Composition of the Russian Empire. Composition of the Russian Empire Map of the Russian Empire 1914 with provinces

Recently, a game called « like this They screwed up the country!» It’s paradoxical, but true: as a rule, two countries mourn - Russian Empire and the USSR.

(map of the Russian Empire within the borders of 1914)

(map of the USSR within 1980 borders)

Regrets about the USSR seem more or less logical. The memories of the older generation about the country that was the first to launch man into space and where there was no sex are still fresh in their memory. But ideas about the Russian Empire seem to me to be mostly based on meager scraps of knowledge from school textbooks on history and myths.

I noticed that The media are actively creating an idealized image of the Russian Empire in the public consciousness. Here is a typical picture of Tsarist Russia (in the spirit of the clips of the White Eagle group): fields with ears of corn, hardworking and meek peasants with slanting fathoms in their shoulders and enlightened smiles, noble officers, a strict but merciful monarch with wise eyes and, of course, crunch French bread.

The myth, of course, was not created out of nowhere. It is supported by facts. As a rule, 1913 is taken as the starting point. It is believed that this year the Russian Empire reached the peak of its economic and political development. And it would have flourished further, and would have taken over the whole world, but the Bolsheviks prevented it. In 1914, as is known, a civil war began and the great empire collapsed.

Let's start straight through the list. Earing fat fields, i.e. economy. Demography and life expectancy are considered one of the main indicators of a country’s economic development. Adherents of the myth of the Golden Age of Russia point out that during the reign of Nicholas II a demographic explosion occurred. The country's population grew by 50 million people and reached 180 million. However, these 180 million lived very briefly. At best, they lived to be 30 years old on pennies. And children died more often than calves. Approximately the same situation, by the way, is observed in Africa. Despite extremely low living standards and high mortality rates, Africa's population is steadily increasing. I am in no way comparing Russia with Africa. I am simply arguing that population growth is not a true indicator of economic prosperity.

Further. There was rapid industrial growth in Russia. The number of workers has increased by more than one and a half times over 16 years. Production in metallurgy, mechanical engineering, and coal mining has tripled. The length of railways has almost doubled. It was then that the grandiose Trans-Siberian Railway was built - an achievement that even the Bolsheviks and the BAM could not surpass. And in oil production, Russia has taken first place in the world.

However, researchers for some reason forget to indicate the corresponding indicators for other countries. I won't bore you with numbers. Let me just say that labor productivity in Russia was 10 times lower than in America. The per capita national income in Russia in 1913 was 11.5% of the American one.

Another strong argument. Russia actively exported bread and fed all of Europe. However, famine occurred regularly in the country. Under Nicholas II, 5 million people died from hunger.
Nevertheless, Russia was one of the five most economically developed countries. The state was huge and ranked second after the British Empire.

In 1908, a bill introducing free universal primary education was introduced into the Duma. The authorities really dealt with the problem of eliminating illiteracy. In 1895, Nicholas II ordered the allocation of significant sums to assist scientists, writers and publicists. It was under the tsarist regime that human icons of Russian culture appeared - Chekhov, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Tchaikovsky and others. However, according to the census results, barely 20% of the literate population in Russia was counted.

Point two - hardworking peasants with slanting fathoms in their shoulders and enlightened smiles. Yes, the peasants, one might say, were the whale on which the Russian Empire rested. They made up the absolute majority of the population. Here is an expressive infographic from those times:

However, the Russian peasant was not the epic hero-philosopher. The Russian peasant was an ordinary person with all human weaknesses. As every schoolchild knows, the peasant was not free, i.e. was the property of the landowner. And not only the peasant. In Russia at that time there was no private property at all. Absolutely everything, including people, belonged to the king. And he mercifully allowed his subjects to live and use the land and the benefits that it generated. Since the peasant was not free, his hard work was, to put it mildly, forced. Nevertheless, despite all the horrors that Soviet textbooks described, the power of landowners over serfs was legally limited. For the deliberate murder of a serf, landowners were sent to hard labor. The men themselves had mustaches: many fled from bondage to the Don, to the Cossacks, and organized peasant riots, destroyed landowners' estates and killed former owners. And many were completely satisfied with the existing state of affairs. We got used to it after so many years.

Point three. Noble officers. Those. army. By 1913, its number was more than 1,300,000 people. The fleet was one of the most formidable and powerful at that time. Proof of the strength of the Russian army are the impressive victories won in the First World War. At the same time, there was a catastrophic shortage of uniforms and ammunition. The soldiers and some officers hated the service, and many of them happily supported the February Revolution.

Point four: a wise, strict, but merciful monarch. Modern monarchists often point to the extreme modesty of Nicholas II in everyday life. Like, he even wore darned pants. Under Nicholas, the most advanced labor legislation for those times was created in Russia: standardization of the working day, insurance of workers for disability and old age, etc. The Russian Tsar was the initiator of the first international conference on disarmament. Under the command of Nicholas, the Russian army won many glorious victories in the First World War. And the king’s spending on charity became the talk of the town. Nikolai's uncle complained that his nephew gave away a significant part of the Romanov inheritance to the poor. However, at the same time, the tsar received the nickname “rag” for the fact that in making decisions he listened more to his German wife than to the ministers. Let's not forget about Rasputin. And about Sunday 1905, for which the tsar received his second nickname, “Bloody.” In general, the king was not bad. But it is far from ideal, as modern monarchists paint it.

Proponents of the myth of the Russian Golden Age of 1913 usually cite this quote:

« If the affairs of European nations proceed from 1912 to 1950 in the same way as they did from 1900 to 1912, Russia by the middle of this century will dominate Europe both politically and economically and financially. and" (Edmond Théry, French economist).

And now a quote from opponents:

“The fact of Russia’s extreme economic backwardness compared to the rest of the cultural world is beyond any doubt. According to the figures of 1912, the national income per capita was: in the USA 720 rubles (in gold terms), in England - 500, in Germany - 300, in Italy - 230 and in Russia - 110. So, the average Russian - even before the First World War war, was almost seven times poorer than the average American and more than twice as poor as the average Italian. Even bread - our main wealth - was scarce. If England consumed 24 pounds per capita, Germany - 27 pounds, and the USA as much as 62 pounds, then Russian consumption was only 21.6 pounds, including livestock feed in all this. It is necessary to take into account that bread occupied a place in the Russian diet that it did not occupy anywhere else in other countries. In rich countries of the world, such as the USA, England, Germany and France, bread was replaced by meat and dairy products and fish, fresh and canned” (monarchist I. Solonevich)

My goal is not to prove that Tsarist Russia was a backward country that was on the verge of disaster and that the Bolsheviks saved. Or, on the contrary, a prosperous empire that was destined to take over the world and which Lenin destroyed. I want to say that Tsarist Russia was normal country . With your achievements and your problems. Undoubtedly great. A a photoshopped, advertising image of her is created in the public consciousness.

This ideal Russia is contrasted with modern — corrupt, ruined, having lost its former greatness and power . People then, of course, were different - noble, moral and highly spiritual. This myth is actively exploited in the new film “Admiral”. Director Andrei Kravchuk admits that the film contains many historical inaccuracies. But historical truth comes second here. The director wanted to show us what, in his opinion, is so lacking in modern Russia: a sense of duty, dignity, honor, conscience.

The myth of Tsarist Russia (and the USSR) is imbued with nostalgia for a lost paradise. But it seems to me that there was no heaven. Heaven is basically impossible, at least on this planet.

We are nostalgic for a country that never existed. Which is created by our imagination. Photoshopped advertising Russia is being palmed off to modern society as an example to follow, as a beacon to which to strive. In other words, the past is offered as the future. Very strange, in my opinion. So Mizulina wants to include Orthodoxy in the Constitution as “the basis of the national and cultural identity of Russia.” Why not revive the main moral concept of the Russian Empire “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”?

The reason for crying over Tsarist Russia, IMHO, - dissatisfaction with the surrounding reality. And the need to find a standard to look up to, a guideline to strive for. Briefly speaking, find a way and an idea. Therefore, society looks back at the past, trying to find clues there. However, in these searches one should not idealize the past, no matter how great. Otherwise, the path forward may become the path back. You can learn from the past and learn from mistakes.

Royal Russia - a passed stage that must be taken into account, but cannot be returned.

By 1914, the length of the territory of the Russian Empire was 4383.2 versts (4675.9 km) from north to south and 10,060 versts (10,732.3 km) from east to west. The total length of the land and sea borders was 64,909.5 versts (69,245 km), of which the land borders accounted for 18,639.5 versts (19,941.5 km), and the sea borders accounted for about 46,270 versts (49 360.4 km).

These data, as well as the figures for the total area of ​​the country, calculated from topographic maps in the late 80s of the 19th century by the General Staff by Major General I. A. Strelbitsky, with some subsequent clarifications, were used in all pre-revolutionary publications of Russia. Supplemented by materials from the Central Statistical Committee (CSK) of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, these data provide a fairly complete picture of the territory, administrative division, and location of cities and towns of the Russian Empire.

Territory and location of settlements

Distribution of territory, cities and towns by administrative units of the Russian Empire as of January 1, 1914.
Provinces, regions, districts	Territory (without significant inland waters) sq. versts	Number of cities	Number of posads	Number of other settlements	Number of rural societies
European Russia
	Arkhangelskaya
	Astrakhan
	Bessarabian
	Vilenskaya
	Vitebsk
	Vladimirskaya
	Vologda
	Volynskaya
	Voronezh
	Grodno
	Ekaterinoslavskaya
	Kazanskaya
	Kaluzhskaya
	Kyiv
	Kovenskaya
	Kostromskaya
	Kurlyandskaya
	Livlyandskaya
	Mogilevskaya
	Moscow
	Nizhny Novgorod
	Novgorodskaya
	Olonetskaya
	Orenburgskaya
	Orlovskaya
	Penza
	Perm
	St. Petersburg
	Podolskaya
	Poltavskaya
	Pskovskaya
	Ryazan
	Samara
	Saratovskaya
	Simbirskaya
	Smolenskaya
	Tauride
	Tambovskaya
	Tverskaya
	Tula
	Ufa
	Kharkovskaya
	Kherson
	Kholmskaya
	Chernigovskaya
	Estonian
	Yaroslavskaya
Total for European Russia
Vistula provinces
	Varshavskaya
	Kalishskaya
	Keletskaya
	Lomzhinskaya
	Lublinskaya
	Petrokovskaya
	Radomskaya
	Suwalki
Total for the Vistula provinces
	Baku
	Batumskaya
	Dagestan
	Elisavetpolskaya
	Kars
	Kubanskaya
	Kutaisi
	Sukhumi district
	Stavropolskaya
	Tiflis
	Zagatala district
	Black Sea
	Erivan
Total for the Caucasus
	Amurskaya
	Yeniseiskaya
	Zabaikalskaya
	Irkutsk
	Kamchatskaya
	Primorskaya
	Sakhalinskaya
	Tobolskaya
	Yakutskaya
Total for Siberia
Turkestan and Steppe regions
	Akmola
	Transcaspian
	Samarkand
	Semipalatinsk
	Semirechenskaya
	Syr-Daryinskaya
	Turgai
	Ural
	Fergana
Total for Turkestan and Steppe regions
Finland
	Abo-Bjorneborgskaya
	Vazaskaya
	Vyborgskaya
	Kuopio
	Nylandskaya
	St. Michael's
	Tavastguskaya
	Uleaborskaya
Total for Finland
Total for the Empire
Without Finland

Territory of Russia and other states

Territory of Russia and other states (with their colonies)
	Territory		Territory
British Empire
Russian empire
		Austria-Hungary
USA (USA)
German Empire		Norway
Ottoman Empire
Portugal
Netherlands		Switzerland

Administrative division by 1914

Administratively, the Russian Empire by 1914 was divided into 78 provinces, 21 regions and 2 independent districts. The provinces and regions were divided into 777 counties and districts and in Finland into 51 parishes. Counties, districts and parishes, in turn, were divided into camps, departments and sections numbering 2523 and 274 lansmanships in Finland.

