The forms and methods of implementing the principles of forming organizational structures allow us to distinguish several of their types. So, according to the level (degree) of differentiation and integration of management functions, two classes of structures are distinguished:
- mechanistic, or bureaucratic, pyramidal, based on a centralist type of integration;
- organic, or adaptive, multidimensional, based on a combination of centralist and free types of integration.
Mechanistic (bureaucratic) pyramidal structures
Stability and rationalism were the priority parameters for the formation of bureaucratic structures for managing organizations already at the beginning of the 20th century. The concept of bureaucracy, then formulated by the German sociologist Max Weber, contains the following characteristics of a rational structure:
- a clear division of labor, which leads to the emergence of highly qualified specialists in each position;
- hierarchy of management levels, in which each lower level is controlled by a higher level and obeys him;
- the presence of an interconnected system of generalized formal rules and standards, which ensures uniformity in the performance by employees of their duties and the coordination of various tasks;
- formal impersonality of the performance of official duties by officials;
- hiring in strict accordance with qualification requirements; protection of employees from arbitrary dismissals.
Pyramidal bureaucratic structures include: linear, functional, linear-functional, line-staff, divisional organizational structures.
Linear organizational structure of management
The linear structure implements the principle of one-man management and centralism, provides for the implementation of all management functions by one leader, subordination to him as one-man management of all lower-level divisions (Fig. 11.1).
This is one of the simplest organizational management structures. In linear structures, hierarchy is clearly manifested: at the head of each structural unit is a leader, endowed with all powers, exercising sole leadership of the employees subordinate to him and concentrating all management functions in his hands.
In linear management, each link and each subordinate has one leader, through which all management commands pass through one channel at a time. In this case, management links are responsible for the results of all activities of the managed objects. It is about the object-by-object allocation of managers, each of whom performs all types of work, develops and makes decisions related to the management of this object.
Since in the linear management structure decisions are passed along a chain from top to bottom, and the manager of the lower management level himself is subordinate to the manager of a higher level above him, a kind of hierarchy of leaders of this particular organization is formed (for example, the head of the section, the head of the department, the director of the store, the foreman, the engineer , shop manager, director of the enterprise). In this case, the principle of one-man management operates, the essence of which is that subordinates carry out the orders of only one leader. In a linear management structure, each subordinate has his own boss, and each boss has several subordinates. Such a structure functions in small organizations, and in large ones - at the lowest management level (section, team, etc.).
The linear organizational structure of management has its advantages and disadvantages (Table 11.1).
Table 11.1
| Advantages | Flaws |
|---|---|
|
|
In functional structures, functional units are created, endowed with authority and responsibility for the results of their activities. Linear links differ from functional ones by the integration of object management functions, a set of powers and responsibilities. The bottom line is that the implementation of certain functions on specific issues is entrusted to specialists, i.e. each governing body (or performer) is specialized in the performance of certain types of management activities. In an organization, as a rule, specialists of the same profile are united into specialized structural divisions (departments), for example, a planning department, accounting, etc. Thus, the overall task of managing the organization is divided, starting from the middle level, according to the functional criterion. Hence the name - the functional management structure (Fig. 11.2). Instead of universal managers who must understand and perform all management functions, a staff of specialists appears who have high competence in their field and are responsible for a certain direction (for example, planning and forecasting).
The functional structure implements the principle of division and consolidation of management functions between structural divisions, provides for the subordination of each linear division of the lower level to several higher-level managers who implement management functions. The advantages and disadvantages of this structure are presented in table. 11.2.
Table 11.2
| Advantages | Flaws |
|---|---|
|
|
Experts point to a close relationship between the size of the firm and the organizational structure of management. The expansion of the size of the enterprise, the complication of internal relationships create conditions, and also necessitate the adoption of complex decisions aimed at restructuring the organization of internal management, an increase in the size of the company leads to a deepening of structural differentiation (branches, management levels, organizational units).
In turn, this leads to an increase in administrative and management costs, as well as costs associated with coordination, but does not reduce the advantage of homogeneity of large firms, which is due to the fact that these firms are managed from a single center. However, the structural differentiation inherent in large firms requires the use of indirect (economic) methods of management and coordination of the activities of various organizational units.
Types of committees
There is no doubt the advantage of using committees in such work where coordination of actions of management units is required, consultation in decision-making, determination of powers and responsibilities, and development of a work schedule.
New types of organizational structures
Currently, such types of structures as network and virtual organizations, organizations with "internal" markets, multidimensional organizations, market-oriented organizations, entrepreneurial organizations, participatory, adhocratic, intellectual, training organizations, circular corporations, etc. are developing.
