TROPE

Trope is a word or expression used in a figurative sense to create artistic image and achieving greater expressiveness. Trails include tricks such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes they include hyperbole and litoty... No piece of fiction is complete without tropes. An artistic word is polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this constitutes the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note! When creating a trail, the word is always used in a figurative meaning.

Consider the different types of trails:

EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) - this is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. The epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature ... (F. Tyutchev); transparent Virgo (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frenzied dragon (A. Blok); takeoff beamed(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes in conjunction with their surrounding context: Here it is, leader without squads(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My little dove is dark!(M. Tsvetaeva).

Any epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author's perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, a wooden face is an epithet that expresses the impression of the person speaking about the interlocutor's face, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote burly kind well done, clear sun, as well as tautological, that is, repetitive epithets with the same root with the word being defined: Eh you, bitter grief, boring boredom, mortal! (A. Blok).

In a work of art an epithet can perform various functions:

• figuratively describe the subject: shining eyes, eyes- diamonds;
• create an atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
• convey the attitude of the author (narrator, lyric hero) to the subject being characterized: "Where will our prankster? "(A. Pushkin);
• combine all the previous functions in equal proportions (in most cases of using the epithet).

Note! Everything color coding in a literary text are epithets.

COMPARISON- This is an artistic device (trope), in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, assimilations, in that it always has a strict formal feature: a comparative construction or turnover with comparative unions. as if, as if, as if, as if and the like. Expressions like he looked like ... cannot be considered a comparison as a trail.

Examples of comparisons:

Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called detailed comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying their attitude to several phenomena. Quite often a work is entirely based on comparison, as, for example, V. Brusov's poem "Sonnet to Form":

PERSONALIZATION- an artistic device (trope), in which human properties are given to an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept (do not confuse, it is human!). Impersonation can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the entire work is built ("You are my abandoned land" by S. Yesenin, "Mom and the evening killed by the Germans", "Violin and a little nervously" V. Mayakovsky, etc.). Impersonation is considered a type of metaphor (see below).

Impersonation task- to correlate the depicted object with a person, to make it closer to the reader, to figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Impersonation is one of the oldest figurative means of art.

HYPERBOLA(Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbola is not always included in the set of tropes, but the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image of hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) - an artistic understatement.

Hyperbola allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features of the depicted object. Often, hyperbole and litota are used by the author in an ironic manner, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, aspects of the subject.

METAPHOR(Greek. Metaphora, transfer) - a kind of so-called complex path, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. The metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative assimilation of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words, what the subject is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities."

Examples of metaphors:

METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of path: a figurative designation of an object according to one of its characteristics.

Examples of metonymy:

When studying the topic "Means of artistic expression" and completing assignments, pay special attention to the definitions of the above concepts. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing that the comparison technique has strict formal features (see the theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques, which are also based on comparing several objects, but are not a comparison. ...

Please note that you must start your answer either with the suggested words (rewriting them), or with your own answer to the beginning of the full answer. This applies to all such tasks.

Recommended reading:

• Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
• Polyakov M. Rhetoric and Literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of poetics and artistic semantics. - M .: Sov. writer, 1978.
• Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.

Before characterizing the group of special means of expressiveness, let us clarify the basic concepts. A stylistic technique is a way of organizing a statement or a whole text, contributing to the creation of an expressive effect. Expressiveness of speech is called such a property of it that supports the attention of the addressee, evokes emotional empathy in him.

Term reception corresponds to the term means. A stylistic technique is based on the use of linguistic units or their groupings, which the author of the speech selects and subjects to a certain procedure in accordance with the installation to create a stylistic impression. A technique is an aesthetically and / or pragmatically oriented operation with the means of language, which makes it possible to convey the attitude of the author of a speech to the linguistic reality and participants in communication. If linguistic means are the material substrate of expressiveness, then the technique accepts the technological side, actions with the means. However, each technique has an effective completion and can be considered in its material embodiment. Reception, therefore, returns to the area of ​​funds. This is exactly how, while taking into account the procedural and effective aspects, we will consider speech structures aimed at achieving expressiveness.

In general, from an operational point of view, techniques / means of expression are divided into two main types, described in ancient rhetoric: tropes and figures.

Trail is a technique (means) of expressiveness based on the transfer of meaning and, as a result, on the combination of meanings in the same form. A word, phrase, sentence, calling any object, phenomenon, situation, are used to designate another object, phenomenon, situation. Common (producing) and new (derived) meanings are combined. The ugly meaning of the word is connected with the reality of reality directly, directly, and the figurative, tropic, - indirectly, through the connection with the corresponding generating unit. There is a semantic duality of the newly formed unit, which forms the effect of expressiveness. Upon perception, the path in the mind of a native speaker additionally arises "ghost another speech unit "(E. V. Klyuev), an associative representation based on the original linguistic unit. In this case, the context plays the role of a kind of key to unraveling the image. A non-standard figurative representation of the denoted is a typical function of a trope. It should, however, be taken into account that the figurative function the role of semantic transfer is not exhausted: it is possible to implement the nominative (eye bottom) or compressive function (drink whole Cup), but then qualifications trope it is inappropriate to apply to a speech phenomenon.

Associations have two main directions: similarity and contiguity of phenomena. When carried over by similarity, a metaphor arises; when transferring by contiguity (it arises with a stable coexistence of phenomena or the use of objects) -metonymy. The aesthetic function of the trope is associated with an intentional deviation from standard logic. The paths, according to MV Lomonosov, "have great power in signifying", create an impressive verbal image.

Figure of speech(stylistic figure, rhetorical figure) - a technique (means) of expressiveness, based on the juxtaposition of units in the text. Quintilian pointed out that the figure of speech "represents a deviation in thought or expression from the ordinary or simple form." Hence the term figure - a kind of "speech posture" of the components of the utterance, deviating from the usual, standard.

Figures of speech are divided into semantic and syntactic. Semantic figures are formed by the juxtaposition of words, phrases or larger pieces of text, interconnected by relations of opposition, incompatibility, increase or decrease in intensity. For semantic figures, as a rule, specialized syntactic constructions are not assigned. Unlike semantic ones, syntactic figures are realized in a special syntactic form, which is not typical for stylistically neutral expression of thought. This division is conditional, since both semantics and grammatical form are important in the formation of each of the figures. A distinction is made based on the increased importance of one (semantic) or another (syntactic) feature. In some cases, it is very difficult to establish a dominant, for example, regarding an epithet, gradation, comparison. The stated operational classification of special techniques (means) of expressiveness is only one of many possible ones. Even a basic dichotomy paths / shapes is not generally accepted: trails can be considered a type of figure. All the attempted classifications of techniques and means of expression (based on one and several criteria, highlighting the form or function) are, in fact, attempts to systematize an illogical set. That is why there are no generally accepted classifications of tropes and figures.

