Almost all researchers and theorists agree that fascism was the result of a deep economic and social crisis. But such a statement is not very meaningful, since ultimately it comes down to the scale and nature of the crisis. This can be seen from the following sketch of the development of Italian fascism. Its emergence and its growth were determined and conditioned by specific economic, social and political problems that arose already in the 19th century and were aggravated by the course and outcome of the First World War.
In the middle of the last century, Italy was, in comparison with other countries of Western and Central Europe, a backward agrarian country. Since the 70s of the 19th century, they tried to industrialize there. This led to close cooperation between industry, banks and the state, which actively supported economic development with its policy. As a result of this, the Northern Italian heavy industry has won first of all at the expense of other industries, in particular the textile industry. Agriculture remained essentially neglected. This applied not only to the purely agrarian South, still largely fettered by feudalism, but also to the agricultural regions of the North. In Italy, it did not come to an agrarian revolution, or to a reform of property relations and land reform. The mass of small tenants and agricultural workers, opposed to the few large landowners, lived in extremely difficult economic conditions. The state did little to alleviate the needs of the rural proletariat and the mass of factory workers that arose during the industrial development of the northern regions.
After successful wars with Austria in 1861, the Kingdom of Italy appeared, which was able to achieve the territorial unity of the country - in 1866 Venice was annexed to it, and in 1870 - the Papal States; but it was unable and not ready to solve the increasingly aggravated social problems3. The industrial and agrarian elite knew how to pursue their economic interests. Since until 1880, only 2.5% of the population enjoyed the right to vote, the government consisted mostly of right-wing and left-wing liberals, who could easily find a majority in parliament for this policy. But even after, as a result of the electoral reform of 1881, a significant part of the urban middle strata received the right to vote, the former alliance of the industrial elite of the North with the agrarian elite of the South retained its power. Opposition forces were encouraged to cooperate by personal deals, promises and threats, thereby maintaining the status quo. Italians referred to this non-parliamentary political practice with the expression "trasfor-mismo", which literally means "reforming." But such a policy of appeasement and compromise under the sign of "trasformismo" turned out to be powerless in the face of the growing social movement and mass riots, hunger riots and strikes. Therefore, the leading liberal politician, Giolitti, tried to work together the leaders of the socialist party founded in 1882 and the Catholic popolari * party, pursuing modernization and cautious social reforms. However, the reforms to which Giolitti aspired, and his "trasformismo" tactics, which were also applied to the socialists and the "popolari", also faced rejection and criticism in the bourgeois camp. These forces united in the Italian Nationalist Association (Associazione Nazionalista Italiana); they strongly rejected Giolitti's proposed social reforms and proposed instead to divert the attention of the masses with overtly nationalist and imperialist policies. But this tactic, which Giolitti also unwillingly adopted, was unsuccessful. Since the nationalist demands for the annexation of "unredeemed Italian lands" ("Italia irredenta") in South Tyrol and Istria could not yet be satisfied due to the foreign policy situation at that time, the ruling circles turned to colonial policy. Although the attack on Abyssinia in 1896 ended in a crushing defeat for Italian troops at Adua, Libya was annexed in 1912 - only after long and bloody battles. But in the field of domestic politics, attempts to divert attention from social problems by imperialist and nationalist policies were not entirely successful. Although significant strata of the petty bourgeoisie were successfully mobilized and rallied by this tactic, the supporters of the socialist party did not allow themselves to be fooled by slogans calling for the replacement of the class struggle by the "struggle of nations".
The majority of the socialist party under the leadership of Benito Mussolini refused to cooperate with the government under the sign of reformism. In the first elections held in 1913 on the principle of universal suffrage (for men), the radical wing of the socialists achieved great success. In 1914, there were numerous strikes by disaffected industrial and agricultural workers. This prompted conservative groups rallied around the chairman of the Council of Ministers, Salandra, to once again try to stimulate nationalist sentiments among the masses of petty-bourgeois origins in order to distract them from pressing social problems. At first, this concept seemed successful. Under pressure from the interventionists, to whom Mussolini also joined, leaving the Socialist Party because of this, the Italian government was more or less compelled to enter the war on the side of the Allies. Initially, the war led not only to the rallying of the masses through mobilization, but also to modernization and accelerated economic growth. However, this economic growth inevitably proved to be artificial and short-lived, since it was essentially based on state-supported military orders and loans.