Networking means that an organization disaggregates its core functions (manufacturing, sales, finance, R&D) between individual contracting companies, with a small parent organization acting as a broker (intermediary). The organizational chart of a hypothetical network organization is shown in Fig. 11.10.
Networked organizations differ from other types of organizations in a number of ways. First, network organizations rely more on market mechanisms than on administrative forms of resource management. Second, many of the newly developed networks assume a more active and engaged role for the participants. Thirdly, in an increasing number of industries, networks are an association of organizations based on cooperation and mutual ownership of shares by group members - manufacturers, suppliers, trading and financial companies.
Closely related to the network structure is the so-called virtual organization or structure. Unlike traditional mergers and acquisitions, partners in virtual organizations share costs, leverage each other's production expertise and access to international markets.
The hallmarks of networked virtual organizations of the future can be summarized as follows:
- using information technology to establish strong contacts;
- joining efforts to realize new opportunities;
- lack of traditional boundaries - with close cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, customers, it is difficult to determine where one company begins and another ends;
- the main advantages and disadvantages of such organizations are given in table. 11.7;
- trust - partners share a sense of "common destiny", realizing that the fate of each of them depends on the other;
- excellence - since each partner brings their “core competence” to the union, an organization that is modern in every respect can be created.
Table 11.7
| Dignity | Flaws |
|---|---|
|
|
Multidimensional organization. This term was first used in 1974 by W. Goggin to describe the structure of the Dow Corning corporation. Multidimensional organizations represent an alternative to the traditional type of organizational structure. As we know, in traditional organizational structures, the allocation of organizational units occurs, as a rule, according to one of the following criteria:
- functional (finance, production, marketing);
- grocery (for example, factories or production units that produce various goods and services);
- market (say, by regional principle or by type of consumer).
Depending on the specifics of the activity, one or another criterion prevails in the construction of the organizational structure. Over time, under the influence of external changes and changes in the company itself (its size, scale of activities, other internal factors), the organizational structure of the company itself, and the prevailing principle of separation of divisions, can change. For example, with access to regional markets, the traditional linear-functional structure can be transformed into a regional divisional one. At the same time, reorganization is a rather lengthy and complicated process.
Given the dynamism of the external environment, the company must be able to instantly respond to changes, so a structure is required that does not need to be rebuilt. This structure is a multidimensional organization.
Multidimensional organizations are organizations in which structural units simultaneously perform several functions (as if in several dimensions) (Figure 11.11), for example:
- provide their production activities with the necessary resources;
- produce a certain type of product or service for a specific consumer or market;
- provide sales (distribution) of their products and serve a specific consumer.
The basis of a multidimensional organization is an autonomous working group (department), which implements all three functions: supply, production, distribution.
Such a group can be a “profit center”. Sometimes these can be independent companies.
Departments can easily be included in the organizational structure and can leave it, their viability depends on the ability to produce goods and services that are in demand. Business units focused on a product or service pay internal and external suppliers on a contractual basis. Functional divisions (production, warehouse, personnel, accounting) provide services mainly to other divisions of the company, being suppliers for them. Thus, an internal market appears within the organization. The divisions are flexible in responding to changes in the needs of internal and external consumers. Consumers, on the other hand, automatically control their suppliers. At the same time, the performance indicators of a subdivision do not depend on the indicators of another subdivision, which facilitates the control and assessment of the subdivision's activities.
The features of multidimensional organizations are as follows:
- subdivision budgets are developed by the subdivisions themselves, the company invests funds in them or gives loans;
- in multidimensional organizations there is no double subordination, as in a two-dimensional matrix model, the leadership of the group is one;
- many departments within a multidimensional organization can also be multidimensional. Divisions can also be multidimensional, even if the organization as a whole is not multidimensional (for example, a regional office of a large corporation may have a multidimensional structure, while the corporation as a whole is a divisional structure);
- there is no need for any reorganization of the organizational structure as a whole and the interrelationships of autonomous groups, units can simply be created, liquidated or modified;
- each division of the organization can be completely autonomous, dealing with both recruitment and sales of finished products, etc.;
- the main indicator of the effectiveness of the work of autonomous groups is the profit received; this simplifies the analysis and control over the activities of groups, reduces bureaucracy, and the management system works more efficiently.
The main advantages and disadvantages of multidimensional organizations are shown in table. 11.8.
