughts (dreary);
bright room - bright mind, bright head;
dirty rag - dirty thoughts;
cold wind - cold heart;
golden cross - golden hands, golden heart;
heavy burden - heavy look;
heart valve - cardiac reception;
gray mouse - gray man.
Zolotynka
A large number of words and figures of speech in the Russian language can be used both in a literal and figurative (figurative) sense.
The direct meaning usually completely coincides with the original meaning; the narrator means exactly what he says.
We use words in a figurative meaning in order to give our speech figurativeness, to especially emphasize some quality or action.
The examples below will help you “feel the difference”:
The language is in constant development, those words that a few decades ago were used only in a literal meaning can begin to be used in a figurative sense - birdhouse - starling house, birdhouse - traffic police post, zebra - animal, zebra - pedestrian crossing.
Nelli4ka
Direct is the primary meaning of a word, figurative is secondary. Let me give you examples:
Gold earrings - direct meaning.
My husband's gold hands - figurative meaning.
Rain worm- direct.
Book worm- portable.
Silver ring - straight.
Silver century - figurative.
The sky is burning star- direct.
Star screen - portable.
Icy sculpture - straight.
Icy smile - figurative.
Sugar buns - straight.
Mouth sugar- portable.
Woolen blanket- direct.
Winter covered everything around with snow blanket- portable.
Mink fur coat- direct.
Herring under fur coat- portable.
Marble plate - straight.
Marble cupcake - portable.
Black suit - straight.
Leave on black day - portable.
Any word in Russian initially has one or more direct meanings. That is, the word Key can mean something like what we use to close the lock on front door and can mean water gushing out of the ground. In both cases, this is the direct meaning of a polysemantic word. But almost every word in the Russian language can also be given a figurative meaning. For example in the expression key to all doors, not a word key, not a word doors are not used in their direct meaning. The key here is the possibility of solving the problem, and the doors are this very problem. The figurative meaning of words is often used by poets, for example in Pushkin’s famous poem, every word has a figurative meaning:
Or here is the famous young man from Bryusov, who had a burning gaze, of course, burning in a figurative sense.
There are a lot of words with direct and figurative meanings in the Russian language. And as a rule, all these meanings are reflected in dictionaries. It is very useful to look there from time to time.
Examples of words and phrases with figurative meaning:
- to step on a rake, in a figurative sense - to get a negative experience.
- prick up your ears - become very attentive,
- reel in fishing rods - leave, and not necessarily from fishing,
- a heart of stone is an insensitive person,
- sour face - dissatisfied facial expression.
- work hard - work hard
- sharp tongue - the ability to formulate accurate, accurate and even caustic information.
Now, I remember.
Moreljuba
But in fact, a very interesting fact is that words can have not only a direct meaning, but also a figurative one.
If we talk about the direct meaning, then in the text we mean exactly the lexical meaning of a specific word. But figurative meaning means transferring the meaning of the lexical original as a consequence of comparison
And here are some examples:
Eugenie001
In Russian, words can have both direct and figurative meanings. Under direct meaning understand words naming an object of reality or its property. Moreover, the meaning of such words does not depend on the context; we immediately imagine what they mean. For example:
Based on the direct meaning of a word, additional lexical meanings may arise, which are called portable. The figurative meaning is based on the similarity of objects or phenomena in appearance, properties or actions performed.
Compare: " stone house" and "stone face". In the phrase "stone house", the adjective "stone" is used in a literal meaning (solid, motionless, strong), and in the phrase "stone face", the same adjective is used in a figurative meaning (insensitive, unfriendly, severe).
Here are some examples of the literal and figurative meaning of words:
Many are built on the basis of figurative meaning. stylistic figures or literary tropes (metonymy, personification, metaphor, synecdoche, allegory, epithet, hyperbole).
Sayan Mountains
Examples of words and expressions with figurative meaning:
As we see, words acquire a figurative meaning when they are used together with certain words (which do not have such a quality in the literal sense). For example, nerves cannot literally be made of iron, so this is a figurative meaning, but iron ore is precisely made of iron (the phrase has a direct meaning).
virgin virginia
Sweet tea - sweet kitty, sweet music.