After the war, it turned out that the previous economic, social and political problems were not resolved in any way, but, on the contrary, appeared in an even more acute form7. The transition to a peaceful track of the artificially inflated military production, in a number of sectors directed by the state, turned out to be extremely difficult due to a decrease in demand on world markets and a large budget deficit. Increasing inflation made itself felt, unemployment increased8. This led to many unrest and strikes in the cities, culminating in the fall of 1920 when workers took over factories in the industrial areas of northern Italy. The government succeeded in encouraging concessions by promising higher wages, an eight-hour workday and social security, but both sides were not satisfied with the compromise. Most of the workers were not satisfied with this success, believing that in the situation that arose, a socialist revolution was possible. The conflict over this issue separated the reformist part of the Italian labor movement from the stronger maximalist (revolutionary) part, which directly or indirectly contributed to its weakening9. But the industrialists were not at all satisfied with the compromise reached through the mediation of the government. On the one hand, they feared that the labor movement might use its positions in order to actually seize power by revolutionary means. On the other hand, they considered the promised social measures and wage increases unacceptable.
In the agricultural regions of northern Italy, even more acute social conflicts arose. Here, agricultural workers' organizations have made even more strides. Many estates were seized and placed under the control of cooperatives that adjoined an extensive network of consumer societies, also controlled and led by socialist leagues. Moreover, the socialist leagues obliged the remaining large landowners and even small landowners to employ a certain number of workers, with the indispensable mediation of these leagues, regardless of the actual need for labor. At the same time, the maximalist-minded leaders of the socialist leagues were not satisfied even with these unprecedented successes in Europe at that time, since they strove for the complete socialization of the land. These goals were resolutely rejected not only by large landowners, but also by numerous small landowners and tenants, not only unwilling to give up their land, but seeking to acquire more land. This gave rise to a community of interests between small owners and large agrarians, who feared the socialization of the land and wished to cancel the reforms already carried out10.
Although it is more than doubtful that Italy after the First World War was really in a revolutionary situation, as the socialists hoped for it and as industrialists and agrarians feared, there was no non-revolutionary and parliamentary solution to various problems either. The economic and social crisis was accompanied and exacerbated by the political crisis of the Italian system of government.
08.04.2014
World economic crisis 1929 - 1933 exacerbated all the contradictions inherent in capitalism. Social tension in society has increased, the level of class confrontation has reached a critical limit, fraught with conflicts that have unpredictable consequences. As a result, in certain circles of monopoly capital, among the upper strata of the agrarian aristocracy, as well as in the middle strata of society and part of the working class, disillusionment was ripening in the ability of bourgeois parliamentary institutions to provide a way out of the crisis. In most countries, political forces are being formed that are guided by the transfer of power to conservative-reactionary regimes.
One of the models of these regimes is fascism - a system of violent political domination, characterized by the complete subordination of society, its economic, social and spiritual life to state power, organized into an integral military-bureaucratic apparatus headed by a leader. Fascist regimes who had full power, existed in Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal... In Germany and Italy, an all-encompassing totalitarian state-political system of domination by fascist parties was created. This system ensured class peace in their countries through merciless terror and ideological "fooling" of the masses. Spain and Portugal have a special "Iberian" model of fascism... It was characterized by an authoritarian form of government, traditionalism in ideology, and the absence of a doctrine of racial superiority.
Fascism (from Italian fascio - bundle, bundle, unification, see also fascia) is a totalitarian political trend that arose in the XX century; philosophical and political concept and form of government, proceeding from the priority of state interests over all others.
Fascism in Spain, Italy and Germany - Hitler
Fascism in Italy
Fascism in power- an open terrorist dictatorship aimed at suppressing democratic freedoms and social movements. The ideology of fascism- militant chauvinism, racism, anti-communism, violence, the cult of the leader, total power of the state, universal control over the individual, militarization of all spheres of society, aggression. A bundle of twigs (fascia) was a symbol of the system of power in ancient Rome. From there, the ideology of German fascism, and even the name, was derived in many ways: the first empire was proclaimed the medieval Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the second - the German Empire of 1871-1918, the third was to be a renewed one, which revived after the defeat in the First World War and the revolution Germany, which was supposedly to exist for a thousand years (Third Reich, Millennial Reich).