Table 11.8
| Dignity | Flaws |
|---|---|
|
|
Circular organization. The basic principle of circular organization is democratic hierarchy. Leaders are not commanders, but rather act as leaders. In contrast to the hierarchical structure of traditional organizations, a circular organization has such features as the lack of undivided authority of leaders, the possibility of participation of each member of the organization in management, collective decision-making in the management of each member of the organization. These principles are implemented through the peculiarities of the structure of a circular organization, the main of which is that a council is formed around each leader (Figure 11.12).
Each council, in addition to the head of the division, includes his subordinates, as well as third-party representatives - heads of other structural divisions, external clients and consumers, public representatives. Board membership is mandatory for managers, but voluntary for subordinates.
Virtual organization. The emergence of the concept of a virtual organization is associated with the publication in 1992 of the monograph by W. Davidow and M. Malone "The Virtual Corporation".
A virtual organization is a network that includes the unification of human, financial, material, organizational, technological and other resources of various enterprises and their integration using computer networks. This allows you to create a flexible and dynamic organizational system that is best suited to the rapid creation of a new product and its introduction to the market. The virtual organization does not have a geographic center, the functioning of its subdivisions is coordinated with the help of modern information technologies and telecommunications.
The development of information technology has made it possible to make the physical presence of managers at workplaces optional. Virtual associations are grouped by design principle, i.e. on a temporary basis.
as the need arises to create a specific product, implement a project, make a profit. The concept of a virtual organization creates fundamentally new business opportunities and is widely used in the 21st century.
An organization with an “internal market”. The evolution of organizational structures is gradually evolving from hierarchical bureaucratic structures to matrix and project structures, and in recent decades - to decentralized networks and business units.
The concept of "domestic markets" is in stark contrast to the hierarchical structure. On the one hand, it allows you to use the potential of entrepreneurship within the organization, on the other hand, it has the disadvantages of market relations.
The basic principle of such organizations is the wide autonomy of subdivisions (both linear and functional). Subdivisions are considered as autonomous "internal enterprises" that buy and sell goods and services, participate in intra-firm and inter-firm relationships.
Let's list the principles of formation and functioning of organizations with "internal markets":
1. Transformation of the hierarchy into internal business units. All divisions are transformed into autonomous "internal enterprises", becoming responsible for the results of activities.
2. Creation of economic infrastructure, including general reporting, communication and incentive systems.
3. Targeted stimulation of synergy.
4. All departments are accountable for results, and creative entrepreneurship is encouraged. Each business unit is treated as a small, separate company that independently manages its activities and disposes of resources. Departments are given the freedom to conduct business, both internally and externally.
5. Supporting functional units are commercial centers that sell their services both to other units of the firm and to external customers.
So, considering the development trends of organizations and organizational structures, it can be noted that a modern organization is:
- a market-oriented organization. They are organic, highly adaptable divisional or matrix organizations in which all of their parts (R&D, manufacturing, human resources, marketing, procurement, sales, finance, services) are grouped around a market or markets. These are “market-driven” organizations;
- entrepreneurial organization, i.e. an organization that is more focused on growth and on existing opportunities and achievements than on controlled resources;
- participatory organization - an organization that makes the most of employee participation in management;
- adhocratic organization - an organization that uses a high degree of freedom in the actions of employees, their competence and ability to independently solve emerging problems. This is an organic structure of a matrix, project, network type, with a predominance of informal horizontal connections. Often the structure of the organization is completely absent, the hierarchical structure is constantly changing, vertical and horizontal ties are predominantly informal in nature;
Analysis of the experience of building organizational structures shows that the formation of management units is significantly influenced by the external and internal environment of the organization. This is the main reason for the impossibility of applying a single model of the management structure for all organizations. In addition, this impossibility is due to the specific characteristics of a particular organization. The creation of a modern effective management structure should be based on scientific methods and principles of building organizational structures.
The main characteristic feature of the new systems of intrafirm management should be: orientation to the long term; conducting fundamental research; diversification of operations; innovative activity; maximum use of the creative activity of the staff. Decentralization, reduction of levels in the management apparatus, promotion of workers and their remuneration depending on real results will become the main directions of changes in the management apparatus.
The process of modification of organizational management structures is developing in a number of specific areas. The main ones are the following.
1. Implementation of the decentralization of production and sales operations. To this end, within the framework of the largest companies, semi-autonomous or autonomous branches have already been created or are being created, fully responsible for profit and loss. All responsibility for the organization of production and marketing activities is entrusted to these departments. Each department fully finances its activities, enters into partnerships on a commercial basis with any organization.