Let's characterize special techniques (means) of expressiveness.

Comparison is a grammatically formed figurative comparison of one object, a phenomenon with another object, a phenomenon based on similarity. Comparison, on the one hand, is conveyed by the juxtaposition of units in a statement, therefore, it can be defined as a "syntagmatically typed technique", i.e. figure of speech. On the other hand, this is a pictorial turn of speech, characterized by a semantic duality, conveying a thought enriched with figurative content. Consequently, there are reasons, following N.L. Kozhevnikova, E.L. Nekrasova, L.A. Novikov, D.E. Rosenthal, to classify comparison as a trope.

Comparison is a formal semantic ternary. Its components: the subject of comparison - what is being compared (1); the basis of comparison is a sign or a number of signs that allow you to establish similarity (2); comparison object is what the object is compared to (3): Young woman (1) thin (2), like a reed(3). The order of comparison components noted is standard, but not required. For example: Like lead (3), black (2) water(1) (A. Blok). The inverted arrangement of the comparison parts enhances the emotional-figurative effect. Not all components of the comparison may be presented in the statement: Blue dusk (1), like a flock of sheep(3) (S. Yesenin). Skipping the base complicates comparison and stimulates the reader's imagination. This comparison comes very close to metaphor.

Comparison has a formal feature. Comparative turnover with the union how- the most common way of grammatical design of this technique. Unions also apply as if, as if, as if, like: I have an air vault above me, Like blue glass(A. Akhmatova); Like maps, lights spread out in a semicircle(A. Blok); Said he cut it off(colloquial statement); Like a meteorite, a spaceship can burn up(from the scientific text). Comparison is also expressed by a subordinate clause, to which a characterizing function is assigned. In this case, the situation involved for comparison can be both reliable and fictional, cf.: If this is joy, then take care of it, as a mother protects her son(K. Paustovsky); They passed me by, but no one seemed to notice me, as if I were a thing, like a table or a chair.(V. Veresaev).

Comparative figurative meaning in some cases is supported lexically with the help of lingvemes similar, similar, similar, reminiscent etc.: His closet(Raskolnikova) fell under the very roof of a high five-story building and looked more like a closet than an apartment(F. Dostoevsky); Among other children at play, She resembles a frog(N. Zabolotsky).

The formal signal of this speech is also the instrumental case of the noun with the meaning of comparison: And the icy stream pressed against the body with thorny glass(A. Bely); The gloom swam out of the grove again as a blue swan(S. Yesenin). The meaning of comparison is often conveyed by the form of the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb: The Countess was paler than her kerchief(A. Pushkin); Haroun ran faster than a doe. Faster than a hare from an eagle(M. Lermontov).

The volume of the figurative impression is created using a detailed comparison:

The ant does not know the person.<...>We exist for her only as some incomprehensible inevitability, like a typhoon, earthquake, sudden death.<...>We are like the highest will for them. Not quite the highest, of course, but still. We cannot extinguish the sun, but it is in our power to block it with a canopy. Cutting down the forest, setting fire to the forest, adding the forest with chemical powder, flooding the forest with a reservoir, planting a new forest, we act for them almost like a force of cosmic order(M. Attribute).

The comparison can be complicated and concretized by other figurative means: And the distant stars froze In the infinity of the dead skies. Like fires of diamond dust On the azure of the eternal veils(K. Balmont) - comparison includes a metaphor; A tall, bony old woman with an iron face and a fixed gaze walks with long strides and with a dry hand, like a stick, pushes another woman in front of her(I. Turgenev) -epitet serves as the basis for comparison.

Differentiate between standard and individual comparisons, author's, built on unexpected comparisons. For example, in the texts of the so-called formulaic literature, standard general language comparisons are often used - expressive standards: It means that something real will happen in that strange world where her strange friend slides like a fish in water, silently and smoothly. On the contrary, a true artist seeks to deduce the established similarity from the automatism of perception. Wed: One is like a finger(language standard comparison) and I am lonely, like the last eye of a man walking towards the blind(V. Mayakovsky). If a standard comparison is the "simplest form of thought" enclosed in a linguistic formula, then an individual comparison requires creative operations with the means of language. One should not think that individual comparisons are characteristic exclusively of artistic speech. Here are some examples: The choir, although he performed a French lyric opera, every now and then yelled like a penalty battalion on the parade ground(from the theater critic's review); Bird cherry is a cheerful tree. When the bird cherry is covered with flowers, she laughs like a girl(from the composition of the fifth grader).

Metaphor is a trope formed on the basis of the similarity of compared objects, phenomena, actions, signs. According to Aristotle, this is a hidden comparison. The metaphor as troy (figurative metaphor) should be distinguished from the nominative, cognitive metaphor.

The metaphor serves to represent one object figuratively, similar to another object in some way (attributes), using the name of the latter. The resulting figurative impression, as a rule, is combined with an emotional assessment. In most cases, a metaphor can be transformed into a comparison: Stars are lighted lamps(V. Ivanov)> the stars shine like lighted oil lamps. In the production of a metaphor, the search for the basis of comparison can be based on the objective similarity of objects. For example: violet eyes - resembling violets in color; clouds float - move across the sky as smoothly as on water. The subjective vision of an object does not always correspond to its real properties. Here is the story told by V. Soloukhin:

Two intellectuals argued what kind of snow can be. One said that there is blue. Another argued that snow is snow, white as ... snow. Repin lived in the same house. Let's go to him to resolve the dispute. Repin did not like when he was interrupted from work. He shouted angrily: - Well, what do you want? - What kind of snow is there? - Not white! -and slammed the door.

The metaphor arises when comparing objects belonging to different semantic spheres: wolf appetite - the transition from the zoosemic sphere to the human-meaning one; branches hands - transition from the semantic sphere of nature (the class of plants) to the meaningful one; press - weapon propaganda - the transition from the military to the political sphere, etc. Each of the semantic models of transfer is implemented in a variety of specific metaphors. The most voluminous mutual comparison of the inner world of man and the natural world, cf. A. Blok: dawn in blood(about a presentiment of love) and curls tangled mosses fingers dawn(anthropomorphic images of nature). The metaphor is formed on the basis of different parts of speech. The trope can only be read in context, and the metaphor, as a rule, is implemented as part of the standard grammatical models of Russian phrases and sentences. Allocate a nominal metaphor (within its framework, a genitive metaphor is widespread, the context of the trope here is a noun in the genitive case: architects reforms), verbal (time flows), adjective (silver voice). In one context, different, from a morphological point of view, types of metaphor can be combined. For example: V yarn sunny days Time weaved thread (S. Yesenin): a holistic image is created by a combination of nominal and verb metaphors.