Crying in pain - the prison is crying (for someone).
Soft plasticine - soft light, soft heart.
Sunny day - sunny soul, sunny smile.
Plastic bag - social package(about vacations, sick leave).
Wolverine skin is a sellable skin.
Garden flowers are flowers of life (about children).
Green fruits - green generation.
Woodpecker (bird) - woodpecker (informer).
To poison with pills is to poison with moral violence.
Marlena
The direct meaning of a word is when the word is used in its original sense. For example: sweet porridge.
The figurative meaning of a word is when the word is used in a non-literal sense, such as sweet deception.
I need to give examples of words with a figurative meaning... help?
give examples please
Diana Klimova
Portable (indirect) meanings of words are those meanings that arise as a result of the conscious transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc.
Thus, the word table is used in several figurative meanings: 1. A piece of special equipment or a part of a cold-form machine (operating table, raise the machine table); 2. Meals, food (rent a room with a table); 3. A department in an institution in charge of a special range of cases (help desk).
The word black has the following figurative meanings: 1. Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white (black bread); 2. Has taken on a dark color, darkened (black from tanning); 3. In the old days: Kurnoy (black hut); 4. Gloomy, desolate, heavy (black thoughts); 5. Criminal, malicious (black treason); 6. Not the main one, the auxiliary one (the back door in the house); 7. Physically difficult and unskilled (menial work).
The word boil has the following figurative meanings:
1. Manifest to a strong degree (work is in full swing); 2. Manifest something with force, to a strong degree (boil with indignation); 3. Move randomly (the river was boiling with fish).
As we see, when transferring meaning, words are used to name phenomena that do not serve as a constant, usual object of designation, but are brought closer to another concept by various associations that are obvious to speakers.
Figurative meanings can retain imagery (black thoughts, black betrayal). However, these figurative meanings are fixed in the language; they are given in dictionaries when interpreting words. This is how figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers.
In most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example: a pipe bend, a teapot spout, a carrot tail, a clock ticking. In such cases, they speak of extinct imagery in the lexical meaning of the word.
The transfer of names occurs on the basis of similarities in something between objects, characteristics, and actions. The figurative meaning of a word can be attached to an object (sign, action) and become its direct meaning: the spout of a teapot, a door handle, a table leg, the spine of a book, etc.
Anton Maslov
The direct (or basic, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the word table has the following basic meaning: “a piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs.”
Figurative (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of transferring the name from one phenomenon of reality to another on the basis of similarity, commonality of their characteristics, functions, etc. Thus, the word table has several figurative meanings: 1. A piece of special equipment or a part of a machine of a similar shape (operating table, raise the machine table). 2. Meals, food (rent a room with a table). 3. A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs (help desk).
Depending on on what basis and on what basis the name of one object is transferred to another, three types of transfer of word meanings are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche. Some linguists also distinguish transfer by similarity of functions.
Types of figurative meanings of a word.
Multiple meanings of the word. Direct and figurative meaning of the word.
Words in a language can have one, two or more lexical meanings.
Words that have the same lexical meaning are called unambiguous or monosemic. These words include:
1) various terms (not all): subject, electron;
2) various thematic groups:
a) names of plants (birch, poplar);
b) names of animals (minnow, jay);
c) names of people by occupation (doctor, livestock specialist, pilot).
Moreover, most words in Russian have multiple meanings. The development of polysemy of words is one of the active processes, due to which the vocabulary of the Russian literary language is replenished.
Word used in more than one meaning, usually called ambiguous or polysemic(from Greek poly - many, sema - sign).
For example: according to the dictionary of D.N. Ushakov's word easy
1. light in weight (light leg);
2. easy to learn, solution (easy lesson);
3. small, insignificant (light breeze);
4. superficial, frivolous (light flirting);
5. soft, accommodating (easy character);
6. casual, elegant (light style);
7. smooth, smooth, gliding (easy gait).