Territories that were important in military-political terms (metropolitan and border) were united into viceroyalties and general governorships. Some cities were allocated into special administrative units - city governments.

Viceroyalty

1. Caucasian(Baku, Elisavetpol, Kutaisi, Tiflis, Black Sea and Erivan provinces, Batumi, Dagestan, Kars, Kuban and Terek regions, Zagatala and Sukhumi districts, Baku city government).

General Governments

1. Moskovskoe(Moscow and Moscow province)
2. Varshavskoe(9 Vistula provinces)
3. Kiev, Podolsk and Volyn(Kiev, Podolsk and Volyn provinces.)
4. Irkutsk(Irkutsk and Yenisei provinces, Transbaikal and Yakutsk regions)
5. Priamurskoe(Amur, Kamchatka, Primorsk and Sakhalin regions)
6. Stepnoe(Akmola and Semipalatinsk regions)
7. Turkestan(Transcaspian, Samarkand, Semirechensk, Syr-Darya and Fergana regions)
8. Finnish(8 Finnish provinces)

Military governorship

1. Kronstadt

City authorities

1. St. Petersburg
2. Moskovskoe
3. Sevastopolskoe
4. Kerch-Yenikalskoe
5. Odesskoe
6. Nikolaevskoe
7. Rostov-on-Don
8. Baku

Other divisions

The Russian Empire was also divided into departmental districts, consisting of a different number of provinces and regions: 13 military, 14 judicial, 15 educational, 30 postal and telegraph districts, 9 customs districts and 9 districts of the Ministry of Railways.

At the beginning of the 19th century. The borders of Russian possessions in North America and northern Europe were officially consolidated. The St. Petersburg Conventions of 1824 determined the boundaries with American () and English possessions. The Americans pledged not to settle north of 54°40′ N. w. on the coast, and the Russians to the south. The border of Russian and British possessions ran along the Pacific coast from 54° N. w. up to 60° N. w. at a distance of 10 miles from the ocean's edge, taking into account all the curves of the coast. The Russian-Norwegian border was established by the St. Petersburg Russian-Swedish Convention of 1826.

New wars with Turkey and Iran led to further expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire. According to the Akkerman Convention with Turkey in 1826, it secured Sukhum, Anaklia and Redoubt-Kale. In accordance with the Treaty of Adrianople of 1829, Russia received the mouth of the Danube and the Black Sea coast from the mouth of the Kuban to the post of St. Nicholas, including Anapa and Poti, as well as the Akhaltsikhe pashalyk. During these same years, Balkaria and Karachay joined Russia. In 1859-1864. Russia included Chechnya, mountainous Dagestan and mountain peoples (Adygs, etc.), who fought wars with Russia for their independence.

After the Russian-Persian War of 1826-1828. Russia received Eastern Armenia (Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates), which was recognized by the Turkmanchay Treaty of 1828.

Russia's defeat in the Crimean War with Turkey, which acted in alliance with Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia, led to its loss of the mouth of the Danube and the southern part of Bessarabia, which was approved by the Peace of Paris in 1856. At the same time, the Black Sea was recognized as neutral. Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 ended with the annexation of Ardahan, Batum and Kars and the return of the Danube part of Bessarabia (without the mouths of the Danube).

The borders of the Russian Empire in the Far East were established, which had previously been largely uncertain and controversial. According to the Treaty of Shimoda with Japan in 1855, a Russian-Japanese maritime border was drawn in the area of ​​the Kuril Islands along the Frieze Strait (between the islands of Urup and Iturup), and Sakhalin Island was recognized as undivided between Russia and Japan (in 1867 it was declared the joint possession of these countries). The differentiation of Russian and Japanese island possessions continued in 1875, when Russia, under the Treaty of St. Petersburg, ceded the Kuril Islands (north of the Frieze Strait) to Japan in exchange for recognition of Sakhalin as Russian possession. However, after the war with Japan of 1904-1905. According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia was forced to cede to Japan the southern half of Sakhalin Island (from the 50th parallel).

Under the terms of the Aigun Treaty (1858) with China, Russia received territories along the left bank of the Amur from the Argun to the mouth, previously considered undivided, and Primorye (Ussuri Territory) was recognized as common possession. The Beijing Treaty of 1860 formalized the final annexation of Primorye to Russia. In 1871, Russia annexed the Ili region with the city of Gulja, which belonged to the Qing Empire, but after 10 years it was returned to China. At the same time, the border in the area of ​​Lake Zaisan and the Black Irtysh was corrected in favor of Russia.

In 1867, the Tsarist government ceded all of its colonies to the United States for $7.2 million.

From the middle of the 19th century. continued what began in the 18th century. advancement of Russian possessions into Central Asia. In 1846, the Kazakh Senior Zhuz (Great Horde) announced the voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship, and in 1853 the Kokand fortress of Ak-Mosque was conquered. In 1860, the annexation of Semirechye was completed, and in 1864-1867. parts of the Kokand Khanate (Chimkent, Tashkent, Khojent, Zachirchik region) and the Bukhara Emirate (Ura-Tube, Jizzakh, Yany-Kurgan) were annexed. In 1868, the Bukhara emir recognized himself as a vassal of the Russian Tsar, and the Samarkand and Katta-Kurgan districts of the emirate and the Zeravshan region were annexed to Russia. In 1869, the coast of the Krasnovodsk Bay was annexed to Russia, and the following year the Mangyshlak Peninsula. According to the Gendemian Peace Treaty with the Khiva Khanate in 1873, the latter recognized vassal dependence on Russia, and the lands along the right bank of the Amu Darya became part of Russia. In 1875, the Khanate of Kokand became a vassal of Russia, and in 1876 it was included in the Russian Empire as the Fergana region. In 1881-1884. lands inhabited by Turkmens were annexed to Russia, and in 1885 the Eastern Pamirs were annexed. Agreements of 1887 and 1895 Russian and Afghan possessions were demarcated along the Amu Darya and the Pamirs. Thus, the formation of the border of the Russian Empire in Central Asia was completed.

In addition to the lands annexed to Russia as a result of wars and peace treaties, the country's territory increased due to newly discovered lands in the Arctic: Wrangel Island was discovered in 1867, in 1879-1881. - De Long Islands, in 1913 - Severnaya Zemlya Islands.

Pre-revolutionary changes in Russian territory culminated in the establishment of a protectorate over the Uriankhai region (Tuva) in 1914.

Geographical exploration, discovery and mapping

European part

Among the geographical discoveries in the European part of Russia, the discovery of the Donetsk Ridge and the Donetsk Coal Basin made by E.P. Kovalevsky in 1810-1816 should be mentioned. and in 1828

Despite some setbacks (in particular, the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 and the loss of territory as a result of the Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905), the Russian Empire at the beginning of the First World War possessed vast territories and was the largest country in the world by area.

Academic expeditions of V. M. Severgin and A. I. Sherer in 1802-1804. to the north-west of Russia, Belarus, the Baltic states and Finland were devoted mainly to mineralogical research.

The period of geographical discoveries in the populated European part of Russia is over. In the 19th century expeditionary research and its scientific synthesis were mainly thematic. Of these, we can name the zoning (mainly agricultural) of European Russia into eight latitudinal stripes, proposed by E. F. Kankrin in 1834; botanical and geographical zoning of European Russia by R. E. Trautfetter (1851); studies of the natural conditions of the Baltic and Caspian Seas, the state of fishing and other industries there (1851-1857), carried out by K. M. Baer; N. A. Severtsov’s work (1855) on the fauna of the Voronezh province, in which he showed deep connections between the fauna and physical-geographical conditions, and also established patterns of distribution of forests and steppes in connection with the nature of the relief and soils; classical soil research by V.V. Dokuchaev in the chernozem zone, begun in 1877; a special expedition led by V.V. Dokuchaev, organized by the Forestry Department to comprehensively study the nature of the steppes and find ways to combat drought. In this expedition, a stationary research method was used for the first time.

Caucasus

The annexation of the Caucasus to Russia necessitated the study of new Russian lands, the knowledge of which was poor. In 1829, the Caucasian expedition of the Academy of Sciences, led by A. Ya. Kupfer and E. X. Lenz, explored the Rocky Range in the Greater Caucasus system and determined the exact heights of many mountain peaks of the Caucasus. In 1844-1865 The natural conditions of the Caucasus were studied by G.V. Abikh. He studied in detail the orography and geology of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, Dagestan, and the Colchis Lowland, and compiled the first general orographic diagram of the Caucasus.

Ural

Among the works that developed the geographical understanding of the Urals are the description of the Middle and Southern Urals, made in 1825-1836. A. Ya. Kupfer, E. K. Hoffman, G. P. Gelmersen; publication of “Natural History of the Orenburg Region” by E. A. Eversman (1840), which provides a comprehensive description of the nature of this territory with a well-founded natural division; expedition of the Russian Geographical Society to the Northern and Polar Urals (E.K. Goffman, V.G. Bragin), during which the peak of Konstantinov Kamen was discovered, the Pai-Khoi ridge was discovered and explored, an inventory was compiled, which served as the basis for drawing up a map of the explored part of the Urals . A notable event was the journey in 1829 of the outstanding German naturalist A. Humboldt to the Urals, Rudny Altai and the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Siberia

In the 19th century Research continued in Siberia, many areas of which were very poorly studied. In Altai in the 1st half of the century the sources of the river were discovered. Katun, Lake Teletskoye was explored (1825-1836, A. A. Bunge, F. V. Gebler), the Chulyshman and Abakan rivers (1840-1845, P. A. Chikhachev). During his travels, P. A. Chikhachev carried out physical, geographical and geological research.