Metaphorical linguistic meanings are familiar. They are highlighted in explanatory dictionaries marked with a hyphen. (portable). The author's metaphor conveys a subjective perception of the world, is unexpected and often requires special deciphering. For example, I. A. Bunin writes about the perception of the puzzle metaphor in his Life of Arseniev:

I read: What sadness! The end of the alley again disappeared into the dust in the morning, again silver snakes crawled through the snowdrifts ... She asked: - What snakes? And it was necessary to explain that it was a blizzard, drifting snow.

A detailed metaphor is widespread in a literary text. For example, a poet forces the reader to re-see a picture of a summer forest in the rays of sunlight: And the summer ray with the last match, Breaking, struck against the bark, The foliage is burning under the cries of a bird With autumn fire in the wind(I. Grudev). Whole texts can also be read as a detailed metaphor, for example, "On the Eve" and "Noble Nest" by I. Turgenev, "Cliff" by I. Goncharov, "A Cloud in Pants" by V. Mayakovsky, "Time is Night" by L. Petrushevskaya, etc.

The metaphor is actively used in texts of different functional styles. For example, colleagues and students of Professor A. A. Reformatsky have repeatedly emphasized the metaphorical nature of the scientist's thinking, the figurative originality of his speech. Here is how A. A. Reformatsky, using metaphors, evaluates the role of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenet in the formation of phonological schools:

The Baudouin school must be differentiated. Some of Baudouin went to the left, others to the right. Here I by no means want to characterize something qualitative, as if in a political sense, through the adjectives left and right. Simple: both. But the introduction of the word "phoneme" into linguistics belongs not to Scherba, but to Baudouin. Baudouin's merit is that he provided the initial foothold from which the Leningrad school, the Prague school, and the Moscow school could develop.

Metaphors here act as a technique for visualizing the result of theoretical analysis and as a means of logical generalization. In publicistic speech, there is a tendency to develop metaphors with a clear figurative basis: Your a pilot in the sea of ​​information- radio "Echo of Moscow"; We are all witnesses of the post-crisis economic recovery country. There are metaphors in church speech: Religions ... for nearly sixty years has been gagged. But this proves the power of religion. That's why she gagged that deep down she snores the doctrine of Spirit and Truth.

A kind of metaphor is personification - a stylistic device (means) based on the transfer of the properties of an animate object to an inanimate one. In speech, this is such an image of objects, natural phenomena, in which they are likened to a person. For example: At night, through the rustle of rain, the steamer shouted four times ...(K. Paustovsky); The stars are praying(A. Fet); Evening. Seaside. Sighs of the wind. The majestic cry of the waves(K. Balmont). Impersonation is actively used in publicistic speech: Our good friend the networker is waiting for everyone impatiently(radio broadcast); The book is more alive than dead; Luzhniki hosts dear guests; Gas prices have gone berserk; The computer reads thoughts from a distance(newspaper headlines). Impersonation often gives the depicted the appearance of a person or an animal: The bird cherry sleeps in a white cape; Autumn - red mare - scratches her mane(S. Yesenin).

In literary texts, personification can manifest itself I! the form of personification - the complete assimilation of an inanimate object to a person. For example, in the poem "Cliff" ("A golden cloud spent the night ...") M. Yu. Lermontov, with the help of expanded personification, creates images of a young coquette anemone (cloud) and an elderly lonely, persistent man (giant cliff). Incarnation is closely related to allegory.

Allegory is a trope consisting in an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept using a specific artistic image. For example, in fables, cunning is embodied in the form of a fox; deceit — in the form of a snake; stubbornness is in the form of a donkey. Like a detailed metaphor, allegory is expressed not in a single word, but in a text fragment. In literary texts, allegory can be created on the basis of personification. A striking example - allegorical images in the work of N. Gogol: Korobochka - an allegory of limitation; Plyushkin is stinginess. Traditionally, surnames indicate the allegorization of characters: Proedin, Prostakova from D. Fonvizin, Molchalin from A. Griboyedov, Lyapkin-Tyapkin from N. Gogol.

A part of figurative periphrases is formed according to the metaphorical model. Periphrase (paraphrase) is a descriptive turnover that replaces the standard name of a person, object, phenomenon. It is not necessarily based on the transfer of meaning, and figurative periphrases are associated not only with the metaphorical, but also with the metonymic model of transfer. The figurative periphery brings to the fore the essential features of the signified. For example, in the texts of Russian poetry of the first post-revolutionary years, the word the revolution is replaced by metaphorical paraphrases, broadcasting an aesthetically rich image of natural phenomena: fiery fire; a fire cleansing the earth, a formidable flame of fire and etc.; the image of the people is formed with the help of paraphrases containing the signs of "mighty", "unbending", "strong", "fearless": mighty titanium; a formidable, brave knight; great knight of labor... Figurative periphrases are used to create poetic formulas that convey stable aesthetic ideas.

Metonymy is a trope consisting in the figurative use of a word or expression on the basis of the contiguity of the compared phenomena. The transfer is explained by the fact that some phenomena are closely related to each other and the human consciousness has fixed their compatibility, for example: round date: the age digit ending in zero, the roundness of the zero formed the basis of the image. The connection between an object and the material from which this object is made is objectively realized: Not so on silver - on gold I ate(A. Griboyedov), between the content and the containing: Well, eat another plate, my dear(I. Krylov); between the author and his works: I read Apuleius willingly, but I did not read Cicero(A. Pushkin); between the place and the people there: Po Our bivouac was quiet open(M. Lermontov); between an institution, an enterprise and the people who work or study there: The Duma approved the law in the first reading; Moscow University won the programming competition.

Metonymy often relies on synesthesia of feelings: an impression is associatively transferred from the area of ​​one primary feeling to the area of ​​another: The woodcutter's ax rang out in the forest(N. Nekrasov), compare: sounds were heard; The relentlessly long night Black fairy tale poured (I. Annensky), cf .: black, dark night.

Synecdoche is a kind of metonymy, a trope that arises on the basis of transfer from whole to part or vice versa. A narrow understanding of the term is associated with an indivisible whole, when the part is inseparable from the whole: joy of the unity of the Sun, moisture and stems(K. Balmont), compare: stem and plant. With a broad understanding of the term, transfer is taken into account within the framework of a set according to a quantitative criterion: We all look at Napoleons(A. Pushkin); And it was heard until dawn, how the Frenchman rejoiced(M. Lermontov); transference within the framework of generic relations: Well, sit down, shine(V. Mayakovsky) - the generic concept is used instead of the specific "sun"; Upbringing with a ruble - the specific concept is used instead of the generic "money".