One of these meanings is primary, initial, and the others are secondary, resulting from the development of the primary meaning.
The primary value is usually the direct value.
Primary value - ϶ᴛᴏ the basic meaning of the word, directly naming an object, action, property.
In its literal meaning, the word appears out of context. Eg: forest ʼʼmany trees growing over a large spaceʼʼ; in a figurative meaning: many ʼʼforest of handsʼʼ, not understanding anything ʼʼ dark forestʼʼ, construction materialʼʼlogging.
The figurative meaning is secondary. It arises on the basis of the similarity of objects in shape, color, nature of movement, on the basis of association, etc.
There are two basic types of figurative meaning of a word - metaphorical and metonymic. As a type of metonymy - synecdoche.
Let's look at each one separately.
Metaphorical transfer.
The essence of this transfer is that the name of an object is transferred to another object, based on the similarity of these objects.
The similarity should be:
1. according to form. For example, the word ʼʼbeardʼʼ we call a person’s small beard - ϶ᴛᴏ the direct meaning. In a figurative sense, we call the protrusions of keys a beard. Apple is a fruit, a smooth apple.
2. by color similarity. Gold is a precious metal yellow color͵ ʼʼgold of her hairʼʼ - hair color.
3. by similarity in size. The pole is a long thin pole, the pole is a long thin man.
4. by similarity of sounds. Drum - beat the drum, the rain drums.
5. transfer by function: janitor - a person sweeping the yard, street; A device in a car that is used to clean glass.
Metaphors are about general language- this is the metaphorical meaning of the word, which is widely used and known to all speakers: the head of a nail, the needle of a Christmas tree.
Individually - copyrighted are not characteristic of the common language. Οʜᴎ are created by writers and poets and characterize his stylistic style. Eg , bonfire red rowan, birch th tongue of the grove, chintz sky (S. Yesenin). Started to rumble river life (Leonov).
Metonymic transfer.
Its essence is that the name is transferable from one subject to another on the basis of contiguity.
Here, contiguity is usually understood as spatial contiguity, proximity of an object, temporal contiguity, etc., ᴛ.ᴇ. objects named by the same word may be completely different, but they are nearby in space and time.
1. Transferring a name from a container to its contents: audience - a room for classes, the people in it; class - students (class listened), room; plate - dishes, contents in a plate (ate a bowl of soup).
2. Material - product made from it: crystal - a type of glass, a product made from it; gold - she has gold in her ears.
3. An action is the result of that action.: jam - a cooking process, berries boiled in syrup.
5. Action - the object of this action: book publication – illustrated edition.
6. Action - a means or instrument of action: preparation of vegetables - preparation on the table.
7. Action - place of action: exit from the house - stand at the entrance.
8. Plant - the fruit of a plant: pear, plum.
9. Animal – fur or meat of an animal: chicken, mink, eggs.
10. An organ of the body is a disease of that body.: stomach - the stomach is in pain, the heart is playing naughty.
11. Scientist - his image: Ampere, Volt.
12. Locality - a product invented, manufactured there: Kashimir - a city in India, fabric; Boston is a city in England, fabric.
13. Time - events that took place at that time, year: the year was 1918, 1941.
As a result of metonymy, a number of common nouns appeared, formed from proper names: volt, ampere, ohm, boston, mackintosh.
Synecdoche.
This type of lexical transfer is based on the following principle: the name is transferred from part to whole and vice versa.
For example, a “head” is a part of the body of a person or animal.
This name must be transferred to the whole person.
for the whole Headache - direct meaning.
Borya – bright head – figurative (synecdoche).
A herd of 20 heads.
Mouth is part of the face - direct meaning.
“We have 5 mouths in our family” - figurative.
A car is any mechanism, a passenger car.
Overall, a tool is a technical device of some kind (a tool
on part of labor) – direct meaning; gun - portable.
Synecdoche, as a special type of transference, is united by many scientists with metonymy and is perceived as its variety.