2. Innovative expansion, search for new markets and diversification of operations. This direction is implemented through the creation of innovative firms within the framework of large companies focused on production and independent promotion of new products and technologies in the markets and operating on the principles of "risk financing". It is becoming a widespread practice of large companies to create small enterprises in the most promising areas, aimed at gaining strong market positions in the shortest possible time.
3. De-bureaucratization, a constant increase in the creative production efficiency of personnel. To this end, a variety of measures are being taken, including the distribution of shares among employees and the formation of enterprises that are collectively owned by their employees.
In modern conditions, not only fundamentally new forms of organization for our country are required, not only fundamentally excellent management methods, but also transitional modes of activity, a gradual transformation of some structures into others. In order to comprehensively take into account both the internal characteristics of organizations and dynamically changing external circumstances, as well as emerging progressive trends, it is necessary to use a systematic approach to the formation and reorganization of enterprises.
The systematic approach to the formation of the organizational structure is manifested in the following:
- not to lose sight of any of the management tasks, without the solution of which the implementation of goals will be incomplete;
- to identify and interconnect in relation to these tasks the system of functions, rights and responsibilities along the vertical of management;
- to investigate and organizationally formalize all connections and relationships along the horizontal management, i.e. coordination of the activities of various links and management bodies in the implementation of common current tasks and the implementation of promising cross-functional programs;
- to provide an organic combination of vertical and horizontal management, meaning finding the optimal ratio of centralization and decentralization in management for the given conditions.
All this requires a carefully developed step-by-step procedure for designing structures, a detailed analysis and definition of a system of goals, a thoughtful allocation of organizational units and forms of their coordination, and the development of appropriate documents.
In this part of the lecture, we will analyze the most common and generally accepted management structure. What kind of structure is it? It is rather a symbiosis of two organizational structures at once - linear and functional, as a result we get a linear-functional management structure! But first things first, because it did not appear immediately, but as a result of the transformation of the functional structure of enterprise management.
The concept of a functional management structure
What is the peculiarity of the functional structure? In the classical view, the functional structure appeared as a result of the complication and expansion of production processes. That is, the volume of production and the number of employees increased so much that it was no longer possible to manage in the old way. The principles and approaches to management that existed at that time had to be modified to suit the new conditions. We get that, as well as, the functional structure is the fruit of development processes and, first of all, production.
Historically, the functional organizational structure is the third emerging structure after the line and headquarters. However, it is fundamentally different from the first two. If we recall the classification of management structures, which we considered, then there we classified structures according to the vertical and horizontal principles of management. Here is the functional structure refers to the horizontal construction of structures, or it is characterized by the process of department - the allocation of departments (departments).
The main feature of the functional structure lies in the fact that specialists or departments appear in it for the main basic functions of management, and these departments have the right to make decisions on this function, for which they are responsible.
That is, a special department is formed, for example, a supply department, it performs all the functions related to supply, makes decisions on supply itself and is responsible for performed or not performed actions. This is the main principle of the functional structure as opposed to the headquarters.
Although the functional structure was transformed from the headquarters structure, in this situation the headquarters received the status of independent units and began to perform their functions independently. This is how functional structures came into being. In addition, the formation and development of functional structures was greatly influenced by the Administrative School of Management, and in particular, its founder Henri Fayol. Fayol was the first to talk about the delineation of functions not only in the organization itself, but also in the management process.
We will schematically represent the functional structure of management in the figure.
The obvious advantage of the functional structure is specialization in a certain direction (function), but the disadvantage of this structure is also significant. Next, we will take a closer look at the advantages and disadvantages of the functional management structure.
Advantages and disadvantages of a functional management structure
As noted above, the most important advantage of the functional structure is functional specialization, that is, the historically well-known process of splitting the general action into small operations, in this case, the management function. In such a situation, the execution of the action is significantly improved, which is what a large organization needs. The disadvantage that the functional structure received is the simultaneous subordination of all performers to all functional managers, as can be seen from the figure. We will present all the disadvantages and advantages in the diagram.
The main drawback that makes it difficult to use this structure in its pure form is the lack of one-man management. As noted earlier, the management structure should be based on the principle of subordination of the performer to one immediate supervisor (one-man command), it is this principle that violates the functional structure. Therefore, in its pure form, this structure is not used, precisely because of the difficulties of coordination, when the performer does not know exactly who his immediate boss is, and what work to do in the first place.
The way out was found quickly enough. To take advantage of the functional structure, it was necessary to add to it the advantages of another basic structure - linear.
