Historical article: Ancient India
Description: This article is intended for those who are fond of the History of the Ancient World and Ancient India, teachers, parents and children.Target: to increase the cognitive activity of this topic and to the history of India itself.
Tasks:
1. Tell about the origin of Indian civilization.
2. Describe the main stages of Ancient India
3. Explain the basis of the belief.
4. The fall of the empire.
ancient india
ancient india- this is one of the first civilizations of the world, which brought the world culture the largest number of various spiritual values, with a turbulent and complex history. It was here that the greatest religions were once born, empires appeared and collapsed, but from century to century the “enduring” originality of Indian culture was preserved. This civilization built large and very well-planned cities with bricks with running water and built a pictographic script, which to this day cannot be deciphered.At the end of the 3rd millennium BC, on the Hindustan Peninsula, not far from the Indus River valley, two main centers of India arose: Harappa and Mohejo-Daro, therefore, on behalf of the river, it received its name. Its development was directly connected with the organization of high yields of irrigated agriculture. The nature and climate of India are very diverse. Almost the entire Hindustan peninsula is occupied by a plateau with a hot, arid climate.
Later, nomadic tribes of the Aryans penetrate into India from the north-west, who mix with the local population (II millennium BC).
Gradually, India is being transformed and many small states arise in the Ganges valley, led by rajas in the period from the 7th-6th centuries BC. The epic poems "Mahabharata" and "Ramayana" tell about the wars waged between the rajas. The development of agriculture and handicrafts, as well as aggressive wars, led to the emergence of property inequality among the Aryans. The rajas who led the predatory campaigns accumulate a lot of wealth. With the help of warriors, they strengthen their power, make it hereditary. The Rajas and their warriors turn the captives into slaves. From the peasants and artisans they demand the payment of taxes and work for themselves. Rajas are gradually turning into kings of small states. During wars, these small states are united into one, and then the ruler becomes a maharaja (“big king”).
During this period, the national religion of Brahmanism (the god Brahma) also appeared, which contributed to the formation of a varied system of society. Thus, the entire population of ancient India was divided into four groups, called castes (varnas) - hereditary social groups. These were 1) Brahmins (priests) who did not engage in physical labor and lived on income from sacrifices; 2) kshatriyas (wars), in their hands was also state administration, there was often a struggle between the brahmins and kshatriyas; 3) vaishyas (artisans, farmers), various merchants and shepherds also treated them; 4) Shudras (servants), the lowest of the castes, all the local population conquered by the Aryans also made up the fourth caste. Slaves were not included in any caste. The peculiarity of the castes was such that a person born in one of the castes could not move to another, and therefore there was social inequality in society.
6th century BC was characterized for a short period with Alexander the Great, as he captured northwestern India. But after his departure, almost all of India was under the rule of the kings of the Maurya dynasty. This state reached its peak under King Ashoka, continuing the aggressive policy of Chandragupta, Ashoka annexes a number of neighboring regions to his possessions, and also actively contributes to the spread of a new religion for India, like Buddhism - the earliest of the three world religions (268-231 BC). The founder is Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha).
As a result, the Mauryan Empire breaks up into several states (the beginning of the 2nd century BC). For a short time, a single state, the Gupta Empire, reappears in India (the beginning of the 4th century BC). The city of Magadha again becomes the center of a large slave state - Gupt. The kings of this state made a number of successful campaigns of conquest in the Ganges valley and in Central India. The rulers of small kingdoms paid tribute to them. India carried on extensive land and sea trade with other countries.
But the final fall of the slave-owning order in India and the period of ancient history was facilitated by an invasion in the middle of the 5th century. northern tribes of the Huns, who finally ruined the country and formed their state in India.
Literature:
1. Forgotten Civilization in the Indus Valley by M. F. Albedil
2. India. History of the country of Sinharaja Tammita-Delgoda
Probably, there are not many countries in the world that can boast of an ancient history dating back thousands of years. One of them is India. Mysterious and unpredictable, it attracts historians and scientists, tourists and lovers of Hinduism. Let's talk a little about Indian civilization and history.
Urban civilization first appeared in ancient India in the Indus Valley at the beginning of the third millennium BC, in the territory of modern Pakistan and northwestern India. This happened simultaneously with other early civilizations of the ancient world, in ancient Egypt, and the Indian civilization is one of the earliest in world history.