An epithet is an expressive definition that emphasizes the characteristic feature of what is designated. In the function of an epithet, an adjective is most often used in a direct (non-tropical epithet) or figurative meaning (a tropical epithet). Let's compare two examples: Rose over the lake red moon(A. Tolstoy); Rose bloody moon(A. Perventsev). In both cases, the epithet distinguishes the color of the moon, which is unusual for everyday visual perception. In the second statement, the epithet is tropical: the designation of color is accompanied by the image of blood. An epithet can also be a participle that allows you to convey the procedurality of the selected feature: Above chilled the moon is shining(S. Yesenin). Sometimes the epithet is expressed by applications: baby-life, guest-winter.

Tropes include only metaphorical or metonymic epithets, which are expressed by a word in a general linguistic figurative meaning. (bloody / golden / dead moon) or in the individual-author's figurative meaning (And behind the sun of the streets somewhere waddled / useless, flabby moon(V. Mayakovsky). In the function of an epithet, an occasional word can be used: Like a dog the face of the moon barefoot I would take it and blow everything(V. Mayakovsky). Epithets that are often found in works of folklore, as well as in poetic speech, are called constant: kind well done, clean field, mother cheese Earth.

The stylistic effect of amplification accompanies the technique of using a chain of epithets to one designated: Follow me, reader! Who told you that there is no in the world real, faithful, eternal love?(M. Bulgakov). Epithets dispersed in the space of the text serve to create a general emotionally influencing imagery: Wonderful picture, how dear you are to me: White plain, full moon, light of heaven high, and brilliant snow, and sleigh distant lonely run(A. Fet).

Epithets are characteristic of functional styles with a pronounced emotional and aesthetic load: Can't we love pure, bright, victorious love of the Resurrection?(from a sermon); How much fake figures can be included on the ballot; On rotten the foundation cannot be built with a solid building of democracy(from newspapers); And what kind of blankets were there: airy, warm, fragrant; Masha was ugly, yes smart, kind, desperate (from spoken dialogues).

Hyperbole is a technique that deliberately exaggerates the properties of an object (intense manifestation, size, significance, capabilities, etc.) in order to create a strong emotional impression. Usually it is figurative, i.e. tropical, expression: In one hundred and forty suns, the sunset blazed(V. Mayakovsky). Distinguish common language hyperbole (strangle in your arms, travel all over the world) and individual author's: Cossack trousers as wide as the Black Sea(N. Gogol). This technique can also be built outside the transference, on the actual quantitative exaggeration: And at that very moment, couriers, couriers, couriers ... can imagine thirty-five thousand couriers alone! (AND. Gogol). Likewise in colloquial statements: I asked you a thousand times; I read the statement of the problem a hundred times, one hundred and first I understood etc. Hyperbole is a necessary stylistic device in the ode genre; it is regularly used in eulogy, toast, and more.

Since hyperbole does not have a typical design in the language, it is layered on other stylistic devices, as a result of which tropes with additional hyperbolic meaning are formed: hyperbolic metaphor; hyperbolic epithet, hyperbolic comparison. For example, A. Solzhenitsyn uses hyperbolic metaphors and epithets to convey a psychologically contradictory assessment by a young man of Stalin's role at the beginning of the war: Vasya Zotov considered it a crime to even run through these trembling thoughts. It was blasphemy, it was an insult to the almighty, all-knowing Father and Teacher, which the always in place, foresees everything, will take all measures and will not allow it. Hyperbolization also affects journalistic texts:

At the end of March, when it became clear that the earthquake in Japan would prevent her from holding the championship, Russia made a desperate act - she invited the best skaters to her place in April. The Creator created our world in six days. What the federal and Moscow authorities did by organizing the World Figure Skating Championships in just a month (instead of the standard two years for preparation) is also worthy of being called a miracle. The expanded hyperbole is based on a figurative analogy.

Litota - "inverse hyperbole", a method of deliberate understatement of any property. Litota often merges with other trails. For example: Below a thin blade of grass you need to bow your head(N. Nekrasov); Here you will find such waists that you have never dreamed of: thin, narrow waists, no thicker than a bottle neck(N. Gogol); Almost in one lace Yes with a handkerchief I will leave the house light(I. Irteniev). In the examples given, litota is an individual author's technique. Litota is also expressed by the proper linguistic tropical means: not a penny in my pocket, two inches from a pot, with a gulkin's nose.

Lithota is also called an expressive expression constructed on the basis of the negation of the opposite, used to soften the indicated quality or property: Anger made his stupid face even more stupid(M. Lermontov) - cf .: stupid. This is a trick of careful denial: not without your help, not without mistakes, not without difficulty, not without reason, not without doubt, not without irony. In such cases, it is possible to use a synonymous term - meiosis.

Irony is a trope consisting in the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense of the literal one. It conveys a mockery in combination with a particular emotion: irony is good / evil / poisonous / bitter, etc.: That's what you are all wise men(A. Griboyedov). The same function is characteristic of self-irony: Who is this handsome walking along the street? I'm so beautiful walking along the street(I. Irteniev). Irony is a necessary stylistic device in the artistic and journalistic genres of satire.

In the broadest sense of the term, irony is condemnation expressed in a veiled form. This technique (means) is often based on the contrast between the content of the verbal series and its specific intonation presentation, between the meaning of what was said and what is known from experience. That is why irony is realized only in a specific verbal or situational context. For example, in the following illustration, the bitter ironic meaning of the expanded metaphor is perceived in the socio-political context of the collapse of the USSR and based on the precedent title of V. Lenin's work Three Sources and Three Components of Marxism: In the last year we saw each other infrequently. We were bred in an empire that was breaking into a howl, which, unfortunately, For three Marxism constituent parts, also vouched with our head(V. Shenderovich).

Let's move on to describing stylistic figures, dividing them into two groups.

1. Semantic figures of speech are formed by juxtaposing words, phrases or larger sections of text connected by special semantic relations. These shapes are syntactically supported, but not characterized by a fixed syntactic form.

Antithesis is a technique for enhancing expressiveness due to a sharp opposition, contrast of concepts or images. When constructing an antithesis, language antonyms are often used: I wanted to live so many times and die so much(M. Tsvetaeva). Opposition in both artistic and publicistic speech can be formed on the basis of individual author's antonyms: Time passes for love, comes for memories (I. Lisnyanskaya); Kyrgyz want love with Russia, Kyrgyz- with NATO(AIF, May 2011). Speech antonymic pairs are common in commercial advertisements. Their use is far from always stylistically perfect: Wedding dresses for every taste - from democratic before exclusive.

Often, the antithesis is supported syntactically, in particular, by parallel constructions as part of a complex syntactic whole: Tourist a little bit of interest, pilgrim- only those shrines for which he set off on his long journey. Tourist subject to moods. Pilgrim hears the call(T. Tolstaya). A detailed antithesis can cover the entire text: "War and Peace" by L. Tolstoy, "Crime and Punishment" by F. Dostoevsky, "Volodya the Big and Volodya the Little" by A. Chekhov, "Wolves and Sheep" by A. Ostrovsky, "The Living and the Dead" K. Simonov.