Linear-functional organizational structure of management and its features
The practice of management very quickly made it clear that in management it is necessary to use both functional and linear principles of process control. This is how the linear-functional structure of the organization's management appeared. This type of structure is most often used in practice, especially in medium and small organizations. They were formed long ago, and, despite a number of shortcomings, they are classical and basic structures in modern management.
The basic principle of the linear-functional structure is that the main production decisions are made by the line manager in charge of this direction, while the functional units work together with the line manager (this interaction is shown in the diagram with dotted lines), and do not participate in the direct management of production personnel. that is, all performers are subordinate to only one line manager. In such a situation, the principle of one-man command will be observed.
An example of a linear functional structure
Thus, the main feature of the linear-functional structure is that it makes it possible to immediately use the advantages of both linear and functional approaches to management. But the main drawback that is characteristic of this class of structures is weak flexibility. Organizations are extremely difficult to adapt to changes in, when using such a structure of the management apparatus. In order to improve adaptation to the environment, new management structures appeared - and. But this will be discussed in the following parts of Lecture 7.
Linear-functional management structure is a special system in which the functions of managers are divided into several large groups: mandatory; recommendatory for implementation at the enterprise.
Such a variable model should be built on the basis of several mandatory principles. Let's consider them in more detail.
First, the linear-functional organizational structure of management implies the presence of a common leader and heads of departments, who must share their impact on employees in accordance with the tasks assigned to them.
Secondly, a top-level manager is obliged to carry out only a linear impact on all employees of the company. But functional bosses must have a technological impact.
Thirdly, the linear-functional structure of the organization's management implies that any performer will be able to transfer part of his work to a lower level. ...
The linear-functional management structure has the following advantages:
1) there is an opportunity to attract more competent, qualified and erudite specialists in a certain field to the leadership; 2) there is efficiency in making decisions in non-standard situations; 3) the presence of a rapid growth in the professionalism of managers performing functional roles; 4) the ability to receive consistent orders, orders and assignments; 5) the presence of full personal responsibility for the result of their activities.
The linear-functional management structure has the following disadvantages:
1) the difficulty in coordinating the actions of all departments that are part of the general system of the enterprise; 2) the presence of a large load of the leader and his assistants on basic management and production issues.
As a result, there is a process of decentralization within the framework of this structure, which leads to the fact that responsibility and rights are more deeply able to be shared between various bodies; technical guiding practical developments; departments for the purchase of materials, spare parts and raw materials, sales, production and so on.
Question 31: "Matrix management structure, its advantages and disadvantages"
The matrix control structure is considered one of the most complex structures of the adaptive type. The matrix organizational structure of management is created by combining linear and software-digital technologies. According to the first system (vertically), specific individual areas of organizational activity are managed. As for the program-target form (horizontally), it is used to exercise control over production, supply and other areas. The matrix management structure can be of two types. In the first one, the project manager liaises with two groups of employees. First of all, these are those members of the project team who are part of it on an ongoing basis. In addition to them, communication is carried out with those subordinates who belong to all other functional units temporarily subordinate to him. As for the second type, in this case, only those performers who are included in the necessary structural departments are temporarily subordinate to the head.
The matrix structure of management has the following advantages: 1. Simultaneous use of several types of activities within the framework of ongoing programs.
2. Obtaining a high-quality result for many projects and programs. Involvement in business for the purpose of realizing specific goals of a larger number of managers and specialists at all levels. 3. Overcoming obstacles that are created in the organization itself. At the same time, the development of functional specialization does not suffer. 4. Reducing the burden on the top-level manager by redistributing some part of the authority to middle-level managers.
There is also a considerable list of disadvantages that such a structure has:
1. In order to bring it to life, it is necessary to prepare employees, which takes a lot of time.
2. The structure is very cumbersome and complex, which entails problems not only with its implementation, but also with its operation.
3. Within the framework of the system, there is no clear distribution of the rights of each participant, therefore, there is a tendency towards anarchy.
4. Difficulties appear with the use of promising employees in the given company.
5. In times of crisis, the matrix management structure has a low degree of efficiency.
6. Very often, a struggle for power begins within the framework of the implementation of this system, because the governing powers are not clearly assigned.
Question 32: "Divisional management structure, its advantages and disadvantages"
Divisional structure - An enterprise management structure in which the management of individual products and individual functions is clearly separated. A divisional structure is sometimes referred to as a commodity structure, a program structure, or a self-sustaining business unit structure.
In a divisional structure, divisions are created as autonomous units with their own functional departments for each division.