In 1843-1844. A.F. Middendorf collected extensive material on orography, geology, climate, permafrost and the organic world of Eastern Siberia and the Far East; for the first time, information was obtained about the nature of Taimyr, the Aldan Highlands, and the Stanovoy Range. Based on the travel materials, A. F. Middendorf wrote in 1860-1878. published “Journey to the North and East of Siberia” - one of the best examples of systematic reports on the nature of the explored territories. This work provides characteristics of all the main natural components, as well as the population, shows the relief features of Central Siberia, the uniqueness of its climate, presents the results of the first scientific study of permafrost, and gives the zoogeographic division of Siberia.

In 1853-1855. R. K. Maak and A. K. Sondgagen studied the orography, geology and life of the population of the Central Yakut Plain, the Central Siberian Plateau, the Vilyui Plateau, and surveyed the Vilyui River.

In 1855-1862. The Siberian expedition of the Russian Geographical Society carried out topographic surveys, astronomical determinations, geological and other studies in the south of Eastern Siberia and the Amur region.

A large amount of research was carried out in the second half of the century in the mountains of southern Eastern Siberia. In 1858, geographical research in the Sayan Mountains was carried out by L. E. Schwartz. During them, topographer Kryzhin carried out a topographic survey. In 1863-1866. Research in Eastern Siberia and the Far East was carried out by P. A. Kropotkin, who paid special attention to the relief and geological structure. He explored the Oka, Amur, Ussuri rivers, the Sayan ridges, and discovered the Patom Highlands. The Khamar-Daban ridge, the coast of Lake Baikal, the Angara region, the Selenga basin, the Eastern Sayan were explored by A. L. Chekanovsky (1869-1875), I. D. Chersky (1872-1882). In addition, A. L. Chekanovsky explored the basins of the Lower Tunguska and Olenyok rivers, and I. D. Chersky explored the upper reaches of the Lower Tunguska. A geographical, geological and botanical survey of the Eastern Sayan was carried out during the Sayan expedition by N.P. Bobyr, L.A. Yachevsky, and Ya.P. Prein. The study of the Sayan mountain system in 1903 was continued by V.L. Popov. In 1910, he also carried out a geographical study of the border strip between Russia and China from Altai to Kyakhta.

In 1891-1892 During his last expedition, I. D. Chersky explored the Momsky ridge, the Nerskoye Plateau, and discovered three high mountain ranges behind the Verkhoyansk ridge: Tas-Kystabyt, Ulakhan-Chistai and Tomuskhay.

Far East

Research continued on Sakhalin, the Kuril Islands and the adjacent seas. In 1805, I. F. Kruzenshtern explored the eastern and northern shores of Sakhalin and the northern Kuril Islands, and in 1811, V. M. Golovnin made an inventory of the middle and southern parts of the Kuril ridge. In 1849, G.I. Nevelskoy confirmed and proved the navigability of the Amur mouth for large ships. In 1850-1853. G.I. Nevelsky and others continued their studies of the Tatar Strait, Sakhalin, and adjacent parts of the mainland. In 1860-1867 Sakhalin was explored by F.B. Schmidt, P.P. Glen, G.W. Shebunin. In 1852-1853 N. K Boshnyak explored and described the basins of the Amgun and Tym rivers, lakes Everon and Chukchagirskoe, the Bureinsky ridge, and Khadzhi Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan).

In 1842-1845. A.F. Middendorf and V.V. Vaganov explored the Shantar Islands.

In the 50-60s. XIX century The coastal parts of Primorye were explored: in 1853 -1855. I. S. Unkovsky discovered the bays of Posyet and Olga; in 1860-1867 V. Babkin surveyed the northern shore of the Sea of ​​Japan and Peter the Great Bay. The Lower Amur and the northern part of Sikhote-Alin were explored in 1850-1853. G. I. Nevelsky, N. K. Boshnyak, D. I. Orlov and others; in 1860-1867 - A. Budishchev. In 1858, M. Venyukov explored the Ussuri River. In 1863-1866. the Amur and Ussuri rivers were studied by P.A. Kropotkin. In 1867-1869 N. M. Przhevalsky made a major trip to the Ussuri region. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Ussuri and Suchan river basins and crossed the Sikhote-Alin ridge.

middle Asia

As certain parts of Kazakhstan and Central Asia joined the Russian Empire, and sometimes even preceding it, Russian geographers, biologists and other scientists explored and studied their nature. In 1820-1836. the organic world of Mugodzhar, General Syrt and the Ustyurt plateau was explored by E. A. Eversman. In 1825-1836 carried out a description of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the Mangystau and Bolshoi Balkhan ridges, the Krasnovodsk plateau G. S. Karelin and I. Blaramberg. In 1837-1842. A.I. Shrenk studied Eastern Kazakhstan.

In 1840-1845 The Balkhash-Alakol basin was discovered (A.I. Shrenk, T.F. Nifantiev). From 1852 to 1863 T.F. Nifantiev carried out the first surveys of lakes Balkhash, Issyk-Kul, Zaisan. In 1848-1849 A.I. Butakov carried out the first survey of the Aral Sea, a number of islands and Chernyshev Bay were discovered.

Valuable scientific results, especially in the field of biogeography, were brought by the 1857 expedition of I. G. Borschov and N. A. Severtsov to Mugodzhary, the Emba River basin and the Big Barsuki sands. In 1865, I. G. Borshchov continued research on the vegetation and natural conditions of the Aral-Caspian region. He considered steppes and deserts as natural geographical complexes and analyzed the mutual relationships between relief, moisture, soils and vegetation.

Since the 1840s exploration of the highlands of Central Asia began. In 1840-1845 A.A. Leman and Ya.P. Yakovlev discovered the Turkestan and Zeravshan ranges. In 1856-1857 P.P. Semenov laid the foundation for the scientific study of the Tien Shan. The heyday of research in the mountains of Central Asia occurred during the period of the expeditionary leadership of P. P. Semenov (Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky). In 1860-1867 N.A. Severtsov explored the Kirghiz and Karatau ridges, discovered the Karzhantau, Pskem and Kakshaal-Too ridges in the Tien Shan, in 1868-1871. A.P. Fedchenko explored the Tien Shan, Kukhistan, Alai and Trans-Alai ranges. N.A. Severtsov, A.I. Scassi discovered the Rushansky ridge and the Fedchenko glacier (1877-1879). The research carried out made it possible to identify the Pamirs as a separate mountain system.

Research in the desert regions of Central Asia was carried out by N. A. Severtsov (1866-1868) and A. P. Fedchenko in 1868-1871. (Kyzylkum desert), V. A. Obruchev in 1886-1888. (Karakum desert and ancient Uzboy valley).

Comprehensive studies of the Aral Sea in 1899-1902. conducted by L. S. Berg.

North and Arctic

At the beginning of the 19th century. The discovery of the New Siberian Islands ended. In 1800-1806. Y. Sannikov made an inventory of the islands of Stolbovoy, Faddeevsky, and New Siberia. In 1808, Belkov discovered an island, which received the name of its discoverer - Belkovsky. In 1809-1811 The expedition of M. M. Gedenstrom visited the New Siberian Islands. In 1815, M. Lyakhov discovered the islands of Vasilyevsky and Semyonovsky. In 1821-1823 P.F. Anjou and P.I. Ilyin carried out instrumental research, culminating in the compilation of an accurate map of the New Siberian Islands, explored and described the islands of Semenovsky, Vasilyevsky, Stolbovoy, the coast between the mouths of the Indigirka and Olenyok rivers, and discovered the East Siberian polynya.

In 1820-1824. F.P. Wrangel, in very difficult natural conditions, traveled through the north of Siberia and the Arctic Ocean, explored and described the coast from the mouth of the Indigirka to the Kolyuchinskaya Bay (Chukchi Peninsula), and predicted the existence of Wrangel Island.

Research was carried out in Russian possessions in North America: in 1816, O. E. Kotzebue discovered a large bay in the Chukchi Sea off the western coast of Alaska, named after him. In 1818-1819 The eastern coast of the Bering Sea was explored by P.G. Korsakovsky and P.A. Ustyugov, the delta of the largest river in Alaska, the Yukon, was discovered. In 1835-1838. The lower and middle reaches of the Yukon were studied by A. Glazunov and V.I. Malakhov, and in 1842-1843. - Russian naval officer L. A. Zagoskin. He also described the interior regions of Alaska. In 1829-1835 The coast of Alaska was explored by F.P. Wrangel and D.F. Zarembo. In 1838 A.F. Kashevarov described the northwestern coast of Alaska, and P.F. Kolmakov discovered the Innoko River and the Kuskokwim (Kuskokwim) ridge. In 1835-1841. D.F. Zarembo and P. Mitkov completed the discovery of the Alexander Archipelago.

The Novaya Zemlya archipelago was intensively explored. In 1821-1824. F.P. Litke on the brig “Novaya Zemlya” explored, described and compiled a map of the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. Attempts to inventory and map the eastern coast of Novaya Zemlya were unsuccessful. In 1832-1833 The first inventory of the entire eastern coast of the South Island of Novaya Zemlya was made by P.K. Pakhtusov. In 1834-1835 P.K. Pakhtusov and in 1837-1838. A.K. Tsivolka and S.A. Moiseev described the eastern coast of the North Island up to 74.5° N. sh., the Matochkin Shar Strait is described in detail, Pakhtusov Island is discovered. A description of the northern part of Novaya Zemlya was made only in 1907-1911. V. A. Rusanov. Expeditions led by I. N. Ivanov in 1826-1829. managed to compile an inventory of the southwestern part of the Kara Sea from Cape Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob. The research carried out made it possible to begin the study of vegetation, fauna and the geological structure of Novaya Zemlya (K. M. Baer, ​​1837). In 1834-1839, especially during a major expedition in 1837, A.I. Shrenk explored the Czech Bay, the coast of the Kara Sea, the Timan Ridge, Vaygach Island, the Pai-Khoi ridge, and the polar Urals. Explorations of this area in 1840-1845. continued A.A. Keyserling, who surveyed the Pechora River, explored the Timan Ridge and the Pechora Lowland. He conducted comprehensive studies of the nature of the Taimyr Peninsula, the Putorana Plateau, and the North Siberian Lowland in 1842-1845. A. F. Middendorf. In 1847-1850 The Russian Geographical Society organized an expedition to the Northern and Polar Urals, during which the Pai-Khoi ridge was thoroughly explored.

In 1867, Wrangel Island was discovered, an inventory of the southern coast of which was made by the captain of the American whaling ship T. Long. In 1881, the American researcher R. Berry described the eastern, western and most of the northern coast of the island, and the interior of the island was explored for the first time.

In 1901, the Russian icebreaker Ermak, under the command of S. O. Makarov, visited Franz Josef Land. In 1913-1914 A Russian expedition led by G. Ya. Sedov wintered on the archipelago. At the same time, a group of participants from G.L. Brusilov’s expedition in distress on the ship “St. Anna”, headed by navigator V.I. Albanov. Despite the difficult conditions, when all energy was aimed at preserving life, V.I. Albanov proved that Petermann Land and King Oscar Land, which appeared on the map of J. Payer, do not exist.