Fascism is considered in modern political science as a combination of three key elements:
Economic system - the economic essence of fascism lies in the hypertrophied role of the state in the presence of a market economy (i.e., the state does not own all the main means of production, but only controls the main levers of influence on the economy);
politicians are a dictatorship, usually based on the personality of a charismatic leader, "the leader of the nation";
ideology - fascism manifests itself in the propaganda of national exclusivity, the "superiority" of one ethnic group over all others.
Therefore, the definition of fascism can only be given taking into account all these three levels.
In other words, fascism is a controlled market economy, dictatorship and nationalism as the official ideology of the state.
Fascism in Italy
Fascism originated in Italy at the end of the First World War 1914-1918. German Nazism(National Socialism) is only one of the many varieties of fascism. Between the First and Second World Wars, almost every European country had its own fascist parties, groups and movements: for example, the Phalangists in Spain, the legion of the Archangel Michael in Romania, the supporters of Ferenc Salasi in Hungary, the British Union of Fascists in Great Britain, etc. In their foreign policy, all fascist regimes pursued a colonial, conquest, expansionist line. For example, Mussolini fought in Abyssinia, the Hungarian fascists dreamed of capturing the entire Danube River basin, the Phalangists turned their sights on the African continent and even on neighboring Portugal. In most cases, fascist regimes were installed in power gradually, often even in a democratic way, as in Germany. These regimes were often preceded by some kind of shock: defeat in a war, humiliation as a result of unequal international treaties, an economic crisis.
Before World War II, the fascists believed that they had common philosophical principles: a leader, a one-party system, social Darwinism, elitism, while each government adhered to its own national model of fascism - for example, the Portuguese clerical-corporate new state under the leadership of Salazar, Spanish Phalangists, Hungarian nilashists. In 1945, the surviving fascist regimes distanced themselves from Nazism so as not to be equated with the Hitlerite variety of fascism condemned by the world community.
Italian fascism - the authoritarian, nationalist policy pursued in Italy from 1922 to 1943 by Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (1883–1945) - the son of a blacksmith, a former socialist, later a dictator, the official title is Duce (it. "leader").
Etymologically, the term " fascism"Comes from the Italian" fascio "(league), as well as from the Latin" fascia "(bundle) - an ancient symbol of the Roman administration. Mussolini adopted the fascia as the symbol of the Fascist party in 1919 when he created the fasci di combattimento (leagues of war).
In political science italian fascism is regarded as a syncretic model of ideology and a form of government from which other varieties of fascism developed.
The main ideas of Italian fascism were presented in the book "The Doctrine of Fascism", as well as in the works of Giovanni Gentile, the founder of the theory of "actualist idealism", which became the basis for the fascists. The doctrine proclaimed the peace of action in the field of humanity, rejected "eternal peace" as something fantastic. The fascists argued that man and humanity cannot live without war.
« Fascist doctrine» B. Mussolini was first published in 1932 in the 14th volume of the Italian encyclopedia Enciclopedia Italiana di scienze, lettere ed arti, as an introduction to the article "Fascismo" (Fascism). In his work, Mussolini wrote that he became disillusioned with the doctrines of the past, including socialism, of which he had been an active conductor for many years. He believed that new ideas should be sought, since political doctrines come and go, but peoples remain. Mussolini was convinced that if the 19th century was the century of individualism, then the 20th century will be the century of collectivism and, therefore, the state.
In search of his recipe for national happiness, he expressed the following provisions:
The fascist concept of the state is all-encompassing. Outside of it, human and spiritual values do not exist. Fascism is totalitarian, and the fascist state includes all values - it interprets, develops and implements all human activity.
Fascism is aware of the reasons why socialism and the trade union movement arose and developed, therefore it attaches appropriate importance to a corporate system in which diverging interests are coordinated and harmonized within a single state.
Fascism is absolutely opposite to liberalism both in politics and economics.
The fascist state governs the economy in the same way as other areas of life - through corporate, social and educational institutions, through the political, economic and spiritual forces of the nation, organized into appropriate associations that function in the state.