The Indus Valley civilization disappeared in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. In the following thousands of years, a people known as the Aryans, speaking an Indo-European language, migrated to North India from Central Asia. They came to India as semi-nomadic tribes led by warrior chiefs. Over time, they became the rulers of the local Dravidian population and formed tribal kingdoms. This period of ancient Indian history is known as the Vedic era, as depicted in the earliest Indian scriptures called the Vedas. It was also a formative period in which the main features of traditional Indian civilization were laid. These include the emergence of early Hinduism as the founding religion of India and the socio-religious phenomenon known as caste.
The tribal society of the early Aryans gave way to the more complex society of the classical era of Ancient India. This period was marked by the revival of urban civilization in the Indian subcontinent, and with it culture. It was one of the most creative periods in the history of India, when two new religions appeared - Jainism and. But this era also ended with the advent of a new dynasty of rulers - the Mauryas, who ruled from 317 to 180 BC.
The most famous of the Mauryan emperors (in fact the most famous ruler in general in the history of ancient India and one of the most notable in the entire ancient world) was Ashoka (reigned 272-232 BC). He was an excellent ruler: compassionate, tolerant, firm, striving for justice and well-being for all his subjects. Fifty years after Ashoka's death, the vast Mauryan empire began to crumble. The outlying provinces fell away, and by the middle of the 2nd century BC, the empire was almost halved.
Society and economy
The Vedic era was a "dark age" in Indian history as it was a time of great upheaval and no written records from that period have survived to shed light on it. It was, however, one of the most formative eras of ancient Indian civilization. In terms of society, the arrival of the Aryans in ancient India and their rise as the dominant group gave rise to the caste system. This divided Indian society into layers reinforced by religious rules. Initially, there were only four castes: the sacred caste, the warrior caste, peasants and merchants, and laborers. Outside the caste system, there were "untouchables" - a separate caste.
Although Aryan society soon became more sedentary and more urban, the castes persisted. New religious movements, Jains and Buddhists, rose up against him, preaching that all men are equal. However, the caste was never abolished.
Government
The revival of cities allowed the emergence of organized states. Most of them were kingdoms, but there were also those (a rarity in the Ancient East) that were republics.
During the Mauryan era, the empire was divided into provinces and an organization for collecting taxes was developed. An extensive spy system was also created. A network of roads was created, running from the south and north and from east to west. The Mauryans relied in their power on the army, which was one of the strongest in the ancient world.
Religion
The civilization of Ancient India was an amazing source of religious innovation and innovation.
The Aryan belief system revolved around a pantheon of gods and goddesses. It also included the concept of the "cycle of life" - the reincarnation of the soul from one creature (including animals and people) to another. Later, the idea of the material world as an illusion became widespread. Such ideas were emphasized in the new teachings of Jainism and Buddhism, which also had their origins in ancient India.
Jainism was founded by Mahavira ("great hero", lived c. 540-468 BC). He emphasized an aspect already present in early Hinduism - love and tolerance for all living things. He also contributed to the renunciation of worldly desires and the ascetic lifestyle.
One of the dominant religions was Buddhism. It was founded by the former prince Siddhartha Gautama, who received the nickname Buddha (enlightened). He came to the conclusion that extreme asceticism is not a fruitful basis of spiritual life. However, like the Jains, he believed that liberation from worldly desires was the path to salvation. In everyday life, Buddhists emphasized the importance of this aspect.
Buddhism and Jainism flourished during the Mauryan Empire. Some scholars believe that it was during this period, especially under Ashoka, that Buddhism became the main religion in ancient India.
Literature
Closely associated with these religious events, Ancient India produced a fantastically rich literature. In the centuries following their arrival in North India, the Aryans wrote a plethora of verses, tales, hymns, incantations, and developed them into the oral tradition known as the Vedas. Another literature written towards the end of the Vedic era is the Upanishads, a collection of prose and poetry that explores deep religious and philosophical concepts, including the idea that the material world is an illusion. Later in the history of ancient India, religious and other ideas began to be expressed in short texts called sutras. The earliest Jain and Buddhist scriptures were in this form, recounting the sayings of their founders in a concise, pithy way. Along with this, a tradition of complex epic poetry arose. The most famous examples are Ramayana and Mahabharata. They retell famous events in the semi-real and semi-mythological history of India.
Along with religious works, Ancient India produced works on mathematics, medicine and politics. probably, it is not worth mentioning that many sciences came to us precisely from India, and scientists were valued in antiquity worth their weight in gold thanks to their knowledge.
All these works are written in Sanskrit, the ancient language of the Aryans. It is an Indo-European language, distantly related to Persian, Greek, Latin, German and other languages. The Sanskrit script was based on the Aramaic alphabet, which came to India from the Middle East around the 6th century BC. e.