In 1878-1879 During two navigations, a Russian-Swedish expedition led by the Swedish scientist N.A.E. Nordenskiöld on the small sailing-steam vessel “Vega” for the first time traversed the Northern Sea Route from west to east. This proved the possibility of navigation along the entire Eurasian Arctic coast.

In 1913, the Hydrographic Expedition of the Arctic Ocean under the leadership of B. A. Vilkitsky on the icebreaking steamships “Taimyr” and “Vaigach”, exploring the possibilities of passing the Northern Sea Route north of Taimyr, encountered solid ice and, following along their edge to the north, discovered islands called the Land of Emperor Nicholas II (now Severnaya Zemlya), approximately mapping its eastern, and the following year - southern shores, as well as the island of Tsarevich Alexei (now Maly Taimyr). The western and northern shores of Severnaya Zemlya remained completely unknown.

Russian Geographical Society

The Russian Geographical Society (RGS), founded in 1845, (since 1850 - the Imperial Russian Geographical Society - IRGO) has great merit in the development of domestic cartography.

In 1881, the American polar explorer J. DeLong discovered the islands of Jeannette, Henrietta and Bennett northeast of the island of New Siberia. This group of islands was named after its discoverer. In 1885-1886 A study of the Arctic coast between the Lena and Kolyma rivers and the New Siberian Islands was carried out by A. A. Bunge and E. V. Toll.

Already at the beginning of 1852, it published its first twenty-five-verst (1:1,050,000) map of the Northern Urals and the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge, compiled based on materials from the Ural Expedition of the Russian Geographical Society of 1847-1850. For the first time, the Northern Urals and the Pai-Khoi coastal ridge were depicted with great accuracy and detail.

The Geographical Society also published 40-verst maps of the river areas of the Amur, the southern part of the Lena and Yenisei and about. Sakhalin on 7 sheets (1891).

Sixteen large expeditions of the IRGO, led by N. M. Przhevalsky, G. N. Potanin, M. V. Pevtsov, G. E. Grumm-Grzhimailo, V. I. Roborovsky, P. K. Kozlov and V. A. Obruchev, made a great contribution to the filming of Central Asia. During these expeditions, 95,473 km were covered and filmed (of which over 30,000 km were accounted for by N. M. Przhevalsky), 363 astronomical points were determined and the altitudes of 3,533 points were measured. The position of the main mountain ranges and river systems, as well as lake basins of Central Asia, was clarified. All this significantly contributed to the creation of a modern physical map of Central Asia.

The heyday of the expeditionary activities of the IRGO occurred in 1873-1914, when the head of the society was Grand Duke Constantine, and P.P. Semyonov-Tyan-Shansky was the vice-chairman. During this period, expeditions were organized to Central Asia, Eastern Siberia and other regions of the country; two polar stations were created. Since the mid-1880s. The expeditionary activities of the society are increasingly specialized in certain fields - glaciology, limnology, geophysics, biogeography, etc.

IRGO made a great contribution to the study of the country's topography. To process the leveling and produce a hypsometric map, the IRGO hypsometric commission was created. In 1874, IRGO carried out, under the leadership of A. A. Tillo, the Aral-Caspian leveling: from Karatamak (on the northwestern shore of the Aral Sea) through Ustyurt to the Dead Kultuk Bay of the Caspian Sea, and in 1875 and 1877. Siberian leveling: from the village of Zverinogolovskaya in the Orenburg region to Lake Baikal. The materials of the hypsometric commission were used by A. A. Tillo to compile the “Hypsometric map of European Russia” on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1: 2,520,000), published by the Ministry of Railways in 1889. More than 50 thousand high-altitude maps were used for its compilation marks obtained as a result of leveling. The map revolutionized ideas about the structure of the relief of this territory. It presented in a new way the orography of the European part of the country, which has not changed in its main features to this day; the Central Russian and Volga uplands were depicted for the first time. In 1894, the Forestry Department under the leadership of A. A. Tillo with the participation of S. N. Nikitin and D. N. Anuchin organized an expedition to study the sources of the main rivers of European Russia, which provided extensive material on relief and hydrography (in particular, lakes).

The military topographical service carried out, with the active participation of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, a large number of pioneering reconnaissance surveys in the Far East, Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia, during which maps were drawn up of many territories that had previously been “blank spots” on the map.

Mapping the territory in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Topographic and geodetic works

In 1801-1804. “His Majesty’s Own Map Depot” released the first state multi-sheet (107 sheets) map at a scale of 1:840,000, covering almost all of European Russia and called the “Cental-sheet Map”. Its content was based mainly on materials from the General Survey.

In 1798-1804. The Russian General Staff, under the leadership of Major General F. F. Steinhel (Steingel), with the extensive use of Swedish-Finnish topographic officers, carried out a large-scale topographic survey of the so-called Old Finland, i.e., the areas annexed to Russia along the Nystadt (1721) and Abosky (1743) to the world. The survey materials, preserved in the form of a handwritten four-volume atlas, were widely used in the compilation of various maps at the beginning of the 19th century.

After 1809, the topographic services of Russia and Finland were united. At the same time, the Russian army received a ready-made educational institution for training professional topographers - a military school founded in 1779 in the village of Gappaniemi. On the basis of this school, on March 16, 1812, the Gappanyem Topographical Corps was established, which became the first special military topographic and geodetic educational institution in the Russian Empire.

In 1815, the ranks of the Russian army were replenished with topographical officers of the General Quartermaster of the Polish Army.

Since 1819, topographic surveys began in Russia on a scale of 1:21,000, based on triangulation and carried out mainly using scales. In 1844 they were replaced by surveys at a scale of 1:42,000.

On January 28, 1822, the Corps of Military Topographers was established at the General Headquarters of the Russian Army and the Military Topographic Depot. State topographic mapping became one of the main tasks of military topographers. The remarkable Russian surveyor and cartographer F. F. Schubert was appointed the first director of the Corps of Military Topographers.

In 1816-1852. In Russia, the largest triangulation work of that time was carried out, stretching 25°20′ along the meridian (together with the Scandinavian triangulation).

Under the leadership of F. F. Schubert and K. I. Tenner, intensive instrumental and semi-instrumental (route) surveys began, mainly in the western and northwestern provinces of European Russia. Based on materials from these surveys in the 20-30s. XIX century semitopographic (semi-topographic) maps of the provinces were compiled and engraved on a scale of 4-5 versts per inch.

The military topographic depot began in 1821 to compile a survey topographic map of European Russia on a scale of 10 versts per inch (1:420,000), which was extremely necessary not only for the military, but also for all civilian departments. The special ten-verst map of European Russia is known in the literature as the Schubert Map. Work on creating the map continued intermittently until 1839. It was published on 59 sheets and three flaps (or half-sheets).

A large amount of work was carried out by the Corps of Military Topographers in different parts of the country. In 1826-1829 Detailed maps on a scale of 1:210,000 were compiled for the Baku province, the Talysh Khanate, the Karabakh province, the plan of Tiflis, etc.

In 1828-1832. a survey of Moldavia and Wallachia was carried out, which became a model of work of its time, as it was based on a sufficient number of astronomical points. All maps were compiled into a 1:16,000 atlas. The total survey area reached 100 thousand square meters. verst.

Since the 30s. Geodetic and boundary work began to be carried out on. Geodetic points carried out in 1836-1838. triangulations became the basis for creating accurate topographic maps of Crimea. Geodetic networks developed in Smolensk, Moscow, Mogilev, Tver, Novgorod provinces and other areas.

In 1833, the head of the KVT, General F. F. Schubert, organized an unprecedented chronometric expedition in the Baltic Sea. As a result of the expedition, the longitudes of 18 points were determined, which, together with 22 points related to them trigonometrically, provided a reliable basis for surveying the coast and soundings of the Baltic Sea.

From 1857 to 1862 under the leadership and funds of the IRGO, work was carried out at the Military Topographical Depot to compile and publish on 12 sheets a general map of European Russia and the Caucasus region on a scale of 40 versts per inch (1: 1,680,000) with an explanatory note. On the advice of V. Ya. Struve, the map for the first time in Russia was created in the Gaussian projection, and Pulkovsky was taken as the prime meridian on it. In 1868, the map was published, and later it was reprinted several times.

In subsequent years, a five-verst map on 55 sheets, a twenty-verst map and an orographic forty-verst map of the Caucasus were published.

Among the best cartographic works of the IRGO is the “Map of the Aral Sea and the Khiva Khanate with their surroundings” compiled by Ya. V. Khanykov (1850). The map was published in French by the Paris Geographical Society and, on the proposal of A. Humboldt, was awarded the Prussian Order of the Red Eagle, 2nd degree.

The Caucasian military topographic department, under the leadership of General I. I. Stebnitsky, conducted reconnaissance in Central Asia along the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea.

In 1867, a Cartographic Establishment was opened at the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff. Together with the private cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin, opened in 1859, they were the direct predecessors of modern domestic cartographic factories.

A special place among the various products of the Caucasian WTO was occupied by relief maps. The large relief map was completed in 1868, and was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1869. This map is made for horizontal distances on a scale of 1:420,000, and for vertical distances - 1:84,000.

The Caucasian military topographic department under the leadership of I. I. Stebnitsky compiled a 20-verst map of the Trans-Caspian region based on astronomical, geodetic and topographical work.

Work was also carried out on topographic and geodetic preparation of the territories of the Far East. Thus, in 1860, the position of eight points was determined near the western coast of the Sea of ​​Japan, and in 1863, 22 points were determined in Peter the Great Bay.

The expansion of the territory of the Russian Empire was reflected in many maps and atlases published at this time. Such in particular is the “General Map of the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland annexed to it” from the “Geographical Atlas of the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Finland” by V. P. Pyadyshev (St. Petersburg, 1834).

Since 1845, one of the main tasks of the Russian military topographical service has been the creation of a Military Topographical Map of Western Russia on a scale of 3 versts per inch. By 1863, 435 sheets of military topographical maps had been published, and by 1917 - 517 sheets. On this map, the relief was conveyed by strokes.

In 1848-1866. under the leadership of Lieutenant General A.I. Mende, surveys were carried out aimed at creating topographic boundary maps, atlases and descriptions for all provinces of European Russia. During this period, work was carried out on an area of ​​about 345,000 square meters. verst. Tver, Ryazan, Tambov and Vladimir provinces were mapped on a scale of one verst per inch (1:42,000), Yaroslavl - two versts per inch (1:84,000), Simbirsk and Nizhny Novgorod - three versts per inch (1:126,000) and Penza province - on a scale of eight versts per inch (1:336,000). Based on the results of the surveys, IRGO published multicolor topographic boundary atlases of the Tver and Ryazan provinces (1853-1860) on a scale of 2 versts per inch (1:84,000) and a map of the Tver province on a scale of 8 versts per inch (1:336,000).