Mussolini does not accept the racial definition of a nation that forms a state: "A nation is not a race, or a specific geographic area, but a group lasting in history ..."; “Race is a feeling, not a reality; 95% feeling. "
On June 18, 2010, the Kirovsky District Court of Ufa ruled to declare the book extremist. The court substantiated the decision by the fact that the federal law "On Counteracting Extremist Activity" explicitly includes the works of the leaders of the Italian fascist party in the number of extremist materials. The decision resulted in the inclusion of the book in the "Federal List of Extremist Materials."
Currently, fascist ideas are being developed by various neo-fascist and nationalist organizations - for example, the Jobbik party in Hungary. Opposition to fascist ideologies, organizations and governments is known as anti-fascism.
Features of German fascism.
In 1933, fascism in the form of National Socialism came to power in Germany and immediately began the process of totalitarianization and unification of the entire life of the country. Racism was elevated to the rank of public policy.
In Germany, the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party), whose leader was A. Hitler, emerged at the same time as the fascist movement in Italy - in 1919. Its path to power was longer. Initially, the influence of this party was limited to Bavaria, and its attempt to seize power in this German land in 1923 ended in failure, Hitler even had to spend more than a year in prison.
Only the world economic crisis of 1929-1932, which hit Germany especially hard, changed the situation. In conditions when there was no leader in the country who, like F.D. Roosevelt, to find ways to mitigate the social consequences of the crisis on the basis of democracy, a rapid growth of the influence of two totalitarian and hostile political forces began: the Communist Party of Germany (KKE) and the NSDAP. Each of them defended its own way out of the crisis. However, the National Socialists, by combining social, national and racist slogans, were able to secure wider support for the unemployed and workers who feared losing their jobs, the ruined petty bourgeoisie.
On January 30, 1933, A. Hitler, as the leader of the party with the largest faction in the Reichstag (parliament), became Reich Chancellor (head of government).
After the burning of the Reichstag on February 27, 1933, in which the communists were accused, the KKE was outlawed, and its parliamentary mandates were revoked. This provided the NSDAP and its supporting parties of the center with an absolute majority, sufficient to provide the government with emergency powers. As a result, all parties, except for the NSDAP, were banned, the opposition press was closed, “bad” Germans who did not share the fascist ideology were sent to concentration camps. The Weimar Constitution was abolished, since 1934 A. Hitler became the Fuhrer (leader) of Germany.
The social program of National Socialism - the organization of public works, the construction of roads, which made it possible to eliminate unemployment, overcome class confrontation, lower taxes for small owners - was fulfilled. At the same time, the source of funds was the program of "Aryization" of the economy - the expropriation of property, including banks and enterprises, non-Aryans, primarily Jews (they made up 1/15 of the bourgeoisie in Germany). This property was transferred to the state, partly transferred to German bankers and industrialists. Their gain, however, was only temporary. In 1934, the country's economy was placed under the control of territorial and production associations managed by the Ministry of Economy. The range of 80% of the products that became government orders, their prices, the number of hired workers who lost the right to strike, the level of wages were determined by the state. The maximum level of dividends on invested capital for entrepreneurs was set at 6-8%, more income could be obtained only for special services to the Reich.
The main goal of the totalitarian regimes of A. Hitler and B. Mussolini was the preparation of Germany and Italy for the war, which was to ensure the implementation of the program of acquiring living space, the conquest of "inferior races". The militarist regime of Japan became an ally of the European totalitarian regimes, combining many features of traditional authoritarianism with militant nationalism, a desire for conquest and domination.
With the material and ideological support of the totalitarian regimes of Mussolini and Hitler, in many countries of the world, fascist parties were formed with their assault detachments, which were supposed to become the fifth column to head the governments of their countries after their conquest by Germany and Italy. Fascist groups have sprung up even in countries such as the United States and Great Britain. In France, supporters of fascism tried to seize power in 1934. However, in the countries of the first wave of modernization, fascist ideology could not take root. Its inherent emphasis on the unity of the nation, the special role of the state did not meet the conditions of societies with traditions of ideological and political pluralism, limited by the role of the state.