A particular model of the antithesis is acrosthesis, built on the negation (not a friend, but an enemy). In the role of supporting links of the acrosthesis, synonyms can be used, which are used in the function of antonyms. That being said, the similarity deepens the difference. For example: Not eat with eyes - eat. <...> Not eat with eyes - devour (M. Tsvetaeva).

Gradation- an increase or decrease in the semantic and emotional significance of the components - words, phrases, sentences - within the semantically and syntactically homogeneous enumeration series, including at least three members. For example: Bastard, how he beat in detail, Hipster, Childe Harold, bitug! (A. Voznesensky). Gradation series are used in modern advertising texts: Resolute. Helps the liver morning, afternoon and evening.

Distinguish between ascending and descending gradation. An example of an ascending gradation is found in the direct speech of Foma Opiskin by F. Dostoevsky:

On the assumption of such a case, you should have plucked the hair out of your head by the roots and emitted streams, as I say! rivers, lakes, seas, oceans of tears!

Downward gradation example: For every hour, for each minute, for each shortest moment suffering, and they increased year after year (NS. Remizov).

It is easy to see that the increasing gradation (for its designation there is a special term menopause, assumes the arrangement of the components in order of increasing their emotional and semantic significance, while the descending gradation (anticlimax) assumes the arrangement of the components in order of weakening of the feature.

Zeugma- a stylistic technique for enhancing expressiveness, based on the inclusion of logically heterogeneous concepts in one syntactically homogeneous series. A deliberate violation of logic, a paradoxical combination of the unconnected leads to the affect of disappointed expectations. Syntactic structures that include zeugma are usually characterized by a jokingly ironic tone: The meeting roared with approval and ate sausage, restraining the element of noble feelings(A. Platonov). Here is a modest seaside country, Its own snow, airports, telephones, Its Jews(I. Brodsky).

Oxymoron is a stylistic technique for enhancing expressiveness, built on alogism: a combination of two mutually exclusive, contradictory concepts.

When this semantic figure of speech is perceived, first there is an impression of internal contradiction, and then of a paradoxical indissoluble unity of incompatible: Favorite enemy! Thanks for the help(A. Mezhirov). The oxymoron forms a special view of the signified, contributes to the emergence of a new figurative representation: But their ugly beauty I soon comprehended the mystery(A. Pushkin); Mama! Your son is perfectly ill!(V. Mayakovsky). The oxymoron in its semantic design is similar to the antithesis, however, the antithesis opposes different objects, and the oxymoron - the properties of one object. It can be described as a "condensed antithesis". The main form of implementation of an oxymoron is a phrase. This figure of speech underlies the titles of famous works of art: "Living Corpse" by L. Tolstoy, "Optimistic Tragedy" by V. Vishnevsky, "Hot Snow" by Y. Bondarev.

A rhetorical question- a figure of speech and, at the same time, a grammatical trope, namely: an accented statement or negation, framed in the form of a question with an exclamation. The technique is designed for a mirror emotional reaction. The expressiveness of this technique is based on the contrast of the grammatical form and the content that does not correspond to it: These verses seemed to Tikhon Ilyich to be false. But - where is the truth?(I. Bunin). The logical content of a rhetorical question consists in an expressive statement: it is not known where the truth is.

• 2. Syntactic figures of speech are characterized by a fixed syntactic form, not typical for a neutral expression of thought. Depending on the quantitative ratio with a neutral parallel, expressions distinguish between figures of addition (2.1) and figures of decrease (2.2); the difference in the order of the units forms a group of placement figures (2.3).
• 2.1. Addition shapes based on repetitions of various types - full and partial, contact and distant, lexical-semantic and grammatical. Repetition creates formal and semantic redundancy, which is not characteristic of neutral expression of thought.

Amplification- an increase in the volume of an utterance due to stringing semantically and grammatically correlative speech means of representation. For example: I don’t see what they are doing, I don’t see what they have in their hands - only the smell - heavenly, yellow, southern, - blows after me, - my mother's smell, my smell, nobody's, free, feminine, spring, eternal, unspeakable, wordless(T. Tolstaya). This kind of addition figures functionally approaches asyndeton, polysindeton, gradation.

Anadiplosis(joint, contact repetition) - full or partial repetition of the final sound combination, word or group of words of the previous segment of speech. It is used for emotional enhancement, logical accentuation, has many options. Phonetic repetition-joint accentuates aesthetically and emotionally related thoughts, emphasizes the paradoxical nature of the collision of meanings and behind-text realities: But when insidious eyes will suddenly charm you ...(A. Pushkin); Coca- cola. Bells. Here's a hard one!(A. Voznesensky). The lexical repetition-seam identifies the pivotal concept: It is amazing what a huge role in the life and poetry of Pushkin played friendship. friendship was the inspiration behind most of his poems(D. Likhachev). The junction of phrases is used as a technique for creating emotional and semantic diversity: From the whole person we have Part of speech. Parts of speech generally. Part of speech (I. Brodsky).

Gemination- a kind of contact repetition, namely: at least three-fold repetition of a word or phrase for the purpose of emotional enhancement. For example: delight, rapture with the expected sports victory is emphasized by this figure in the poem by A. Voznesensky: Oh, the attack to the frenzy! Frenzy of blow. Only ball, ball, ball, only vmazh, vmazh, vmazh! In the finale of N. Kolyada's drama "Carmen is Alive", a repetition of the statement made in the title is used. Gemination and epiphora reinforce the impression of unanimity, stubborn hope and faith: Elvira - Carmen is alive ... Carmen is alive ... Carmen is alive ... Irina - Alive, alive ... Raisa - Alive, alive ... The threefold repetition and its echoes (echo) evoke an emotional response from the viewer.

Polyindeton (polyunion) - multiple use of unions (less often - other service words) in a polynomial homogeneous series: Paris, I love strict autumn captivity, and rusty spots of escaped gilding, and the sky is gray, and the bindings of the branches are ink-blue, like threads of dark veins(M. Voloshin); I forgot about exploits, about valor, about glory on a woeful land(A. Blok).

2.2. Decrease figures- a group of figures of speech, united on the basis of formal insufficiency, which reveals itself when compared with a neutral, syntactically standard presentation of meaning. A decrease figure is a statement with not formally expressed, but an implied element of a statement or a piece of text.

Asyndeton(non-union) - the absence of unions in a polynomial enumeration series. Usually intensifies the depicted, emphasizing the large number, variety, rapid change of events, the strength of feelings, mosaic impression, etc .: The village is boring: mud, bad weather, Autumn wind, fine snow(A. Pushkin).