The legacy of ancient India in world history
The evolution of religious culture in ancient India, from which Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism became three distinct religions, is of great importance in world history. Buddhism spread far beyond the Indian subcontinent (where, oddly enough, it became a minority religion) and had a profound impact on societies in China, Japan, Korea, Tibet, and Southeast Asia. It is now spreading rapidly among the nations of the West, where by some accounts it is the fastest growing religion. The interaction between the three rival but closely related religions has created a rich and tolerant intellectual environment. This would lead to achievements of world significance. Indian developments in mathematics laid the foundation for modern Western mathematics, and hence for modern Western science.
The civilization of ancient India until the beginning of the twentieth century was relatively little studied by archaeologists and historians, it was believed that the main centers of civilization of the ancient world lay in the Middle East, between the Tigris and Euphrates, and in ancient Egypt. Everything changed thanks to the finds of the English archaeologist James Breasted, who was the first to discover in India traces of the ancient Harappan civilization, or Proto-Indian, as it is also called. And it turned out that the ancient Indian civilization is as ancient as the ancient Egyptian, that the culture of ancient India was no less developed than in ancient Sumer or. About ancient India, its history, culture, religion, art, our today's article.
History of ancient India
As we have already said, the most ancient Indian civilization, called the Harappan or proto-Indian civilization, was discovered by archaeologists at the beginning of the last twentieth century. Before the astonished eyes of scientists, a vibrant culture appeared, with developed cities, houses equipped with running water (this is at a time when people in Europe still lived in caves in places), developed crafts, trade and art. The ancient Indian city of Harappa was the first to be excavated, which gave the name to this civilization, then Mohenjo-Daro and many other ancient settlements of that time.
The territory of ancient India of that ancient period is located along the valley of the Indus River and its tributaries, and, as if with a necklace, covered the eastern coast of the Arabian Sea in the territory of modern India and Pakistan.
The origin of ancient India is still the subject of debate among historians and archaeologists. There is no agreement between them about whether the ancient proto-Indian civilization had local roots, or whether it was brought from neighboring Mesopotamia, with which, by the way, intensive trade was conducted.
One way or another, but most scientists believe that the proto-Indian civilization was formed from local early agricultural cultures that existed in the fertile Indus River valley. And archaeological finds support this point of view, since archaeologists have discovered many ancient agricultural settlements in the Indus Valley, which date back to the 6th-4th millennia BC. e.
The fertile Indus Valley, favorable climate, large deposits of silicon, providing raw materials for the manufacture of materials, all this contributed to the fact that these lands soon became one of the first cradles of the most ancient civilization of mankind.
Unfortunately, we cannot say much about the earliest page of ancient Indian history, since no written sources have come down to us from this period, the only way we can judge the life of the ancient Indians is archaeological finds. For this reason, we can say a lot about the culture of ancient India, about how their life and economy were, but we know practically nothing, for example, which kings ruled ancient India, what laws were there, whether they fought wars, and so on.
Decline of Indian Civilization
The reasons for the decline and decline of the ancient proto-Indian civilization also remain a historical mystery. But what we can tell from archaeological sources is that the crisis did not happen quickly, but gradually. The ancient cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro gradually emptied, buildings were abandoned, handicraft production was reduced, and trade fell into decay. Metal was used less and less.
There are several hypotheses regarding the reasons for this decline, one of them says that all this was caused by changes in ecology, a change in the course of the Indus River due to a strong earthquake that caused floods, a change in the direction of the monsoons, previously unknown diseases and epidemics, severe drought.
And the last straw that caused the fall of the Harappan civilization was the invasion of nomadic tribes - the Aryans, who came to India from the Central Asian steppes. Due to internal troubles, the Harappan cities could not resist the newcomers, and were soon conquered by them. Gradually, the Aryans mixed with the local population, and their mixture formed the modern Indian people.
Culture of ancient India
The Harappan culture of ancient India was very advanced, as for that time, which is what it says, at least the presence of highly developed cities that had straight streets. The houses were built of mud bricks and were even equipped with running water. Among the houses of the ancient Indian city there were necessarily public granaries, in the city itself there were quarters of various artisans. In particular, the ancient Indians were skilled potters, their artistically painted pottery was in demand far beyond the borders of India itself.
In the surrounding villages, barley and wheat were grown, sheep and goats were bred. A little later, they began to plant date palms, sow rye, grow rice and cotton.
Art of ancient India
The ancient Indians were very creative people, but they achieved the greatest success in architecture and sculpture. True, unfortunately, much more late works of Indian art have survived to our times than from the most ancient period of India, the Harappan civilization.
As for the comparatively later Indian art, it is very strongly influenced by the religion of ancient India, both Buddhism and Hinduism. Images of Buddha and many Indian deities have been preserved to this day on many ancient Indian temples and wall paintings.