An alternative to dividing by product line is to group the activities of companies by geographic region or customer group.
The merits of the divisional structured approach.
1.Fast response, good adaptability to unstable external environment.
2. Stimulates increased attention to customer needs.
3. Excellent coordination of activities of functional units.
Flaws:
1. Duplication of resources in departments.
2. Less high level of technical development and specialization in the departments.
3. Weak coordination of interaction between units.
Question 33: Basic organizational and legal forms ”.
In accordance with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, the following organizational forms of commercial enterprises can be created in Russia: business partnerships and societies, production cooperatives, state and municipal unitary enterprises. Its participants, in accordance with the agreement concluded between them, are engaged in entrepreneurial activity and are responsible for their obligations with property belonging to them, i.e. unlimited liability applies to participants in a full partnership.
A partnership of faith. It is a partnership in which, along with participants who carry out entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and who are responsible for the circumstances of the partnership with their property, there are contributing participants.
Limited Liability Company. This is a company founded by one or more persons, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares of sizes determined by the constituent documents. Members of a limited liability company bear the risk of losses associated with the company's activities within the value of their contributions.
Additional liability company. The peculiarity of such a society is that its participants bear subsidiary liability for the obligations of the society in the same multiple for all to the value of their contributions.
Joint-stock company. It is recognized as a company, the authorized capital of which is divided into a certain number of shares. The members of the company are not liable for its obligations and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the company, within the limits of the value of their shares. A joint stock company, whose members can freely sell their shares without the consent of other shareholders, is recognized as an open joint stock company.
Production cooperatives. This is a voluntary association of citizens on the basis of membership for joint production or other economic activities based on their personal labor or other participation and the consolidation of property shares by its members (participants). Members of a production cooperative bear subsidiary liability for its obligations. The profit of the cooperative is distributed among its members in accordance with their labor participation.
State and municipal unitary enterprises. A unitary enterprise is a commercial organization that is not endowed with the ownership right to the property assigned to the owner. The property of a unitary enterprise is indivisible and cannot be distributed by contribution (shares, shares). Including between employees of the enterprise. Only state and municipal enterprises can be created in the form of unitary enterprises.
Question 34: “Current trends in the development of an organization in the development of organizations. New types of organizations ".
Modern science knows two forms of development: evolutionary, which is characterized by gradual quantitative and qualitative changes, and revolutionary, which is an abrupt, unconscious transition from one state of a system or control process to another (a change in consciousness without a corresponding change in the basis). Evolutionary changes for the organization are more optimal and are associated with the passage of certain stages of the life cycle, overcoming crisis situations. It is not just repeating the same pattern, but improving the ability to manage problems of increasing complexity. A deep understanding of the stages and laws of evolution helps to manage the transition from one stage to the next.
Evolutionary, implying predictable gradual (gradual) changes.
Revolutionary, often associated with unpredictable results.
Given the dependence on the direction of the process, the types of development are distinguished - progressive, regressive and supportive.
Progressive development (change) is a transition from a lower quality to a higher one, from less perfect to more perfect.
Regressive development (change) is a decrease in the quality level, it means a transition from a higher to a lower level of organization of the control object.
Supportive development ensures the preservation of the existing parameters of the control object.
The development of the system occurs due to fluctuations - random deviations of values from the mean values. Due to deviations from equilibrium in one or several parameters, the motion of a non-equilibrium system to an element or direction of activity that can ensure its stability (attractor) is ensured. Development - as a process of a fluctuating nature, is carried out not along a constantly ascending straight line, but on the basis of the alternation of phases or periods of decline and growth as a result of qualitative and quantitative changes. Any socio-economic organization is a complex system. For this reason, it is extremely important to talk about its complex development. It is customary to understand integrated development as a purposeful and regulated change in technical, economic, social and organizational parameters.
New types of organizations:
Edhocratic organizations are organizations that use a high degree of freedom in the actions of employees, their competence and ability to independently solve emerging problems. Edhocracy is also a management style of leadership, in which the means to achieve complex goals are chosen by the performers themselves. Edhocratic organizations are effective in the implementation of creative projects, the introduction of new technologies, in anti-crisis management.
Multidimensional organizations are organizations in which working groups (departments) independently and simultaneously perform three functions (as if in three dimensions). provide their production activities with the necessary resources;
2. produce a specific product or service for a specific consumer, market or territory;
3. provide sales (distribution) of their products and serve a specific consumer.