Fascism in Spain
The provisional government created after the 1931 elections was made up of left-wing republicans and representatives of the middle class. It proclaimed the Second Republic and the beginning of social reforms. But the 1933 election was won by a coalition of moderates and Catholics. Having come to power, they nullified the results of earlier reforms. This sparked an uprising in the mining areas of Asturias, brutally suppressed by the army under the command of General Francisco Franco. In the elections in February 1936, the Popular Front, which united from moderate republicans to communists and anarcho-syndicalists, wins by a 1% margin. The government continued to implement reforms that were supposed to prepare the transition to a socialist republic.
Worried about the left threat, the right, led by the top of the army, began to prepare a conspiracy. The terrorist units of the fascist party provoked riots, to which the left forces responded with violence. The assassination of the leader of the monarchists Jose Calvo Sotelo on July 13, 1936 was the reason for the outbreak of the rebellion. The rebels seized power in Burgos, Salamanca, the provincial cities of León and Old Castile. Workers' detachments suppressed the insurgency in Madrid, Barcelona and the industrial cities of the North. In the south, in Cadiz, the rebels brutally suppressed the Republican protests. Civil war broke out.
The rebels at the very beginning failed to capture and transfer Franco's army from Morocco: the crews of the warships revolted and refused to transport the rebels. The military turned to Germany and Italy for help, which provided aviation for the transfer of troops from Africa. At the same time, France, under pressure from Great Britain, reneged on promises to support the republic out of fear of the outbreak of a world war. The Republicans had to turn to the Soviet Union for help.
In August, Franco's army reached from Seville to Madrid, where it met with fierce resistance. At the same time, General Jose Enrique Varela united the forces of the rebels in Cordoba, Seville, Granada and Cadiz. On September 21, the rebels met in Salamanca to select a commander-in-chief, and on September 28 Franco was approved by him. This allowed him to establish one-man rule and begin political cleansing in the occupied territories. The Republicans, on the other hand, lacked unity of purpose and strategy.
On October 7, Franco, with his army and German Condor units, launched a new offensive against Madrid. Republican troops under the command of General José Miaja, with the support of international brigades, successfully held back their advance. On November 6, the government was evacuated to Valencia, the communists led the defense of the city. By the end of November, Franco abandoned attempts to take Madrid and changed tactics - he tried to encircle the capital. But the Republicans stopped his troops in the battles of Boadilla (December 1936), Jarama (February 1937) and Guadalajara (March 1937). But by the summer of 1937, the rebels had occupied all of northern Spain. During the offensive, the Francoists on April 26, 1937 subjected the Basque city of Guernica to a monstrous bombardment, completely destroying it. After the capture of Asturias, by the end of October 1937, the industry of the Spanish north began to work for the rebels. During the summer and autumn, Republican troops under the command of Vincente Rojo launched a series of counterattacks, trying to prevent the Francoists from launching another attack on Madrid. As a result of such a counteroffensive, on January 8, 1938, the Republicans occupied Teruel.
On February 21, 1938, after days of shelling and bombing, the Francoists occupied Teruel. This defeat demoralized the Republicans, who lacked weapons and ammunition. In April 1938, the rebels descended the river valley. Ebro to the Mediterranean and cut Catalonia off from Madrid and Valencia. In July, Franco launched an offensive against Valencia, where the Republican government was located. In response, Rojo launched an offensive against the Ebro in order to unblock Catalonia and distract the troops from. The battle lasted more than three months: at first, the Republicans advanced almost 40 km, but by mid-November they were forced to retreat. surrendered on January 26, 1939. On March 4, 1939, Colonel Casado, who defended Madrid, rebelled and offered Franco a truce, which he rejected. Republican troops began to surrender, and on March 28 Franco entered Madrid.
Franco's dictatorship was established throughout the country. About 400 thousand Republicans left the country, more than a million went to prisons and labor camps. The losses of Spain amounted to 400 thousand killed in the war and 200 thousand executed after its end.
Spain, weakened by the civil war, did not enter World War II. Initially, Franco supported Germany and Italy and sent the 40,000th Blue Division to the Eastern Front. After 1943 Franco withdrew from supporting the Axis countries and began selling strategic raw materials to the Allies. But this did not prevent the post-war isolation of the country. Only in 1950 were the UN member states allowed to restore diplomatic relations with Spain, and only in 1955 Spain was admitted to the UN.