The erotic motif is also very strong in Indian art, the most striking example of which is the Indian temple of Khajuraho, where the Kama Sutra is depicted in stones in the most direct sense.
This is yet the most innocent image from the Khajuraho temple.
In general, the Hindus had a peculiar attitude towards sex, for them it was not something shameful, but, on the contrary, almost a spiritual practice, hence the proximity of eroticism and religion in Indian culture.
Religion of ancient India
India became the homeland for one of the three world religions - Buddhism, although, paradoxically, Buddhism itself did not accept, remaining true to its original religion - Hinduism. Buddhism, having originated in India, spread to all surrounding countries.
Hinduism, the traditional religion of India, has deep roots, as it comes to us from the ancient times of Indian history, in fact, it is a mixture of the beliefs of the ancient Indians of the Harappan civilization and the Aryan aliens. Mixing with the local population, the Aryans thoroughly mixed the religion of ancient India.
Hinduism is based on belief in many different gods, and there are so many gods in Hinduism that even the Hindus themselves cannot name their exact number. So every Indian village can have its own local patron god. And the gods of ancient India are divided into two large groups: suras and asuras, who in some Indian myths oppose each other, in some myths asuras are not gods at all, but more demons opposing divine suras. In this divine confrontation between the Hindu gods, one can see echoes of the real confrontation between the two cultures, the Aryan and the Harappan (proto-Indian).
And, nevertheless, in the divine diversity of the gods of Hinduism, several more main gods can be distinguished, which are revered by all Hindus, these are:
- Brahma is the creator god, according to Hinduism, it is Brahma who is the creator of all things.
- Shiva is the destroyer god. If Brahma is such a divine pencil, then Shiva is an eraser responsible for destruction, including the destruction of everything bad.
- Vishnu, the supreme god-observer, the very word "Vishnu" is translated from Sanskrit as "comprehensive." It is the guardian of the universe and all things. He also watches over his "divine colleagues" Brahma and Shiva, so that one of them does not overdo it in his creation, and the second - in his destruction.
- In addition to Hinduism and Buddhism, India is home to a huge number of different philosophical and religious teachings. Therefore, India is sometimes called the "land of a thousand religions."
- It was from ancient India that chess, yoga, tea came to us (according to legend, an Indian monk meditated under a tea tree, a bowl of water lay next to him, and a leaf accidentally fell from the tree into the bowl, after tasting the bowl of water and tea leaf, the monk came to amazement at a delicious drink, and so tea was born).
- Among the sciences in ancient India, mathematics received special development, and the ancient Indian mathematicians were the first to invent the decimal number system, the number 0, the rules for extracting square and cube roots, and also calculated the number "Pi" with great accuracy.
- No less skillful were the ancient Indian astronomers, who were able to determine the phases of the moon without a telescope.
- India is one of the origins of writing, Indian Sanskrit, which was written by Indian scholars and priests - Brahmins, became especially popular. However, the development of writing in ancient India began already in the post-Harappan period, with the arrival of the Aryans.
Sindhu- this is how the inhabitants of the country that stretched along its banks called their river; it was known to the Greeks as indos, and the natives themselves are like the Indians. Easily and naturally, retaining its recognizable originality, it was transferred from Asia to Europe and the enchanting word sounded in many languages - India.
On the territory that in ancient times bore this general name and spread out in a vast triangle between the Arabian Sea, the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal, at the end of the 20th century. there are three independent states: India itself, Bangladesh and Pakistan, through whose lands the legendary Indus flows.
In ancient times, the expanses of ancient India were inhabited Dravidians- short dark-skinned black-haired people with wide noses. Among the inhabitants of South India there are many of their descendants, remarkably reminiscent of their distant ancestors.
Civil strife, natural disasters, epidemics, invasions were a thing of the past, becoming milestones of a leisurely time. Over the centuries, the Dravidians were replaced by numerous tribes that differed from one another in their way of life, language, beliefs, culture, degree of development, and even the appearance of their representatives.
The inhabitants of the foothills, who did not know the northern winds under the protection of the Himalayas, looked with reverent awe at the highest mountains in the world, sincerely considering the dazzling peaks as the abode of revered gods.
Dependent on wildlife, the ancient Indians had a deep respect for the water element: after all, water is the key to a rich harvest, and harvest is life. The worship of water, dating back thousands of years, continues in modern times: until now, the Indians consider their most full-flowing Ganges river to be sacred ...