Some characteristic features of a person are often used to designate this person, to address him. This use of words for colloquial speech is especially typical: “I’m behind the little blue cap.” ʼʼHey, beard, where are you going?ʼʼ
Little Red Riding Hood is a classic example of synecdoche.
Homework. Abstract by V.V. Vinogradov “Basic types of lexical meanings of words”, “Questions of linguistics” 1953, No. 5.
Topic No. 8. Vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin.
Plan.
1. Original Russian vocabulary.
2. Borrowed vocabulary.
3.Old Slavonicisms, their characteristics and use in modern Russian.
The vocabulary of the Russian language is one of the richest in the world and has more than a quarter of a million words.
It is believed that the Russian language contains 90% native and 10% borrowed vocabulary.
IN vocabulary The modern Russian language contains lexical layers of various historical eras.
To the original vocabulary These include all words that came into the modern Russian language from the languages of their ancestors. For this reason, the original Russian vocabulary is divided into 4 layers belonging to different eras. Let's look at each of them.
1.Indo-European vocabulary. Until the 3rd – 2nd centuries BC.
In the 6th-5th millennium BC. there was a single civilization, which was called Indo-European, and a single unwritten Indo-European language.
The words of this era are the most ancient. Οʜᴎ are known not only to Slavic, but also to other families of languages: Germanic, Romance, etc. For example, the word sky is found, in addition to Slavic, in Greek and Latin.
Vocabulary of Indo-European origin includes:
A) some words for kinship terms: mother, sister, brother, wife, daughter, son;
b) name of wild and domestic animals: wolf, goat, cat, sheep, bull;
V) name of food and vital necessary concepts : sky, fire, house, month, name, water, meat;
G) name of actions and signs: see, divide, eat, be, live, carry, white, vigorous, sick, alive, angry;
d) numerals: two, three, ten;
e) prepositions: without, before.
2.Common Slavic vocabulary(proto-Slavic). From III – II centuries. BC. to VI AD
These are words that arose during the period of linguistic unity of the Slavs. Οʜᴎ, as a rule, are known to all Slavic languages: Ukrainian.
Posted on ref.rf
- spring, Polish – vrosna.
About 2 thousand words belong to this layer. Οʜᴎ make up 25% of the words in our daily communication. These include thematic groups:
1.name of agricultural implements: scythe, hoe, awl, sickle, harrow;
2.product of labor, plants: rye, cereals, flour, cranberries, maple, cabbage;
3.names of animals, birds, insects: hare, cow, fox, snake, woodpecker;
4.names of human body parts: eyebrow, head, tooth, knee, face, forehead;
5.kinship terms: grandson, son-in-law, mother-in-law, godfather;
6.name of home, vital concepts: house, hut, porch, bench, oven, spring, winter, clay, iron, etc.;
7.abstract vocabulary: thought, happiness, evil, good, excitement, grief.
During this period there appears a large number of
adjectives, denoting characteristics and qualities by color, size, shape: tall, long, large, black;
verbs denoting different labor processes : cut, saw, dig, weed;
verbs denoting actions and states: guess, warm, hold, dare, divide, doze;
numerals: one, four, eight, one hundred, thousand;
pronouns: you, we, you, which, everyone;
adverbs: inside, everywhere, yesterday, tomorrow.
Common Slavic words were the basis for the formation of many new words. For example, from the verb live in the Russian language about 100 derivative words.
3.East Slavic vocabulary. VI century – 14-15 centuries.
Around the 6th-7th century, the collapse of the common Slavic language into the South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic (Old Russian) language is attributed. The Old Russian language becomes the language of the Old Russian people, united in the 9th century into a single state - Kievan Rus.
East Slavic vocabulary - ϶ᴛᴏ words that arose in the period from the 6th to the 15th centuries, common among the languages of the East Slavic group: Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian. These words are not found in others Slavic languages . Eg:
quite (Russian) zovsim (Ukrainian) zusim (white)
snowfall snowfall snowfall
kinder kinder dabrets
The East Slavic layer represents a fairly diverse vocabulary, reflecting in all its diversity the political, economic and cultural life of the Old Russian state.