Franco's domestic policy led to the political passivity of citizens. The first organized groups arose by the 60s on a national basis. These were separatists from Catalonia and the Basque Country (the terrorist organization ETA - Basque Fatherland and Freedom). In the 60s, the regime made some political concessions, in 1966 a law was passed that introduced liberal amendments to the Spanish constitution. Towards the end of the 1960s, the Catholic Church became less active in supporting the Francoist regime. At the same time, economic ties began to improve between Spain and the countries of the West: tourists from North America and Western Europe began to rest in Spanish resorts, and the Spaniards went to work in European countries. But at the political level, Spain was denied accession to the EEC and NATO.
By old age, Franco began to weaken his control over state affairs. In 1969, he announced his successor to the grandson of Alfonso XIII, Prince Juan Carlos. In 1973, Franco handed over the post of prime minister, which he had held since 1939, to Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco. Six months later, in December 1973, Blanco was killed by the ETA terrorists. Carlos Arias Navarro, the first civilian to hold office since 1939, became prime minister. In November 1975 Franco died and Juan Carlos I of the Bourbon dynasty took over as head of state.
Traditionally, Benito Mussolini is recognized as the face of fascism and its author. He believed that fascism was not created by any conservative doctrine, but was born in the minds of the masses, in need of movement and a change in archaic state foundations that do not correspond to modernity. He saw the party of fascists in Italy belonging to him not as an ordinary opposition party, but as a party to all parties, a kind of living movement containing a living spirit. He noted, having created his movement, he did not have a certain conceptual teaching in his hands, and all his canons could be reduced to a specific set of aphorisms, emotions and aspirations, which were later transformed into theory.
The determining factors of Italian fascism were the people and the state. Its feature was the complete domination of the state over the people, and fascism needed a strong state, which, in his opinion, should be like an integral organism, not divided either by economic or ideological criteria. The state should completely deny the presence of individuals, groups of individuals who could form political parties, economic unions, social or cultural associations.
Mussolini argued the need to create only a totalitarian state, in which neither human nor spiritual values exist, or they are of relatively little importance. The formation of a fascist state will receive its logical conclusion in the form of a mighty leader, a leader for the state and the nation, which Mussolini became. As a state leader, he was the chairman of the government, heading ministers, and was also a leader in the Great Fascist Council. The Italian parliament existed until 1936
years, although parliamentary deputies were not elected, but appointed by the fascist council.
The fascist state vitally needed broad public support within the framework of the totalitarian system of government established in the state. The state, according to Mussolini, should be based on multi-million dollar support from the population, who recognize its power, constantly feel the state power, and are ready to serve it. Under such conditions, the priority tasks of the state were the ability to clearly organize the nation, by directing the activities of individuals towards one, clearly defined goal, as well as bringing the foreign policy status of the state to the status of an empire. The power of the state and the peculiarities of Italian fascism lie in the complete militarization of the economy, capable of independently, without the participation of third states, providing complete military equipment of the country. Only large-scale military training will ensure the advancement of the ideals of a totalitarian state to neighboring states through expansion.
Mussolini was extremely preoccupied with his persona and often liked to exaggerate his merits and pretend to be a superman. This is probably why so many of his incredible, ill-conceived plans have failed. He was extremely impatient, therefore, not getting what he wanted in time, he quickly lost interest in the idea and gave up halfway through. By the end of the thirties, the standard of living of the population was falling, the birth rate was also declining, the prices of vital products were increasing against the background of frozen wages. The Italian Duce falls under the influence of Hitler, although before that the Fuhrer was his follower. A huge number of Mussolini's sayings have survived, judging by which he could not stand Hitler's Nazism, defining it as one hundred percent racism absolutely against everyone and everyone: yesterday against Christians, today against Latin civilization, and tomorrow, perhaps, against the entire human civilization. He once characterizes Hitler as a disgusting sexual geek and dangerous madman, and his German National Socialism as savage barbarism, and also that European civilization can be destroyed if this country (Germany) of murderers and homosexuals is allowed to take over the entire continent. Mussolini failed to follow Hitler's example and start persecutions against the Jews, the rebellious people prevented. Many Italians did not like their leader's lack of pleasure. But, unlike Hitler's army, the troops of Italy, sent to the east, managed not to stain themselves with brutal war crimes and the blood of civilians. Mussolini's pathetic attempts to invade Yugoslavia and North Africa did not turn into disaster only thanks to the timely arrival of German troops. But at Stalingrad, the Nazis had no time for Italian like-minded people. V 1943
year in Italy, the allies land and the king dismisses Mussolini from office, putting General Badoglio in his post, after which northern Italy is captured by the Germans, and the southern part of the country is in the hands of the allies. Mussolini, who was under arrest, was subject to release by a detachment of German paratroopers, and led the pro-Nazi government in northern Italy. Later in April 1945-
th, when the outcome of the war became obvious, he tried to flee the country, but was captured by the fighters of the Italian resistance and 28
april shot, taking with him the features of Italian fascism that had been worked out for so long and so diligently promoted.