Ellipsis- deliberate omission of the utterance element. The consequence of such a gap is the dynamism, the intensity of the transmitted thought. For example, in A. Tarkovsky's poem, the formal absence of the predicate verb in an incomplete sentence gives the text fragment a special energy. At the same time, the absent verb of movement is clear from the situational context: The clock on the tower is striking, The wind is rising, Passers-by are in the front doors, The doors are slamming. Ellipsis is often supported by syntactic parallelism, i.e. syntactic structures of the same type, the rhythm-melodic similarity of which enhances the effect of expressiveness: They knock, loud. The calls are thundering Irresistible - Eh! Mine is louder! Yours is louder! Marusya has the loudest(M. Tsvetaeva).

Default shape- the conscious incompleteness of the statement, prompting the addressee to conjecture the unsaid. For example: Your Excellency. Your Excellency, - choking and shaking, the valet cried, - Mademoiselle Alexandrina, if you will ... Your Excellency ... - Doctors! - ordered Myatlev and ran to Alexandrite(B. Okudzhava). With the help of this figure, the agitation, confusion of the speaker, the drama of the situation is conveyed. The figure of default is used in works of art to convey the feelings of the characters.

2.3. Placement shapes- a group of stylistic figures of speech, united on the basis of the structural feature of the location of the components as part of a phrase, a sentence, a chain of sentences. Placement figure embodies a shift in sequence felt when compared to a neutral, syntactically standardized presentation of meaning.

Anaphora- monotony, or repetition of initial words or phrases in correlative fragments of the text. Anaphora places emotional and semantic accents in the text, contributes to the creation of the effect of a gradual folding of meaning. This technique is typical for poetic speech, where it can strengthen and motivate the paradoxical similarity of figurative representations:<...> three red suns are burning, three groves are shivering like glass, three women are dawning in one, like nesting dolls - one in the other(A. Voznesensky). Anaphora is able to motivate an image-symbol. In the following example, a sense of mystery, a growing presentiment of an imminent end, is reinforced by the successive repetition of the opening segments of poetic lines:

That evening, near our fire We saw a black horse.<...>He was black, did not feel the shadows, So black that he did not get darker. As black as midnight haze As black as a needle inside itself. As black as the trees in front, as the space between the ribs in the chest<...>Why did he not leave the fire? Why did he breathe black air? Why did he rustle with branches in the darkness? Why was he streaming black light from his eyes? He was looking for a rider among us(I. Brodsky).

Anaphora is found in texts of all book styles, performing in them not only an emotional-amplifying, but also an amplifying-logical function. For example, the public speech of Academician D.S.Likhachev in support of Russian culture contains an anaphoric repetition, which reinforces the author's thought and at the same time creates a logically strict list of necessary actions: Necessary significantly improve the work of the Ministry of Culture - Kommersant Necessary pay special attention to peripheral museums and rural libraries. Necessary organize permanent exhibitions from our stocks on the periphery.

Epiphora- a figure opposite to the anaphora, namely: the repetition of words and phrases at the endings of sentences and fragments of text, emphasizing a certain thought or emotion: I would like to know why I am a titular councilor? Why Titular Counselor?(N. Gogol).

You have more time to do what you want. Because now you have a Rollton. Just add vegetables to the new Rollton broth with olive oil and your delicious homemade soup is ready. Rollton. A simple recipe for delicious dishes. Rollton.

Syntactic parallelism is the repetition of syntactic structures of the same type, usually sentences of the same structure. This technique emphasizes the semantic similarity or, on the contrary, the difference between grammatically the same type of units: The dew shone and dried up, the battles deflated and died down(N. Zabolotsky). Often accompanied by lexical anaphora: I breathe, which means - I love! I love, and that means - I live!(V. Vysotsky); They say he built himself. They say he made himself(N. Matveeva).

Inversion- such a permutation of words in a sentence, which violates stylistic neutrality and contributes to the creation of the effect of expressiveness. In artistic speech, inversion serves as a means of semantic selection, enhances the expression of the utterance: In the evenings a cold fog smoked around(K. Paustovsky) - the inversion of the subject and the predicate (the predicate comes after the subject). You can also hear the singing of the prisoners and the footfall of the mute warders(I. Brodsky) - inversion of the definition and the defined (definition after the defined word). I never saw the commissioner again(Teffi) - the inverse of the complement and the predicate (the complement before the predicate). In all cases, the logical and emotional stress falls on the inverse word. Wed in TV commercials: If the individual is twisted - back, legs, neck, "Chondroxide" helps, new, in the form of a gel.

When inversion and amplification were applied, the last inverted speech link in the chain was marked with the strongest accent: But wherever it falls to me to cool down, In sultry Paris, in London dank, I advise you to bury my pitiful ashes In an unnamed Sverdlovsk cemetery(B. Ryzhiy).

Parcelling- deliberate division of the proposal into independent parts. The complementary part - parcels - is characterized by intonation completeness and in writing is drawn up as a separate sentence with a corresponding punctuation mark (period, exclamation mark, question mark). In the texts of influencing styles, parcelling is used as a technique for reproducing colloquial syntax: And it's good that he was left alone in the cockpit, somehow it became calmer. Better(V. Shukshin).

The parceling technique is typical for journalism: The next competition is being held. Literary. Named after Kuznetsov. Allocation of the inverted component into an independent proposal enhances the semantic significance of the parcels. The repetition of the technique contributes to the creation of tension, activates the thought of the addressee of speech. Parceling performs an influencing function in advertising texts: "Nazol" will help you return the wonderful world of smells, joy and fullness of life. "Nazol". If the nose is blocked. Here parceling is combined with inversion (cf. neutral syntactic standard: If your nose is blocked, Nazol will help you).

To provide the effect of stylistic influence, not one, but several figures are often selected. The combination of tropes and figures is also widespread.

The issue of special means and methods of expressiveness is widely covered in the scientific and educational literature. The developed classifications of tropes and figures are systematically presented in special reference editions Encyclopedic Dictionary: Expressive Means of the Russian Language and Speech Errors and Defects / ed. A.P. Skovorodnikova. M., 2005; Stylistic encyclopedic dictionary / ed. M. N. Kozhina; Culture of Russian speech: Encyclopedic dictionary-reference book / ed. L. Yu. Ivanova, A. P. Skovorodnikova, E. N. Shiryaeva. M., 2003; T.V. Matveeva. Complete dictionary of linguistic terms, Rostov n / a, 2010; Khazagerov T. G., Shirina L. S. General rhetoric: A course of lectures. Dictionary of rhetorical figures. Rostov n / a, 1994; Moskvin V.P. Expressive Means of Modern Russian Speech: Paths and Figures. General and specific classification. Terminological dictionary. M., 2006; and etc

The lexical system of the language is many-sided and complex. Therefore, the typology of various lexical means has not yet been developed, since it should be able to recreate the diverse range of human feelings. However, there are three main groups. Expressive means are usually classified, dividing into phonetic, syntactic and lexical.