During this period, many words appear on the basis of common Slavic vocabulary:
bullfinch (Russian)
snow< снiгур (укр.)
snyagir (white)
complex numerals: eleven, forty, ninety;
Difficult words: hook-nosed, today;
suffix words – finch, blackberry, pantry.
4.Actually Russian vocabulary.
In the 14th century due to the collapse Kievan Rus Old Russian language splits into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The Russian (Great Russian) nationality was formed.
Actually Russian vocabulary - ϶ᴛᴏ words that arose from the formation of the Russian nationality and continue to arise to the present day.
The basis for the creation of Russian vocabulary itself were words and morphemes of original Russian origin. ᴛ.ᴇ. Common Slavic, East Slavic:
1.almost all words with suffixes: chick/schik, nickname, - body, - lk, - nost
mason, wallet, teacher, mower;
2.many difficult words: steamship, airplane, steelprogress;
3.words with prefixes na, do, for and suffix xia: to look at it, to wake it up, to start talking;
4.abbreviations: JSC – Joint-Stock Company, CJSC - closed joint stock company, LLC - company with limited liability, Private security company is a private security company.
Types of figurative meanings of a word. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Types of figurative meanings of words." 2017, 2018.
Words, phrases, phrases and sentences - all this and much more is inherent in the concept of “language”. How much is hidden in it, and how little we actually know about language! We spend every day and even every minute next to him - whether we say our thoughts out loud or read or listen to the radio... Language, our speech is a real art, and it should be beautiful. And its beauty must be genuine. What helps in the search for true beauty
The direct and figurative meaning of words is what enriches our language, develops it and transforms it. How does this happen? Let's understand this endless process when, as they say, words grow from words.
First of all, you need to understand the figurative meaning of the word, and what main types they are divided into. Each word can have one or a number of meanings. Words with one meaning are called unambiguous words. In the Russian language there are significantly fewer of them than words with many different meanings. Examples include words such as computer, ash, satin, sleeve. A word that can be used in several meanings, including figuratively, is a polysemantic word, examples: house can be used to mean a building, a room for people to live, a family way of life, etc.; the sky is the air space above the earth, as well as the location of visible luminaries, or divine power, conduction.
With polysemy, a distinction is made between the literal and figurative meaning of a word. The first meaning of the word, its basis, is the direct meaning of the word. By the way, the word “straight” in this context is figurative in nature, i.e. the main meaning of the word is “something even,
without bends” - is transferred to another object or phenomenon with the meaning “literal, expressed unambiguously.” So we don’t have to go far - we just need to be more careful and observant in what words we use, when and how.
From the above example it already becomes clear that a figurative meaning is a secondary meaning of a word that arose when the literal meaning of the word was transferred to another object. Depending on what feature of the object served as the reason for the transfer of meaning, there are different types of figurative meaning such as metonymy, metaphor, synecdoche.
Direct and can resonate with each other based on similarity - this is a metaphor. For example:
ice water - ice hands (by attribute);
poisonous mushroom - poisonous character (by attribute);
star in the sky - star in hand (by location);
chocolate candy - chocolate tan (based on color).
Metonymy is the selection of some property in a phenomenon or object, which by its nature can replace the others. For example:
gold jewelry - she has gold in her ears;
porcelain dishes - there was porcelain on the shelves;
headache - my headache went away.
And finally, synecdoche is a type of metonymy when one word is replaced by another on the basis of a constant, really existing relationship of part to whole and vice versa. For example:
He is a real head (meaning very smart, the head is the part of the body in which the brain is located).
The entire village took his side - every resident, i.e. the “village” as a whole, which replaces its part.
What can we say in conclusion? Only one thing: if you know the direct and figurative meaning of a word, you will be able not only to use certain words correctly, but also enrich your speech, and learn to beautifully convey your thoughts and feelings, and maybe one day you will come up with your own metaphor or metonymy... Who knows?