In Western Europe, there is an Italian fascist regime. The leader of the regime (Duce) Benito Mussolini became Prime Minister of Italy in the fall of 1922. By 1925, the main elements of a totalitarian state were formed here. In the future, Mussolini continued to eliminate constitutional and customary restrictions on his power.
In Germany, the totalitarian system began to take shape in 1933 with the coming to power of the National Socialists (Nazis).
Other Western European countries escaped the fate of totalitarianism.
All over the world, the Nazis were initially accepted as imitators of Italian fascism, therefore the adjective "fascist" was firmly stuck to the Hitlerite movement.
At the same time, the political program of the German National Socialists was based on the idea of conquering the living space for the Aryan Germans. This was seen as the first step towards establishing world domination of the chosen race.
Racism
After the conquest of Ethiopia in 1936, Mussolini took the position of racism, proving the superiority of Italians over the representatives of the black race. In April 1937, Italy adopted segregation laws(forced separation): blacks were forbidden to use public transport intended for whites, eat in cafes and restaurants for whites, use shops for whites, they were even forbidden to appear on the main street of Addis Ababa or simply cross it. In December 1937, similar racial laws were introduced for the Arabs, who constituted the main population of the Italian colony of Libya.
Unlike Mussolini, Hitler never showed racist tendencies.
Anti-semitism
Anti-Semitism was one of the cornerstones of the National Socialist ideology. The persecution of Jews was initiated by the boycott he announced on April 1, 1933, and the subsequent wave of racial laws aimed at Jews working in government institutions. The systematic extermination of this people belonged to the period 1939-1945.
In fascist Italy, on the contrary, there was no persecution of Jews for any ideological reasons. Only at the last stage of the existence of the fascist regime in Italy there were cases of oppression of the Jews. But they were not of a mass character and were caused only by Musso-lini's desire to please Hitler.
Italian fascism began as an atheist and anti-clerical movement, but then compromised with the church. The Catholic Church received, under the Lateran Treaty, concluded in February 1929, even more power and influence than before. Along with significant state subsidies, she acquired far-reaching rights to intervene and control in the field of upbringing and family life. Since 1929, insulting the Pope has become a criminal offense.
In Germany, the National Socialists strengthened ties with the Protestant Evangelical denomination and sought to limit the influence of the Catholic Church. However, there is no need to talk about a strong alliance between state and church in Germany. The religious component did not play any role in the ideology of the National Socialists. In fact, we can talk about the new-language component, which was promoted by the efforts of the ideologue of Nazism A. Rosenberg.
Economic policy
Coming to power, totalitarian leaders were faced with the need to fulfill their promises to bring the economy out of the crisis. Material from the site
State regulation measures were then carried out in fascist Italy and in Nazi Germany. In Italy, in 1933, the Institute of Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) was created, which controlled the activities of 120 enterprises with 280 thousand employees. Anti-crisis measures in Germany were associated with the militarization of the national economy, which was financed from the state budget. The state carried out public works (construction of highways, drainage of swamps, etc.). All these measures made it possible to eliminate unemployment. The Nazis paid considerable attention to the peasantry. The adopted law on hereditary courtyards did not allow the taking of land from peasants under any conditions. But this land could not be sold, donated and split up upon inheritance. A fixed price for agricultural products was established.