Trope

Lexical means enhance the expressiveness of the language. They are called paths in linguistics. Usually, tropes are used by authors of various works of art when it is required to describe the appearance of heroes or nature.

Thus, the trope is a pictorial technique, which consists in the use of an expression or word in a figurative sense. The purpose of this technique is not only to create a new meaning, but also to enrich, embellish speech, and make it more expressive. It is necessary to distinguish between tropes and figures of speech. Examples of tropes: comparison, hyperbole, metaphor, epithet, personification, and paraphrase.

Figure of speech

Figures of speech are special syntactic constructions that serve to enhance expressiveness. These include antithesis, oxymoron, gradation, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, ellipsis, syntactic parallelism, lexical repetition, epiphora, anaphora, silence, inversion, polyunion, non-union.

Expressiveness of speech - features of its structure, allowing to maintain the interest and attention of the reader (listener).

Antithesis

Antithesis is a turn, consisting in a sharp opposition of characters, concepts, images, with the help of which the effect of sharp contrast arises. Antithesis helps to better contrast phenomena, to portray contradictions. It is a way of expressing the author's view of the described images, phenomena, etc. An example can be cited as follows: "Lay softly, but sleep hard."

Syntactic concurrency

These are the main figures of expressiveness of speech.

Every day we are faced with a mass of means of artistic expression, we often use them in speech ourselves, without even thinking about it. We remind mom that she has golden hands; remember bast shoes, while they have long gone out of general use; we are afraid to get a pig in a poke and we exaggerate objects and phenomena. All these are paths, examples of which can be found not only in fiction, but also in the oral speech of each person.

What is expressiveness?

The term "tropes" comes from the Greek word tropos, which means "turn of speech" in Russian. They are used to impart imagery to speech, with their help poetic and prose works become incredibly expressive. Paths in literature, examples of which can be found in almost any poem or story, constitute a separate layer in modern philological science. Depending on the situation of use, they are divided into lexical means, rhetorical and syntactic figures. Paths are widespread not only in fiction, but also in oratory, and even everyday speech.

Lexical means of the Russian language

Every day we use words that in one way or another decorate speech, make it more expressive. Vivid tropes, examples of which are countless, are no less important than lexical means.

• Antonyms- words that are opposite in meaning.
• Synonyms- lexical units close in meaning.
• Phraseologisms- stable combinations, consisting of two or more lexical units, which in semantics can be equated to one word.
• Dialectisms- words that are common only in a certain area.
• Archaisms- obsolete words denoting objects or phenomena, the modern analogues of which are present in the culture and everyday life of a person.
• Histories- terms denoting already disappeared objects or phenomena.

Paths in Russian (examples)

Currently, the means of artistic expression are excellently demonstrated in the works of the classics. Most often these are poems, ballads, poems, sometimes stories and stories. They decorate speech and give it imagery.

• Metonymy- replacement of one word with another by contiguity. For example: At New Year's midnight, the whole street went out to let off fireworks.
• Epithet- a figurative definition that gives the subject an additional characteristic. For example: Mashenka had magnificent silk curls.
• Synecdoche- the name of the part instead of the whole. For example: At the Faculty of International Relations, there is a Russian, a Finn, an Englishman, and a Tatar.
• Impersonation- the assignment of animate qualities to an inanimate object or phenomenon. For example: The weather was worried, angry, raging, and a minute later it started raining.
• Comparison- an expression based on the comparison of two objects. For example: Your face is fragrant and pale, like a spring flower.
• Metaphor- transferring the properties of one object to another. For example: Our mother has golden hands.

Paths in literature (examples)

The presented means of artistic expression are less often used in the speech of a modern person, but this does not diminish their importance in the literary heritage of great writers and poets. So, litota and hyperbole are often used in satirical stories, and allegory in fables. Periphrase is used to avoid repetition in speech or speech.

• Litotes- artistic understatement. For example: We have a man with a marigold working in our factory.
• Periphrase- replacement of a direct name with a descriptive expression. For example: The night star (about the Moon) is especially yellow today.
• Allegory- the image of abstract objects in images. For example: Human qualities - cunning, cowardice, clumsiness - are revealed in the form of a fox, a hare, a bear.
• Hyperbola- deliberate exaggeration. For example: My friend has incredibly huge ears, about the size of his head.

Rhetorical figures

The idea of ​​every writer is to intrigue his reader and not demand an answer to the set problem. A similar effect is achieved through the use of rhetorical questions, exclamations, addresses, omissions in a work of art. All these are paths and figures of speech, examples of which are probably familiar to every person. Their use in everyday speech is approving, the main thing is to know the situation when it is appropriate.

The rhetorical question is posed at the end of a sentence and does not require an answer from the reader. It makes you think about pressing problems.

An incentive offer ends. Using this shape, the writer calls for action. The exclamation should also be referred to in the "trails" section.

Examples of rhetorical appeal can be found in "To the Sea"), in Lermontov ("Death of a Poet"), as well as in many other classics. It is applicable not to a specific person, but to the entire generation or era as a whole. Using it in a work of fiction, the writer can blame or, on the contrary, approve of actions.

Rhetorical silence is actively used in lyrical digressions. The writer does not express his thought to the end and gives rise to further reasoning.

Syntactic figures

Such techniques are achieved by constructing a sentence and include word order, punctuation marks; they contribute to an intriguing and interesting design of the proposal, which is why every writer strives to use these tropes. Examples are especially noticeable when reading a work.

• Multi-Union- deliberate increase in the number of unions in the proposal.
• Asyndeton- lack of alliances when listing objects, actions or phenomena.
• Syntactic concurrency- comparison of two phenomena by means of their parallel image.
• Ellipsis- deliberate omission of a number of words in a sentence.
• Inversion- violation of the word order in the construction.
• Parcelling- deliberate division of the proposal.

Figures of speech

The paths in Russian, examples of which are given above, can be continued indefinitely, but do not forget that there is one more conventionally allocated section of means of expression. Artistic figures play an important role in writing and speaking.

Table of all trails with examples

It is important for high school students, graduates of humanitarian faculties and philologists to know the variety of means of artistic expression and the cases of their use in the works of classics and contemporaries. If you want to know in more detail what paths are, a table with examples will replace dozens of literary-critical articles for you.