Participatory organizations are organizations that use employee participation in governance. This ensures the motivation of their work, heightens the sense of ownership. In traditional organizations, the leader makes decisions, and the employee implements them. In organizations with delegation of rights, the subordinate independently makes decisions within the framework of his powers (according to the “herringbone” or “matryoshka” system). In participatory organizations, the decision is made taking into account the opinion (contribution) of the leader and the contribution of employees.
Entrepreneurial organizations are organizations that are more focused on growth and on available opportunities and achievements than on controlled resources. 1. management is an inverted pyramid; 2. entrepreneurial cells themselves choose the type of entrepreneurship, type of business, goals, methods, means of activity; market needs dictate their forms of activity; 3. the resources of the organization (finances, information, personnel, time, ideas) are at the disposal of the entrepreneurial cells;
MARKET-ORIENTED ORGANIZATIONS. They are organic, highly adaptable divisional or matrix organizations in which all of their parts (R&D, manufacturing, human resources, marketing, procurement, sales, finance, services) are grouped around a market or markets. These are organizations "driven by the market"
18. Linear-functional management structure, its advantages and disadvantages.
The linear-functional structure provides such a division of management work, in which the linear management links are called upon to team up, and the functional ones - to consult, help in the development of high-quality production Heads of functional divisions (according to marketing, financiers, personnel) influence the production divisions formally. As a rule, they do not have the right to independently give them power, the role of functional services depends on the scale of business and management in the company. Functional services provide all technical preparation of production; Prepare options for solving issues related to the production process. Adequate structure :
Occupation of line managers from the solution of many issues related to the planning of financial calculations, material and technical support;
The maintenance of the link “master - subordinate” by the hierarchical ladder, in which each worker is subordinate only to one driver.
Deficiencies in the structure:
Each link is interested in achieving its own narrow goal, and not the general goal of the company;
Lack of tight interconnections and interoperability at the horizontal level between the production areas;
Excessively developed system of vertical interaction;
Accumulation at the top of the level is full of power to solve the problem with several strategic tasks.
19. Divisional management structure, its advantages and disadvantages.
To address the challenges posed by firm size, diversification, technology and change. external environment, a divisional organizational structure was developed, according to which the division of the organization into blocks occurs: 1. by the issuance of goods or services 2. by groups of buyers (targeting consumers) 3. geographic region.
The need for the application of the divisional structure has arisen in connection with the sharp increase in the size of the enterprises, the diversification of their activities, the maintenance of technological The key figures in the management of organizations with this structure of the state are not the managers of functional divisions, but the managers who are the main leaders of the production. Scheme of the product structure: Advantages of the divisional structure:
a closer connection between production and consumers, an accelerated response to changes in the external environment;
improved coordination of work in subdivisions due to subordination to one person;
the emergence of y subdivisions of the competitive advantages of small firms.
Disadvantages of the structure:
growth of hierarchy, vertical management;
duplication of management functions at different levels leads to an increase in the cost of maintaining the management equipment;
duplication of work for different departments.
20. Adaptive governance structures. Bureaucratic type of structures, its characteristic features.
The main property of structures known to management practice, as flexible, adaptive or organic , is the ability to relatively easily change its shape, adapt to new conditions, organically fit into the control system. These structures are guided by the accelerated implementation of complex programs and projects. As a rule, they are formed on a temporary basis, i.e. for the period of project implementation, problem solving or achievement of the set goals. Varieties of this type of structure are design and matrix structures ... Design structures are formed when the organization develops projects, which are understood as any processes of purposeful changes in the system. One of the forms of project management is the formation of a special subdivision of the project team, working on a temporary basis. It will usually include the necessary specialists, incl. and the management of the project managers is endowed with so-called project powers. Upon completion of the project, the structure falls apart, and employees move to a new project structure or return to their permanent position. This structure is very flexible, but when there are multiple projects, it leads to fragmentation of resources and makes it difficult to maintain the capacity of the organization. Matpichnaya ctpyktypa ppedctavlyaet coboy covpemenny by effective type opganizatsionnoy ctpyktypy yppavleniya, poctpoenny nA ppintsipe dvoynogo podchineniya icpolniteley, c odnoy ctopony - nepocpedctvennomy pykovoditelyu fynktsionalnoy clyzhby, kotopaya ppedoctavlyaet pepconal and texnicheckyyu help, c dpygoy - pykovoditelyu ppoekta (tselevoy ppogpammy), Who nadelen neobxodimymi polnomochiyami for ocyschectvleniya management process in accordance with the planned deadlines, pecypses and quality. At the same time, their subordination is maintained directly by the head of departments.