Pursuing such an economic policy, the Nazis and Nazis did not touch the structure of the market economy, but instead actively sought to "reconcile" workers and entrepreneurs by promoting common national goals. In Germany, there was a single corporation (fascist trade union) that regulated the relationship between workers and entrepreneurs. In Italy, a corporate system was created, modeled on medieval guilds, which united all workers and entrepreneurs in more than 30 corporations by industry. All questions of the organization of labor remuneration were decided within these corporations, and not in open class confrontation, as before. With the help of these measures, the Italian fascists and the German National Socialists hoped to protect themselves from the threat of the spread of the proletarian revolution.
In the 30s, it finally took shape the image of Italian fascism as a totalitarian system:
1) the government received the right to issue decrees having the force of law (it becomes the central body of both the executive and legislative branches);
2) Parliament was not dissolved, but essentially did not function, and in 1939 it was replaced by the Great Fascist Council;
3) after the assassination attempt on Mussolini - emergency laws, according to which all democratic freedoms were prohibited (all political parties except the fascist one, opposition newspapers, free trade unions and strikes);
4) a secret police, a special tribunal have been created, the death penalty has been introduced;
5) the functions of local authorities were transferred to prefects appointed from above;
6) in the hands of El Duce - the post of head of government, head of the internal police, head of the fascist party and a number of ministerial posts;
7) Fascist trade unions, children's and youth organizations of a militarized nature, sports societies were created. Every second Italian, regardless of gender and age, was a member of an association controlled by the fascist party;
8) the media and all types of cultural activities were under the control of the Ministry of Popular Culture.
The monarchy was maintained with the passive position of the king. Mussolini declared himself a loyal servant of the king and the monarchy.
He himself called his regime totalitarian, in which the state controls all aspects of the life of the state. The new morality consisted in the complete subordination of the interests of the individual to the fascist state; the nation, the leader and the family were placed at the head of propaganda. The war was portrayed as the pinnacle of the life of the nation and the individual; during the war, the best qualities of a person are manifested - his fighting efficiency, obedience, morality.
Fascism by Mussolini - constant revolution, whose goal is to renew Italy.
1929 g.- between the Italian state and the Pope were concluded 3 Lateran Agreements, which determined the international legal status of the Vatican, the relationship between church and state and settled the financial relations of the parties.
Italy recognized the Vatican as an independent state, paid him a large sum, pledged to support Catholicism, to perform its rituals, the church was given great rights in matters of family and school. In return, the Vatican renounced its claims to Rome, recognized the fascist regime and did not condemn it. This was very important for Mussolini and strengthened his position.
Due to the economic crisis of 1929-1934, government regulation became broad and comprehensive. Amid the crisis, Italian fascism embarked on the implementation of its main social experiment - corporate system(building a corporate state in which class harmony and social peace reign).
V 1930-34 years corporations were created in all branches of industry, trade, agriculture, services, they included everyone who was employed in this area. The corporate system became one of the levers of the fascist state regulation of the economy.
Support for the regime was facilitated by its social politics... The previously existing system of social insurance and pensions was expanded and supplemented by the introduction of new insurance (sickness, disability and unemployment, maternity protection, benefits stimulating an increase in the birth rate).
To some extent, fascism contributed to the modernization of the Italian economy, but Italy never reached the number of the strongest industrialized countries. The reality did not match the ambitions of the fascist regime - the re-establishment of the Great Roman Empire and the transformation of the Mediterranean Sea into an inland Italian sea.
Mussolini, without a doubt, was a charismatic personality, possessed a sharp political instinct, tenacious grip, the gift of an orator, knew how to impress the audience as a charming and full of energy leader, a native of the people.
Unlike Germany:
1) there was no such tough regime - mass destruction of people, concentration camps and gas ovens. BUT! arrests and persecution of anti-fascists, lengthy prison sentences;
2) Italians were declared one of the Aryan races , The "purity" of which must be protected in every possible way. The persecution of persons of non-Aryan, primarily Jewish, origin began. There was no universal extermination of the Jewish population, but their civil rights were limited (to marry them, teach and hold scientific posts, serve in government institutions, their children had to study separately from other students, in special classes, they were not subject to conscription. and were constrained in their rights to real estate);
2) some economic freedoms were preserved;
3) cooperation with traditional social and political institutions(cadre army, monarchy, church, tribal aristocracy).
4) the party did not completely replace the state, but performed the most important organizational and ideological function ("the party acts on the orders of the leader and is in the service of the fascist state").