Lexical means and examples
Synonyms	We may be humiliated and insulted, but we deserve a better life.
Antonyms	My life is nothing more than black and white stripes.
Phraseologisms	Before buying jeans, find out about their quality, otherwise you will be slipped a pig in a poke.
Archaisms	Barbers (hairdressers) do their job quickly and efficiently.
Histories	Lapti is an original and necessary thing, but not everyone has them today.
Dialectisms	Goats (snakes) were found in this area.
Stylistic trails (examples)
Metaphor	You have my friend.
Impersonation	The foliage sways and dances to the wind.
	The red sun sets over the horizon.
Metonymy	I've already eaten three plates.
Synecdoche	The consumer always chooses high-quality products.
Periphrase	Let's go to the zoo to look at the king of beasts (about the lion).
Allegory	You are a real donkey (about stupidity).
Hyperbola	I've been waiting for you for three hours!
	Is this a man? A little man with a fingernail, and more!
Syntax shapes (examples)
	How many people I can be sad with How few of those I can love.
	We'll go for raspberries! Do you like raspberries? No? Tell Danil Let's go for raspberries.
Gradation	I think of you, I miss you, I remember, I miss you, I pray.
Pun	Through your fault I began to drown my sadness in wine.
Rhetorical figures (address, exclamation, question, silence)	When will you, the younger generation, be polite? Oh, what a wonderful day today! And you say that you know the material very well? You will come home soon - look ...
Multi-Union	I know perfectly well algebra, and geometry, and physics, and chemistry, and geography, and biology.
Asyndeton	The store sells shortbread, crumbly, peanut, oatmeal, honey, chocolate, dietary, banana cookies.
Ellipsis	Not there (it was)!
Inversion	I would like to tell you one story.
Antithesis	You are everything to me and nothing.
Oxymoron	Living Dead.

The role of means of artistic expression

The use of tropes in everyday speech elevates each person, makes him more literate and educated. A variety of means of artistic expression can be found in any literary work, poetic or prose. Paths and figures, examples of which every self-respecting person should know and use, do not have an unambiguous classification, since from year to year philologists continue to explore this area of ​​the Russian language. If in the second half of the twentieth century they singled out only metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche, now the list has increased tenfold.

Trails

- Trope- allegory. In a work of art, words and expressions used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the imagery of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech.

The main types of trails:

- Metaphor

- Metonymy

- Synecdoche

- Hyperbola

- Litotes

- Comparison

- Periphrase

- Allegory

- Impersonation

- Irony

- Sarcasm

Metaphor

Metaphor- a trail that uses the name of an object of one class to describe an object of another class. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life. Aristotle's metaphor is essentially indistinguishable from hyperbole (exaggeration), from synecdoche, from simple comparison or personification and assimilation. In all cases, there is a transfer of meaning from one to another. The expanded metaphor has spawned many genres.

An indirect message in the form of a story or figurative expression using a comparison.

The turn of speech, consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense, based on some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.

There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:

An object within a specific category,

The process by which this object performs a function, and

Application of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

Metonymy

- Metonymy- a kind of path, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon), which is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object, which is indicated by the replaced word. In this case, the substitute word is used in a figurative meaning. Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused, while metonymy is based on replacing the word "by contiguity" (part instead of whole or vice versa, representative instead of class or vice versa, container instead of content, or vice versa, etc.), and the metaphor is "by similarity." Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy.

Example: "All flags are visiting us", where flags replace countries (part replaces whole).

Synecdoche

- Synecdoche- the trope, which consists in naming the whole through its part or vice versa. Synecdoche is a type of metonymy.

Synecdoche is a technique consisting in transferring meaning from one object to another on the basis of a quantitative similarity between them.

Examples:

- "The buyer chooses quality products." The word "Buyer" replaces the entire set of potential buyers.

- "Poop moored to the shore."

The ship is meant.

Hyperbola

- Hyperbola- a stylistic figure of explicit and deliberate exaggeration, with the aim of enhancing the expressiveness and emphasizing the said thought, for example, "I said this a thousand times" or "we have enough food for six months."

Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate color: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. ("the waves rose in mountains")

Litotes

- Litotes , lithotes- a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate mitigation.

Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, power of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, therefore it is called differently inverse hyperbole... In the litote, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.

For example: "A horse the size of a cat", "A man's life is one moment", etc.

Here is an example of litota

Comparison

- Comparison- a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of comparison is to reveal in the object of comparison new properties that are important for the subject of the statement.

Night is a well without a bottom

In comparison, the following are distinguished: the object being compared (the object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place. One of the distinguishing features of comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while a common feature is not always mentioned.

Periphrase

- Periphrase , paraphrase , periphery- in the stylistics and poetics of tropes, descriptively expressing one concept with the help of several.

Periphrase - an indirect reference to an object by not naming, but by description (for example, "night star" = "moon" or "I love you, Peter's creation!" = "I love you, St. Petersburg!").

In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their signs, for example, "who writes these lines" instead of "I" in the author's speech, "fall asleep" instead of "fall asleep", "king of beasts" instead of "lion", "one-armed bandit" instead of "slot machine", "Stagirite" instead of Aristotle. There are logical paraphrases ("the author of Dead Souls") and figurative paraphrases ("the sun of Russian poetry").

Allegory

- Allegory- a conditional image of abstract ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.

As a trope, allegory is used in fables, parables, morality; in the visual arts it is expressed by certain attributes. Allegory arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore, and was developed in the visual arts. The main way of depicting allegory is the generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects, which acquire a figurative meaning

Example: allegory "justice" - Themis (woman with scales).

Allegory of Time Ruled by Wisdom (V. Titian 1565)

The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military instruments, the seasons - by means of their corresponding flowers, fruits or occupations, impartiality - by means of scales and blindfolds, death - through clepsydra and scythe.

Impersonation

- Impersonation- a kind of metaphor, transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used when depicting nature, which is endowed with certain human traits, for example:

And woe, woe, woe!
And grief girded with bast ,
Legs are entangled with scabs.

Or: the personification of the church =>

Irony

- Irony- a trope in which the true meaning is hidden or contradicts (opposes) the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems.

According to Aristotle's definition, irony is "a statement containing a mockery of someone who really thinks so."

- Irony- the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: "Well, you are brave!", "Clever, clever ...". Here, positive statements have negative connotations.

Sarcasm

- Sarcasm- one of the types of satirical exposure, caustic mockery, the highest degree of irony, based not only on the enhanced contrast of the implied and the expressed, but also on the immediate intentional exposure of the implied.

Sarcasm is a harsh ridicule that can open with a positive judgment, but in general it always contains a negative connotation and indicates the lack of a person, object or phenomenon, that is, of what is happening.

Like satire, sarcasm encompasses the struggle against hostile phenomena of reality through their ridicule. Ruthlessness, harshness of exposure - a distinctive feature of sarcasm. Unlike irony, sarcasm is the expression of the highest degree of indignation, hatred. Sarcasm is never a characteristic technique of a humorist who, revealing the funny in reality, always depicts her with a certain amount of sympathy and sympathy.

Example: you have a very clever question. Are you a real intellectual?

Tasks

1) Give a short definition of the word trope .

2) What is the allegory on the left?

3) Name as many types of trails as possible.

Thank you for the attention!!!