The Mende filming had an undoubted influence on the further improvement of state mapping methods. In 1872, the Military Topographical Department of the General Staff began work on updating the three-verst map, which actually led to the creation of a new standard Russian topographic map on a scale of 2 versts in an inch (1:84,000), which was a most detailed source of information about the area, used in troops and the national economy until the 30s. XX century A two-verst military topographic map was published for the Kingdom of Poland, parts of the Crimea and the Caucasus, as well as the Baltic states and areas around Moscow and St. Petersburg. This was one of the first Russian topographic maps on which the relief was depicted as contour lines.

In 1869-1885. A detailed topographic survey of Finland was carried out, which was the beginning of the creation of a state topographic map on a scale of one mile per inch - the highest achievement of pre-revolutionary military topography in Russia. Single-versus maps covered the territory of Poland, the Baltic states, southern Finland, Crimea, the Caucasus and parts of southern Russia north of Novocherkassk.

By the 60s. XIX century The Special Map of European Russia by F. F. Schubert on a scale of 10 versts per inch is very outdated. In 1865, the editorial commission appointed captain of the General Staff I. A. Strelbitsky as the responsible executor of the project for drawing up a Special Map of European Russia and its editor, under whose leadership the final development of symbols and all instructional documents that determined the methods of compilation, preparation for publication and publication was carried out new cartographic work. In 1872, the compilation of all 152 sheets of the map was completed. The ten verstka was reprinted many times and partially supplemented; in 1903 it consisted of 167 sheets. This map was widely used not only for military purposes, but also for scientific, practical and cultural purposes.

By the end of the century, the work of the Corps of Military Topographers continued to create new maps for sparsely populated areas, including the Far East and Manchuria. During this time, several reconnaissance detachments covered more than 12 thousand miles, performing route and visual surveys. Based on their results, topographic maps were later compiled on a scale of 2, 3, 5 and 20 versts per inch.

In 1907, a special commission was created at the General Staff to develop a plan for future topographic and geodetic work in European and Asian Russia, chaired by the head of the KVT, General N. D. Artamonov. It was decided to develop the new 1st class triangulation according to a specific program proposed by General I. I. Pomerantsev. KVT began implementing the program in 1910. By 1914, the bulk of the work was completed.

By the beginning of the First World War, a large volume of large-scale topographic surveys had been completed in the entire territory of Poland, in the south of Russia (triangle Chisinau, Galati, Odessa), in the Petrograd and Vyborg provinces partially; on a verst scale in Livonia, Petrograd, Minsk provinces, and partly in Transcaucasia, on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea and in Crimea; on a two-verst scale - in the north-west of Russia, east of the survey sites on the half- and verst-scale.

The results of topographic surveys of previous and pre-war years made it possible to compile and publish a large volume of topographic and special military maps: half-verst map of the Western border area (1:21,000); verst map of the Western border space, Crimea and Transcaucasia (1:42,000); military topographic two-verst map (1:84,000), three-verst map (1:126,000) with relief expressed by strokes; semi-topographic 10-verst map of European Russia (1:420,000); military road 25-verst map of European Russia (1:1,050,000); 40-verst Strategic Map of Central Europe (1:1,680,000); maps of the Caucasus and neighboring foreign countries.

In addition to the listed maps, the Military Topographical Department of the Main Directorate of the General Staff (GUGSH) prepared maps of Turkestan, Central Asia and adjacent states, Western Siberia, the Far East, as well as maps of all of Asian Russia.

Over the 96 years of its existence (1822-1918), the corps of military topographers completed an enormous amount of astronomical, geodetic and cartographic work: identified geodetic points - 63,736; astronomical points (by latitude and longitude) - 3900; 46 thousand km of leveling passages were laid; Instrumental topographic surveys were carried out on a geodetic basis on various scales over an area of ​​7,425,319 km2, and semi-instrumental and visual surveys were carried out over an area of ​​506,247 km2. In 1917, the Russian Army supplied 6,739 types of maps of different scales.

In general, by 1917, a huge amount of field survey material had been obtained, a number of remarkable cartographic works had been created, but the coverage of the territory of Russia with topographic survey was uneven, and a significant part of the territory remained unexplored in topographic terms.

Exploration and mapping of seas and oceans

Russia's achievements in studying and mapping the World Ocean have been significant. One of the important incentives for these studies in the 19th century, as before, was the need to ensure the functioning of Russian overseas possessions in Alaska. To supply these colonies, round-the-world expeditions were regularly equipped, which, starting from the first voyage in 1803-1806. on the ships “Nadezhda” and “Neva” under the leadership of I.F. Kruzenshtern and Yu.V. Lisyansky, they made many remarkable geographical discoveries and significantly increased the cartographic knowledge of the World Ocean.

In addition to the hydrographic work carried out almost annually off the coast of Russian America by officers of the Russian Navy, participants in round-the-world expeditions, employees of the Russian-American Company, among whom were such brilliant hydrographers and scientists as F. P. Wrangel, A. K. Etolin and M D. Tebenkov, continuously expanded knowledge about the North Pacific Ocean and improved navigation maps of these areas. Particularly great was the contribution of M.D. Tebenkov, who compiled the most detailed “Atlas of the Northwestern coast of America from the Bering Strait to Cape Corrientes and the Aleutian Islands with the addition of some places on the Northeastern coast of Asia,” published by the St. Petersburg Maritime Academy in 1852.

In parallel with the study of the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, Russian hydrographers actively explored the coasts of the Arctic Ocean, thus contributing to the finalization of geographical ideas about the polar regions of Eurasia and laying the foundations for the subsequent development of the Northern Sea Route. Thus, most of the coasts and islands of the Barents and Kara Seas were described and mapped in the 20-30s. XIX century expeditions of F.P. Litke, P.K. Pakhtusov, K.M. Baer and A.K. Tsivolka, who laid the foundations for the physical-geographical study of these seas and the Novaya Zemlya archipelago. To solve the problem of developing transport links between European Pomerania and Western Siberia, expeditions were equipped for a hydrographic inventory of the coast from Kanin Nos to the mouth of the Ob River, the most effective of which were the Pechora expedition of I. N. Ivanov (1824) and the hydrographic inventory of I. N. Ivanov and I. A. Berezhnykh (1826-1828). The maps they compiled had a solid astronomical and geodetic basis. Research of sea coasts and islands in northern Siberia at the beginning of the 19th century. were largely stimulated by the discoveries by Russian industrialists of islands in the Novosibirsk archipelago, as well as the search for mysterious northern lands (“Sannikov Land”), islands north of the mouth of the Kolyma (“Andreev Land”), etc. In 1808-1810. During the expedition led by M. M. Gedenshtrom and P. Pshenitsyn, which explored the islands of New Siberia, Faddeevsky, Kotelny and the strait between the latter, a map of the Novosibirsk archipelago as a whole, as well as the mainland sea coasts between the mouths of the Yana and Kolyma rivers, was created for the first time. For the first time, a detailed geographical description of the islands has been completed. In the 20s the Yanskaya (1820-1824) expedition under the leadership of P.F. Anzhu and the Kolyma expedition (1821-1824) under the leadership of F.P. Wrangel were sent to the same areas. These expeditions carried out the work program of M. M. Gedenstrom’s expedition on an expanded scale. They were supposed to survey the coastline from the Lena River to the Bering Strait. The main merit of the expedition was the compilation of a more accurate map of the entire continental coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Olenyok River to Kolyuchinskaya Bay, as well as maps of the group of Novosibirsk, Lyakhovsky and Bear Islands. In the eastern part of the Wrangel map, according to local residents, an island was marked with the inscription “Mountains can be seen from Cape Yakan in the summer.” This island was also depicted on maps in the atlases of I. F. Krusenstern (1826) and G. A. Sarychev (1826). In 1867, it was discovered by the American navigator T. Long and, in commemoration of the merits of the remarkable Russian polar explorer, was named after Wrangel. The results of the expeditions of P. F. Anjou and F. P. Wrangel were summarized in 26 handwritten maps and plans, as well as in scientific reports and works.

The research carried out in the middle of the 19th century had not only scientific, but also enormous geopolitical significance for Russia. G.I. Nevelsky and his followers carried out intensive marine expeditionary research in the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and the Sea of ​​Japan. Although the island position of Sakhalin was known to Russian cartographers from the very beginning of the 18th century, which was reflected in their works, the problem of accessibility of the Amur mouth for sea vessels from the south and north was finally and positively resolved only by G. I. Nevelsky. This discovery decisively changed the attitude of the Russian authorities towards the Amur and Primorye regions, showing the enormous potential capabilities of these rich areas, provided, as the research of G.I. Nevelskoy proved, with end-to-end water communications leading to the Pacific Ocean. These studies themselves were carried out by travelers, sometimes at their own peril and risk, in confrontation with official government circles. The remarkable expeditions of G.I. Nevelsky paved the way for the return of the Amur region to Russia under the terms of the Aigun Treaty with China (signed on May 28, 1858) and the annexation of Primorye to the Empire (under the terms of the Beijing Treaty between Russia and China, concluded on November 2 (14), 1860 .). The results of geographical research in the Amur and Primorye, as well as changes in borders in the Far East in accordance with the treaties between Russia and China, were cartographically declared on maps of the Amur and Primorye compiled and published as soon as possible.

Russian hydrographers in the 19th century. continued active work in the European seas. After the annexation of Crimea (1783) and the creation of the Russian navy in the Black Sea, detailed hydrographic surveys of the Azov and Black Seas began. Already in 1799, a navigational atlas was compiled by I.N. Billings to the northern coast, in 1807 - I.M. Budishchev’s atlas to the western part of the Black Sea, and in 1817 - “General map of the Black and Azov Seas”. In 1825-1836 under the leadership of E.P. Manganari, based on triangulation, a topographic survey of the entire northern and western coast of the Black Sea was carried out, which made it possible to publish the “Atlas of the Black Sea” in 1841.

In the 19th century Intensified study of the Caspian Sea continued. In 1826, based on the materials of detailed hydrographic work of 1809-1817, carried out by the expedition of the Admiralty Boards under the leadership of A.E. Kolodkin, the “Complete Atlas of the Caspian Sea” was published, which fully met the requirements of shipping of that time.

In subsequent years, the atlas maps were refined by the expeditions of G. G. Basargin (1823-1825) on the west coast, N. N. Muravyov-Karsky (1819-1821), G. S. Karelin (1832, 1834, 1836) and others - on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. In 1847, I.I. Zherebtsov described the Kara-Bogaz-Gol Bay. In 1856, a new hydrographic expedition was sent to the Caspian Sea under the leadership of N.A. Ivashintsova, who carried out systematic surveying and description for 15 years, drawing up several plans and 26 maps that covered almost the entire coast of the Caspian Sea.