Mechanistic org. structure Is, in fact, a bureaucratic organization, the main features of which are centralization, a rigid hierarchy, a system of rights and obligations, and strict control over their implementation. The bureaucratic structures include linear, functional, linear-functional, divisional (product, consumer-oriented, regional).
A mechanical organizational structure is effective if:
1. calm development of the economy;
2. weak competition;
3. no product development;
4. technology stability.
The strength of a mechanistic organizational structure lies in the fact that its employees are professionally prepared for managerial activity, are loyal to the organization, and automatically perform their work according to specified standards.
Divisional structures - structures based on the allocation of large autonomous production and economic units (departments, divisions) and their respective management levels, providing these units with operational and production independence and transferring responsibility for making a profit to this level.
Divisional (departmental) management structures are the most advanced type of organizational structures of the hierarchical type.
Divisional structures are characterized by the full responsibility of the heads of departments for the results of the activities of the units headed by them. In this regard, the most important place in the management of companies with a divisional structure is occupied not by the heads of functional departments, but by the heads of production departments.
The structuring of the company by divisions (divisions) is carried out, as a rule, according to one of three principles: by product - taking into account the characteristics of the products or services provided, depending on the orientation to a specific consumer and regional - depending on the territories served. In this regard, there are three types of divisional structures:
· Divisional-productive structures;
· Customer-oriented organizational structures;
· Divisional and regional structures.
With a divisional product structure, the authority to manage the production and sale of a product or service is delegated to one manager who is responsible for this type of product. Heads of functional services (manufacturing, procurement, technical, accounting, marketing, etc.) must report to the manager on this product.
Companies with this structure are able to respond more quickly to changing conditions of competition, technology and customer demand. The activity for the production of a certain type of product is under the supervision of one person, and the coordination of work is improved.
A possible drawback of the product structure is an increase in costs due to duplication of the same types of work for different types of products. Each product department has its own functional divisions.
When creating organizational structures focused on the consumer, divisions are grouped around certain groups of consumers (for example, the army and civilian industries, production, technical and cultural products). The purpose of this organizational structure is to meet the needs of specific customers as well as a company that serves just one group of customers.
Figure 1. Product divisional structure
Figure 2. Regional divisional structure
If the company's activities are spread over several regions, which require the use of different strategies, then it is advisable to form a divisional management structure on a territorial basis, that is, apply a divisional-regional structure.
In this case, all activities of the company in a particular region should be subordinate to the appropriate leader, who is responsible for it to the highest governing body of the company. The divisional-regional structure facilitates the solution of problems related to local customs, peculiarities of legislation and the socio-economic environment of the region. Territorial division creates conditions for the training of management personnel of divisions (divisions) directly on the spot.
The following are the most common types of international divisional structures based on a global approach:
1. Globally oriented product (commodity) structure (Worldwide Product Structure), based on a divisional structure with divisions by product, each of which independently operates for the entire world market. Such a structure can be used by companies with highly diversified products, products that differ significantly in their production technology, marketing methods, distribution channels, etc. It is used primarily by those companies for which differences between manufactured types of products are more important than differences between geographic regions in which these products are sold. This type of structure contributes to the international orientation of the company, but it is typical (however, as for any other type of divisional structure) weakening of coordination between the individual divisions of the company; increased duplication of their activities.
Figure 3. Globally oriented product (commodity) structure
2. Globally oriented regional structure (Worldwide Regional Structure), also based on the divisional structure, but using the geographic principle of construction. at the same time, the national market is often viewed only as one of the regional divisions. It is most advisable to use this type of structure by companies for which regional differences are more important than differences in products. Often, globally oriented regional organizational structures are used in industries with technologically slowly changing products (cars, drinks, cosmetics, food, oil products). The advantages of such a structure include a close relationship with geographic regions and high coordination of activities within their framework, and the disadvantages include poor coordination of the work of individual units and duplication of their activities.
Figure 4. Globally focused regional structure
3. Mixed (hybrid) structure (Mixed Structure, Mixed Overlay), where, along with an emphasis on a specific product (geographic region, functions), structural links of territorial and functional (product and functional or territorial and product) type are embedded. This type of structure arose due to the fact that each of the above structures has strengths and weaknesses, there is not a single organizational structure that could be considered ideal. The organizational structure of management must correspond to the specific conditions for the functioning of the company, and they are quite complex and diverse for large objects, and no organizational structure in its pure form is capable of being adequate to them. The mixed structure is currently very popular among American multinationals (especially those with highly diversified activities).