In the 19th century Intensive work continued to improve maps of the Baltic and White Seas. An outstanding achievement of Russian hydrography was the “Atlas of the Whole Baltic Sea...” compiled by G. A. Sarychev (1812). In 1834-1854. Based on the materials of the chronometric expedition of F. F. Schubert, maps were compiled and published for the entire Russian coast of the Baltic Sea.

Significant changes to the maps of the White Sea and the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula were made by the hydrographic works of F. P. Litke (1821-1824) and M. F. Reinecke (1826-1833). Based on the materials of the work of the Reinecke expedition, the “Atlas of the White Sea...” was published in 1833, the maps of which were used by sailors until the beginning of the 20th century, and the “Hydrographic Description of the Northern Coast of Russia,” which supplemented this atlas, can be considered as an example of a geographical description of the coasts. The Imperial Academy of Sciences awarded this work to M. F. Reinecke in 1851 with the full Demidov Prize.

Thematic mapping

Active development of basic (topographic and hydrographic) cartography in the 19th century. created the basis necessary for the development of special (thematic) mapping. Its intensive development dates back to the 19th and early 20th centuries.

In 1832, the Main Directorate of Communications published the Hydrographic Atlas of the Russian Empire. It included general maps at scales of 20 and 10 versts per inch, detailed maps at a scale of 2 versts per inch and plans at a scale of 100 fathoms per inch and larger. Hundreds of plans and maps were compiled, which contributed to increasing the cartographic knowledge of the territories along the routes of the corresponding roads.

Significant cartographic works in the 19th and early 20th centuries. carried out by the Ministry of State Property formed in 1837, in which in 1838 the Corps of Civil Topographers was established, which carried out mapping of poorly studied and unexplored lands.

An important achievement of Russian cartography was the “Marx Great World Desk Atlas” published in 1905 (2nd edition, 1909), which contained over 200 maps and an index of 130 thousand geographical names.

Mapping nature

Geological mapping

In the 19th century Intensive cartographic study of Russia's mineral resources and their exploitation continued, and special geognostic (geological) mapping was being developed. At the beginning of the 19th century. Many maps of mountain districts, plans of factories, salt and oil fields, gold mines, quarries, and mineral springs were created. The history of exploration and development of mineral resources in the Altai and Nerchinsk mountain districts is reflected in particular detail in the maps.

Numerous maps of mineral deposits, plans of land plots and forest holdings, factories, mines and mines were compiled. An example of a collection of valuable handwritten geological maps is the atlas “Map of Salt Mines”, compiled in the Mining Department. The collection's maps date mainly from the 20s and 30s. XIX century Many of the maps in this atlas are much broader in content than ordinary maps of salt mines, and are, in fact, early examples of geological (petrographic) maps. Thus, among the maps of G. Vansovich of 1825 there is a Petrographic map of the Bialystok region, Grodno and part of the Vilna province. The “Map of Pskov and part of the Novgorod province: with indications of rock-stone and salt springs discovered in 1824...” also has rich geological content.

An extremely rare example of an early hydrogeological map is the “Topographic Map of the Crimean Peninsula...” indicating the depth and quality of water in villages, compiled by A. N. Kozlovsky in 1842 on a cartographic basis of 1817. In addition, the map provides information about the areas of the territories having different water supplies, as well as a table of the number of villages by county that need watering.

In 1840-1843. English geologist R. I. Murchison, together with A. A. Keyserling and N. I. Koksharov, conducted research that for the first time gave a scientific picture of the geological structure of European Russia.

In the 50s XIX century The first geological maps begin to be published in Russia. One of the earliest is “Geognostic map of the St. Petersburg province” (S. S. Kutorga, 1852). The results of intensive geological research were expressed in the “Geological Map of European Russia” (A.P. Karpinsky, 1893).

The main task of the Geological Committee was to create a 10-verst (1:420,000) geological map of European Russia, in connection with which a systematic study of the relief and geological structure of the territory began, in which such prominent geologists as I.V. Mushketov, A. P. Pavlov and others. By 1917, only 20 sheets of this map were published out of the planned 170. Since the 1870s. Geological mapping of some areas of Asian Russia began.

In 1895, the “Atlas of Terrestrial Magnetism” was published, compiled by A. A. Tillo.

Forest mapping

One of the earliest handwritten maps of forests is “Map for viewing the state of forests and the timber industry in [European] Russia,” compiled in 1840-1841, as established, by M. A. Tsvetkov. The Ministry of State Property carried out major work on mapping state forests, the forest industry and forest-consuming industries, as well as improving forest accounting and forest cartography. Materials for it were collected through requests through local departments of state property, as well as other departments. Two maps were drawn up in their final form in 1842; the first of them is a map of forests, the other was one of the early examples of soil-climatic maps, which indicated climatic bands and dominant soils in European Russia. A soil-climate map has not yet been discovered.

Work to compile a map of the forests of European Russia revealed the unsatisfactory state of the organization and mapping of forest resources and prompted the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of State Property to create a special commission to improve forest mapping and forest accounting. As a result of the work of this commission, detailed instructions and symbols for drawing up forest plans and maps were created, approved by Tsar Nicholas I. The Ministry of State Property paid special attention to the organization of work on the study and mapping of state-owned lands in Siberia, which acquired a particularly wide scope after the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861, one of the consequences of which was the intensive development of the resettlement movement.

Soil mapping

In 1838, a systematic study of soils began in Russia. A large number of handwritten soil maps were compiled primarily from inquiries. A prominent economic geographer and climatologist, Academician K. S. Veselovsky, compiled and published the first consolidated “Soil Map of European Russia” in 1855, which shows eight soil types: chernozem, clay, sand, loam and sandy loam, silt, solonetzes, tundra , swamps. The works of K. S. Veselovsky on climatology and soils of Russia were the starting point for the works on soil cartography of the famous Russian geographer and soil scientist V. V. Dokuchaev, who proposed a truly scientific classification for soils based on the genetic principle, and introduced their comprehensive study taking into account factors soil formation. His book “Cartography of Russian Soils,” published by the Department of Agriculture and Rural Industry in 1879 as an explanatory text for the “Soil Map of European Russia,” laid the foundations of modern soil science and soil cartography. Since 1882, V.V. Dokuchaev and his followers (N.M. Sibirtsev, K.D. Glinka, S.S. Neustruev, L.I. Prasolov, etc.) conducted soil, and in fact complex physiographic studies in more than 20 provinces. One of the results of these works were soil maps of the provinces (on a 10-verst scale) and more detailed maps of individual counties. Under the leadership of V.V. Dokuchaev, N.M. Sibirtsev, G.I. Tanfilyev and A.R. Ferkhmin compiled and published the “Soil Map of European Russia” at a scale of 1:2,520,000 in 1901.

Socio-economic mapping

Farm mapping

The development of capitalism in industry and agriculture necessitated a more in-depth study of the national economy. For this purpose, in the middle of the 19th century. overview economic maps and atlases begin to be published. The first economic maps of individual provinces (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Yaroslavl, etc.) are being created. The first economic map published in Russia was “Map of the industry of European Russia showing factories, factories and industries, administrative places for the manufacturing part, the main fairs, water and land communications, ports, lighthouses, customs houses, the main piers, quarantines, etc., 1842” .

A significant cartographic work is the “Economic-statistical atlas of European Russia from 16 maps,” compiled and published in 1851 by the Ministry of State Property, which went through four editions - 1851, 1852, 1857 and 1869. This was the first economic atlas in our country dedicated to agriculture. It included the first thematic maps (soil, climate, agricultural). The atlas and its text part make an attempt to summarize the main features and directions of development of agriculture in Russia in the 50s. XIX century

Of undoubted interest is the handwritten “Statistical Atlas” compiled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs under the leadership of N.A. Milyutin in 1850. The Atlas consists of 35 maps and cartograms reflecting a wide variety of socio-economic parameters. It was apparently compiled in parallel with the “Economic Statistical Atlas” of 1851 and provides a lot of new information in comparison with it.

A major achievement of domestic cartography was the publication in 1872 of the “Map of the most important sectors of productivity of European Russia” compiled by the Central Statistical Committee (about 1:2,500,000). The publication of this work was facilitated by the improvement in the organization of statistics in Russia, associated with the formation in 1863 of the Central Statistical Committee, headed by the famous Russian geographer, vice-chairman of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky. Materials collected over the eight years of the existence of the Central Statistical Committee, as well as various sources from other departments, made it possible to create a map that comprehensively and reliably characterizes the economy of post-reform Russia. The map was an excellent reference tool and valuable material for scientific research. Distinguished by the completeness of its content, expressiveness and originality of mapping methods, it is a remarkable monument to the history of Russian cartography and a historical source that has not lost its significance to the present day.

The first capital atlas of industry was “Statistical Atlas of the Main Sectors of the Factory Industry of European Russia” by D. A. Timiryazev (1869-1873). At the same time, maps of the mining industry (Ural, Nerchinsk district, etc.), maps of the location of the sugar industry, agriculture, etc., transport and economic maps of cargo flows along railways and waterways were published.

One of the best works of Russian socio-economic cartography of the early 20th century. is the “Commercial and Industrial Map of European Russia” by V.P. Semenov-Tyan-Shan scale 1:1 680 000 (1911). This map presented a synthesis of the economic characteristics of many centers and regions.

It is worth mentioning one more outstanding cartographic work created by the Department of Agriculture of the Main Directorate of Agriculture and Land Management before the First World War. This is an atlas album “Agricultural Industry in Russia” (1914), representing a set of statistical maps of the country’s agriculture. This album is interesting as an experience of a kind of “cartographic propaganda” of the potential opportunities of agriculture in Russia to attract new capital investments from abroad.

Population mapping

P. I. Keppen organized the systematic collection of statistical data on the number, national composition and ethnographic characteristics of the population of Russia. The result of P. I. Keppen’s work was the “Ethnographic Map of European Russia” on a scale of 75 versts per inch (1:3,150,000), which went through three editions (1851, 1853 and 1855). In 1875, a new large ethnographic map of European Russia was published on a scale of 60 versts per inch (1:2,520,000), compiled by the famous Russian ethnographer, Lieutenant General A.F. Rittikh. At the Paris International Geographical Exhibition the map received a 1st class medal. Ethnographic maps of the Caucasus region on a scale of 1:1,080,000 (A.F. Rittich, 1875), Asian Russia (M.I. Venyukov), the Kingdom of Poland (1871), Transcaucasia (1895), etc. were published.

Among other thematic cartographic works, one should name the first map of population density of European Russia, compiled by N. A. Milyutin (1851), “General map of the entire Russian Empire with an indication of the degree of population” by A. Rakint, scale 1:21,000,000 (1866), which included Alaska.

Comprehensive research and mapping

In 1850-1853. The police department released atlases of St. Petersburg (compiled by N.I. Tsylov) and Moscow (compiled by A. Khotev).

In 1897, G.I. Tanfilyev, a student of V.V. Dokuchaev, published a zoning of European Russia, which was first called physiographic. Tanfilyev’s scheme clearly reflected zonality, and also outlined some significant intrazonal differences in natural conditions.

In 1899, the world's first National Atlas of Finland, which was part of the Russian Empire, but had the status of an autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, was published. In 1910, the second edition of this atlas appeared.

The highest achievement of pre-revolutionary thematic cartography was the major “Atlas of Asian Russia”, published in 1914 by the Resettlement Administration, accompanied by an extensive and richly illustrated text in three volumes. The atlas reflects the economic situation and conditions for agricultural development of the territory for the needs of the Resettlement Administration. It is interesting to note that this publication for the first time included a detailed overview of the history of cartography in Asian Russia, written by a young naval officer, later a famous historian of cartography, L. S. Bagrov. The contents of the maps and the accompanying text of the atlas reflect the results of the great work of various organizations and individual Russian scientists. For the first time, the Atlas provides an extensive set of economic maps for Asian Russia. Its central section consists of maps on which, with backgrounds of different colors, the general picture of land ownership and land use is shown, which displays the results of ten years of activity of the Resettlement Administration in settling the resettled people.

There is a special map dedicated to the distribution of the population of Asian Russia by religion. Three maps are dedicated to cities, which show their population, budget growth and debt. Cartograms for agriculture show the share of different crops in field cultivation and the relative number of the main types of livestock. Mineral deposits are marked on a separate map. Special maps of the atlas are dedicated to communication routes, postal institutions and telegraph lines, which, of course, were of extreme importance for sparsely populated Asian Russia.

So, at the beginning of the First World War, Russia came with cartography that provided the needs of defense, national economy, science and education of the country, at a level that fully corresponded to its role as a great Eurasian power of its time. At the beginning of the First World War, the Russian Empire possessed vast territories, displayed, in particular, on the general map of the state published by the cartographic establishment of A. A. Ilyin in 1915.

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Along with the collapse of the Russian Empire, the majority of the population chose to create independent national states. Many of them were never destined to remain sovereign, and they became part of the USSR. Others were incorporated into the Soviet state later. What was the Russian Empire like at the beginning? XXcentury?

By the end of the 19th century, the territory of the Russian Empire was 22.4 million km 2. According to the 1897 census, the population was 128.2 million people, including the population of European Russia - 93.4 million people; Kingdom of Poland - 9.5 million, - 2.6 million, Caucasus Territory - 9.3 million, Siberia - 5.8 million, Central Asia - 7.7 million people. Over 100 peoples lived; 57% of the population were non-Russian peoples. The territory of the Russian Empire in 1914 was divided into 81 provinces and 20 regions; there were 931 cities. Some provinces and regions were united into governorates-general (Warsaw, Irkutsk, Kiev, Moscow, Amur, Stepnoe, Turkestan and Finland).

By 1914, the length of the territory of the Russian Empire was 4383.2 versts (4675.9 km) from north to south and 10,060 versts (10,732.3 km) from east to west. The total length of the land and sea borders is 64,909.5 versts (69,245 km), of which the land borders accounted for 18,639.5 versts (19,941.5 km), and the sea borders accounted for about 46,270 versts (49,360 .4 km).

The entire population was considered subjects of the Russian Empire, the male population (from 20 years old) swore allegiance to the emperor. The subjects of the Russian Empire were divided into four estates (“states”): nobility, clergy, urban and rural inhabitants. The local population of Kazakhstan, Siberia and a number of other regions were distinguished into an independent “state” (foreigners). The coat of arms of the Russian Empire was a double-headed eagle with royal regalia; the state flag is a cloth with white, blue and red horizontal stripes; The national anthem is “God Save the Tsar.” National language - Russian.

Administratively, the Russian Empire by 1914 was divided into 78 provinces, 21 regions and 2 independent districts. The provinces and regions were divided into 777 counties and districts and in Finland - into 51 parishes. Counties, districts and parishes, in turn, were divided into camps, departments and sections (2523 in total), as well as 274 landmanships in Finland.

Territories that were important in military-political terms (metropolitan and border) were united into viceroyalties and general governorships. Some cities were allocated into special administrative units - city governments.

Even before the transformation of the Grand Duchy of Moscow into the Russian Kingdom in 1547, at the beginning of the 16th century, Russian expansion began to expand beyond its ethnic territory and began to absorb the following territories (the table does not include lands lost before the beginning of the 19th century):

Territory	Date (year) of accession to the Russian Empire	Data
Western Armenia (Asia Minor)		The territory was ceded in 1917-1918
Eastern Galicia, Bukovina (Eastern Europe)		ceded in 1915, partially recaptured in 1916, lost in 1917
Uriankhai region (Southern Siberia)		Currently part of the Republic of Tuva
Franz Josef Land, Emperor Nicholas II Land, New Siberian Islands (Arctic)		The archipelagos of the Arctic Ocean are designated as Russian territory by a note from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Northern Iran (Middle East)		Lost as a result of revolutionary events and the Russian Civil War. Currently owned by the State of Iran
Concession in Tianjin		Lost in 1920. Currently a city directly under the People's Republic of China
Kwantung Peninsula (Far East)		Lost as a result of defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Currently Liaoning Province, China
Badakhshan (Central Asia)		Currently, Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Okrug of Tajikistan
Concession in Hankou (Wuhan, East Asia)		Currently Hubei Province, China
Transcaspian region (Central Asia)		Currently belongs to Turkmenistan
Adjarian and Kars-Childyr sanjaks (Transcaucasia)		In 1921 they were ceded to Turkey. Currently Adjara Autonomous Okrug of Georgia; silts of Kars and Ardahan in Turkey
Bayazit (Dogubayazit) sanjak (Transcaucasia)		In the same year, 1878, it was ceded to Turkey following the results of the Berlin Congress.
Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, Adrianople Sanjak (Balkans)		Abolished following the results of the Berlin Congress in 1879. Currently Bulgaria, Marmara region of Turkey
Khanate of Kokand (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan
Khiva (Khorezm) Khanate (Central Asia)		Currently Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan
including Åland Islands		Currently Finland, the Republic of Karelia, Murmansk, Leningrad regions
Tarnopol District of Austria (Eastern Europe)		Currently, Ternopil region of Ukraine
Bialystok District of Prussia (Eastern Europe)		Currently Podlaskie Voivodeship of Poland
Ganja (1804), Karabakh (1805), Sheki (1805), Shirvan (1805), Baku (1806), Kuba (1806), Derbent (1806), northern part of the Talysh (1809) Khanate (Transcaucasia)		Vassal khanates of Persia, capture and voluntary entry. Secured in 1813 by a treaty with Persia following the war. Limited autonomy until the 1840s. Currently Azerbaijan, Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
Imeretian kingdom (1810), Megrelian (1803) and Gurian (1804) principalities (Transcaucasia)		Kingdom and principalities of Western Georgia (independent from Turkey since 1774). Protectorates and voluntary entries. Secured in 1812 by a treaty with Turkey and in 1813 by a treaty with Persia. Self-government until the end of the 1860s. Currently Georgia, Samegrelo-Upper Svaneti, Guria, Imereti, Samtskhe-Javakheti
Minsk, Kiev, Bratslav, eastern parts of Vilna, Novogrudok, Berestey, Volyn and Podolsk voivodeships of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently, Vitebsk, Minsk, Gomel regions of Belarus; Rivne, Khmelnitsky, Zhytomyr, Vinnitsa, Kiev, Cherkassy, ​​Kirovograd regions of Ukraine
Crimea, Edisan, Dzhambayluk, Yedishkul, Little Nogai Horde (Kuban, Taman) (Northern Black Sea region)		Khanate (independent from Turkey since 1772) and nomadic Nogai tribal unions. Annexation, secured in 1792 by treaty as a result of the war. Currently Rostov region, Krasnodar region, Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol; Zaporozhye, Kherson, Nikolaev, Odessa regions of Ukraine
Kuril Islands (Far East)		Tribal unions of the Ainu, bringing into Russian citizenship, finally by 1782. According to the treaty of 1855, the Southern Kuril Islands are in Japan, according to the treaty of 1875 - all the islands. Currently, the North Kuril, Kuril and South Kuril urban districts of the Sakhalin region
Chukotka (Far East)		Currently Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
Tarkov Shamkhaldom (North Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of Dagestan
Ossetia (Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of North Ossetia - Alania, the Republic of South Ossetia
Big and Small Kabarda		Principalities. In 1552-1570, a military alliance with the Russian state, later vassals of Turkey. In 1739-1774, according to the agreement, it became a buffer principality. Since 1774 in Russian citizenship. Currently Stavropol Territory, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Chechen Republic
Inflyantskoe, Mstislavskoe, large parts of Polotsk, Vitebsk voivodeships of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Eastern Europe)		Currently, Vitebsk, Mogilev, Gomel regions of Belarus, Daugavpils region of Latvia, Pskov, Smolensk regions of Russia
Kerch, Yenikale, Kinburn (Northern Black Sea region)		Fortresses, from the Crimean Khanate by agreement. Recognized by Turkey in 1774 by treaty as a result of war. The Crimean Khanate gained independence from the Ottoman Empire under the patronage of Russia. Currently, the urban district of Kerch of the Republic of Crimea of ​​Russia, Ochakovsky district of the Nikolaev region of Ukraine
Ingushetia (North Caucasus)		Currently the Republic of Ingushetia
Altai (Southern Siberia)		Currently, the Altai Territory, the Altai Republic, the Novosibirsk, Kemerovo, and Tomsk regions of Russia, the East Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
Kymenygard and Neyshlot fiefs - Neyshlot, Vilmanstrand and Friedrichsgam (Baltics)		Flax, from Sweden by treaty as a result of the war. Since 1809 in the Russian Grand Duchy of Finland. Currently Leningrad region of Russia, Finland (region of South Karelia)
Junior Zhuz (Central Asia)		Currently, the West Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan
(Kyrgyz land, etc.) (Southern Siberia)		Currently the Republic of Khakassia
Novaya Zemlya, Taimyr, Kamchatka, Commander Islands (Arctic, Far East)		Currently Arkhangelsk region, Kamchatka, Krasnoyarsk territories

There are numerous cries that the Russian Empire before October was a powerful developing state with an unprecedented pace of development. Let's see how correct these statements are.

What was Russia like in 1914, on the eve of the First World War, which dramatically changed the vector of its development? According to most objective indicators, it occupied a not entirely honorable place in Europe next to the then Spain or slightly ahead of it.

Judge for yourself, by 1914, 86% of the country’s population lived in rural areas, agriculture produced 58% of the national economy’s output, i.e., contrary to the myth spread by Govorukhin about food abundance in tsarist Russia, one peasant could hardly feed himself and plus 0.2 city dwellers. In this situation, the export of agricultural products was carried out according to the cynical principle formulated back in the early 90s of the 19th century. Finance Minister Vyshegradsky: “We won’t finish it, but we’ll take it out.” ( the indicators of Russian agriculture in 1913 will be shown below)
The famous agronomist and publicist wrote in 1880 about what the export of grain meant for the Russian peasantry. Alexander Nikolaevich Engelhardt:

____ “When last year everyone was rejoicing, rejoicing that there was a bad harvest abroad, that there was a great demand for grain, that prices were rising, that exports were increasing, only the men were not happy, they looked askance at the sending of grain to the Germans, and at the fact that the masses had better the bread is burned into wine. The men kept hoping that the export of grain to the Germans would be prohibited, that the burning of bread for wine would be prohibited. “What kind of order is this,” people explained, “the whole peasantry buys bread, and the grain is taken past us to the Germans. The price of bread is expensive, it’s impossible to beat, that the best bread is burned into wine, and all evil comes from wine

[...]
We send wheat, good clean rye abroad, to the Germans, who will not eat any rubbish. We burn the best, clean rye for wine, but the worst rye, with fluff, fire, calico and all sorts of waste obtained from cleaning rye for distilleries - this is what a man eats. But not only does the man eat the worst bread, he is also malnourished. If there is enough bread in the villages, they eat three times; there has become a derogation in the bread, the bread is short - they eat it twice, they lean more on the spring, potatoes, and hemp seed are added to the bread. Of course, the stomach is full, but from bad food people lose weight, get sick, the guys grow tighter, just like what happens with poorly kept cattle...”
____ Do the children of a Russian farmer have the food they need? No, no and NO. Children eat worse than calves from an owner who has good livestock.”

In no developed capitalist country in the world at that time was the gap between the distribution of income of different segments of the population as deep as in Russia. 17% of the population belonging to the exploitative classes of the city and countryside had a total income equal to the income of the rest 83% residents of the country. In the village 30 thousand landowners had as much land as 10 million peasant families.

Russia in 1901-1914 was an arena for the investment of foreign capital, and its domestic market was an object of division among international financial monopolies. As a result, by the beginning of the First World War were in the hands of foreign capital major industries such as: metallurgical, coal, oil, electric power.

Russia was connected with the West by a chain of enslaving loans. Foreign financial capital almost completely controlled its banking system. Of the fixed capital of the 18 largest banks in Russia, 43% was made up of the capital of French, English and Belgian banks. Russia's external debt doubled over 20 years by 1914 and amounted to 4 billion rubles. or half of the state budget. In the 33 years preceding the First World War, 2 times more money went abroad from Russia in the form of interest on loans and dividends to foreign shareholders than the value of fixed assets of the entire Russian industry.

Foreign economic dependence inevitably led to foreign policy dependence on creditor countries. The external result of a sharp increase in such dependence by the beginning of the 20th century. a whole series of unequal economic and political treaties began: 1904 with Germany, 1905 with France and 1907 with England. According to the agreements with France and England, Russia had to pay its debts not only with money, but also with “cannon fodder”, adjusting its military-strategic plans to please them (instead of delivering the main blow in the upcoming war to the weaker Austria-Hungary, which would be more beneficial for Russia , she had to apply it to Germany in order to ease the situation for France). The French and English governments, taking advantage of “alliance treaties” with Russia, forced the tsarist government to place its foreign military orders only at their enterprises.

Russian industrialists and bankers, being closely associated with foreign capital, very often slipped into outright treason. Thus, in 1907, in the agreement of the famous Russian private enterprise, the military-industrial complex of the association Putilov factories with a similar German company Krupp, among other things, it was envisaged to familiarize German partners with the conditions and requirements of the Russian War Ministry for the weapons produced.

However, even the ordinary business activities of Russian capitalists often caused damage to Russia. Thus, in 1907, the manager of the largest coal monopoly in Russia, Produgol, noted with regret in his next annual report that “periods of coal famine occur very rarely, and with them a period of high prices”. Unlike the coal industry, other Russian monopolies managed to hold off the hunger for their products for much longer. Thus, in 1910, the metallurgical monopoly “Prodamet” organized a “metallurgical famine” that lasted until the outbreak of the First World War. In 1912, the oil monopolies Mazut and Nobel carried out a similar operation.

As a result, in 1910-1914. metal prices rose by 38%, exceeding 2 times world prices, coal prices by 54%, and oil prices by 200%.

The tsarist government did not even try to limit this robbery of the country by domestic and foreign monopolies, which the Council of Ministers directly stated in 1914, adopting the decision “On the inadmissibility of influencing industry in order to adapt it to demand.”

The reasons for such patronage of the “knights of profit” were very simple. During this period, there was an intensive merging of the ruling semi-feudal elite with domestic and foreign capital. For example, the governor of the Caucasus, Count Vorontsov-Dashkov, was the owner of a large block of shares in oil companies. The Grand Dukes were shareholders of the Vladikavkaz Railway, the director of the Volga-Kama Bank Bark became the Minister of Finance in 1914, etc.

The Russian bourgeois parties of that time zealously defended the interests of large monopolies and, of course, not only because of ideological considerations. For example, the Azov-Don Bank financed the “Cadet” party, 52 trading companies in Moscow - the “Union of October 17” (“Octobrists”).

“Kowtowling” to the West and a disdainful attitude toward the specific achievements of Russian scientists and inventors flourished. In this regard, it is enough to recall the adventures of a number of international scientific adventurers in what was then Russia. One of them, a certain Marconi, who contested the championship abroad using various fraudulent methods A.S. Popova in the invention of radio.

He was not alone in his claims. In 1908, a certain del Proposto, using the drawings of a submarine designed by the Russian engineer Drzewiecki who happened to be in his hands, tried to get a lucrative contract for its production.

While favorably treating various kinds of international adventurers, tsarist officials greeted domestic inventors with icy indifference. Michurin in 1908 Mr. noted bitterly: “In Russia, we treat with disdain and distrust everything Russian, all the original works of a Russian person.” I had to face the same attitude in 1912. Tsiolkovsky, who contacted the General Staff with a project for an airship and received a response that he could work on it "without any expenses from the treasury."

And if in this way the ruling elite treated the thinking elite of society, then one can imagine the level of its attitude towards the common people, which was expressed in social legislation. Adopted in the late 90s of the XIX century. legislative limitation of the working day to 11.5 hours continued to operate until the February Revolution of 1917, while in the USA, Germany, England, France the working day at the beginning of the 20th century. averaged 9 hours and did not exceed 10. The wages of Russian workers during this period were 20 times less than those of American workers, although labor productivity in various branches of production was 5-10 times less.

The Workers' Insurance Act of 1912 covered only a sixth of the working class. Benefits for injuries received were meager, and they also had to prove that they were received through no fault of their own. The benefits were paid for 12 weeks, and then live as you wish. The life and health of a worker in Tsarist Russia were valued cheaply. At the state Obukhov arms factory in the workshops there was hung "Table for assessing damage to the worker's body". The prices for one-time benefits for injuries received were as follows: for loss of vision in one eye - 35 rubles, both eyes - 100 rubles, complete loss of hearing - 50 rubles, loss of speech - 40 rubles.

The peasant question was even more acute in Russia at that time, which he tried to solve Stolypin, based on his ideas about the relationship between the Russian peasantry and agriculture, which further aggravated the relationship between the peasants and the authorities.

The failures of the basis of Stolypin's political line - reforms in the agrarian sector - by 1911 became obvious to everyone. All the main components of this reform, namely, the liquidation of the community and the massive resettlement of peasants beyond the Urals to free lands, suffered a clear collapse. In 1910, 80% of the peasants still remained part of the communities, although after everything that had happened they were pretty ruined and angry. Of those sent in 1906-1910. for the Urals 2 million 700 thousand. displaced people over 800 thousand returned completely ruined to their previous place of residence, 700 thousand begged in Siberia, 100 thousand died of hunger and disease, and only 1 million 100 thousand. somehow found a foothold in the new place.

Thus, the socio-political tension in the Russian village, which Stolypin’s reforms were supposedly aimed at removing, not only did not disappear, but increased even more. Tsarism could not find reliable political support in the villages, which it so strived for. This is, in fact, what Stolypin paid for with his life.
After his reforms, indicators by grain production per capita in 1913 year were these:

in Russia - 30.3 pounds
in the USA - 64.3 pounds,
in Argentina - 87.4 pounds,
in Canada - 121 poods.

About the notorious grain exports to satisfy half of Europe:
- in 1913 foreign Europe consumed 8336.8 million poods five main grain crops, of which own harvest amounted to 6755.2 million poods (81%), and net grain imports amounted to 1581.6 million poods (19%), including 6.3% — Russia’s share. In other words, Russian exports satisfied only approximately 1/16 needs of foreign Europe for bread.

Continuing to consider the situation in Russia in 1914, one inevitably comes to the problem of Russia’s participation in the First World War, which began on August 1, 1914.

From all of the above, it clearly follows that Russia could not have any independent role in this major event in world history. She and her people were destined to be cannon fodder. And this role was determined not only by the lack of political independence of Russia on the eve of the First World War, but by the meager economic potential with which Russia entered the war. The vast Russian Empire, with a population of 170 million people, or the same number in all other countries of Western Europe combined, entered the war with an annual production of 4 million tons of steel, 9 million tons of oil, 29 million tons of coal, 22 million. tons of commercial grain, 740 thousand tons of cotton.
In global production in 1913, the share of Russia was 1.72%, the share of the USA - 20%, England - 18%, Germany - 9%, France - 7.2% (these are all countries with a population 2-3 times smaller than Russia).
The consequences of such scarcity were felt very quickly. On the eve of the war, the Russian military industry produced 380 thousand pounds of gunpowder per year, and already in 1916 the Russian army needed 700 thousand pounds of gunpowder, but not per year, but per month. Already in the spring of 1915, the Russian army began to feel a catastrophic shortage of ammunition and, above all, shells, the pre-war reserves of which were destroyed in the first 4 months of the war, and current production did not make up for their shortage. This was precisely the main reason for the defeat of the Russian army along the entire front line during the spring-summer campaign of 1915.

Military industry Tsarist Russia could not cope with the supply of not only ammunition to the front, but also light small arms, primarily rifles, of which there were 4 million in warehouses before the war, and 525 thousand were produced annually by all the arms factories of the empire. It was assumed that this entire quantity would be enough until the end of the war. However, reality overturned all calculations. By the end of the first year of the war, the annual need for rifles was 8 million, and by the end of 1916 - 17 million. The shortage of rifles could not be filled even with the help of imports until the very end of the war. ___

Materials used by K.V. Kolontaeva, I. Pykhalova, A. Aidunbekova, M. Sorkina _
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As the famous emigrant writer, a staunch monarchist said, Ivan Solonevich:
“Thus, the old emigrant songs about Russia as a country in which rivers of champagne flowed on banks of pressed caviar are an artisanal fake: yes, there was champagne and caviar, but for less than one percent of the country’s population. The bulk of this population lived at a miserable level.”