If even today the flora of India is striking in its diversity and tropical splendor, then many, many centuries ago, forests covered almost all of its territory. They not only gave the ancient inhabitants of the fairyland wood for handicrafts, weapons, buildings and heating of dwellings, but also fed them with nuts, berries, bananas, mangoes, citrus fruits and other trees. The forests were also supplied with medicinal plants and spices, without which even then Indian cuisine was unthinkable. By the way, later it was spices and incense, which were valued more than gold in Europe, that aroused such interest in India and, to a certain extent, "pushed" Christopher Columbus to the discovery of America ...
How did the ancient Indians live?
The ancient Indians hunted forest animals and domesticated some of them. To them we owe much to the fact that humanity has many domestic animals, from chicken to elephant.
However, the inhabitants of India had to wage a constant struggle with the forests, not only clearing land for fields and gardens, but also fighting the impending jungle day by day, risking a poisonous snake or becoming a victim of a predator.
The rural population was very numerous. The peasants grew several varieties of wheat, barley, sesame, beans, rice, planted gardens. In dry times, they resorted to artificial irrigation. Archaeological excavations made it possible to establish that almost every peasant household had cows, goats, sheep and poultry.
Many Indians kept dogs and cats. Of all domestic animals, cows were the most valued, considered the main wealth of the family. Often because of them there were even armed clashes.
Craftsmen settled in cities, with representatives of each profession living on the same street. There were, for example, streets of weavers, potters, and jewelers. Household and temple utensils, weapons, production tools were made of bronze and copper. Gold and silver were used for jewelry. Trade flourished. Trade relations with were especially developed.
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
History is reluctant to reveal its secrets. But sometimes they become known almost by accident. Once an Indian archaeologist R. D. Banerjee was excavating. Finding a wonderful monument of the 2nd century. BC, he was very happy and tried to finish the work faster, when he suddenly discovered the remains of a more ancient culture a little deeper.
So the famous rose from oblivion mohenjo-daro(Hill of the Dead), a whole city that existed more than 4 thousand years ago. An even more ancient city was found Harappa.
According to his name, everything created in that era is called the monuments of the Harappan culture.
Scientists have established that Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are the two largest cities of the ancient civilization, possibly the capitals of large political associations. At the highest place in the city stood a citadel, fortified with powerful walls, where people usually escaped from floods. Inside the citadel was a huge pool for ritual ablutions. With the help of a special device, fresh water was supplied here.
The wide and straight streets of these cities are surprising, the extremely durable brick (even now it is difficult to split it), from which buildings were erected. The houses were two or even three stories high. Instead of windows, small holes were made in the thick walls for lighting: both the thickness of the walls and the tiny windows better protected from the Indian heat. Even the upper floors of the houses had running water to perform ablutions without leaving the dwelling.
Bronze, copper, stone sculptures found by archaeologists help to imagine what the inhabitants of Mohenjo-Daro looked like. Here is a dancer at the temple - young, long-legged, slender, with many bracelets on her arm. And here is the priest. He is very handsome. His eyes are half closed - the priest is immersed in prayer. His robe, thrown over his left shoulder, is decorated with an ornament in the form of a sacred shamrock. Carefully cut hair is intercepted by a wide ribbon falling down the back; on the forehead is a round buckle. The sculpture is carved from white stearite, which has preserved traces of red paste. The eyes are made of white mother-of-pearl and this makes them seem alive.
Indian Vedas and division into castes
On special occasions, the priests recited hymns and incantations. The Hymn to Heaven and Earth invokes a blessing on the farmers:
May Heaven and Earth sprinkle us with honey,
Those that are soaked in honey
exude honey,
influence honey,
Those who sacrifice
and wealth to the gods,
Great glory, trophy and courage to us.
And here is how the spell sounds when building a house:
Here stand firmly, O hut,
Rich in horses
rich in cows
rich in joy
Rich in strength
rich in fat
rich in milk!
Rise to the great destiny!
This is glory Vedas- the oldest monuments of Indian writing. The most famous Vedas (which means "knowledge") are the Rigveda (Veda of hymns), the Yajurveda (Veda of sacrificial formulas), the Somaveda (Veda of chants), the Atharvaveda (Veda of incantations). Their authors are ancient poets and sages Rishi. Not everyone could study and even listen to the Vedas in Ancient India. It was a privilege dvijati- "twice-born". Who are they?
The society of ancient India was divided into castes (the Indians call them " jati"and scientists -" varnas"). Belonging to a caste was determined by the birth of a person and was inherited. Representatives of each caste were engaged from generation to generation in the same profession, worshiped the same gods, strictly followed the established rules in relation to each other and members of other castes. One of the hymns of the Rig Veda describes the emergence of castes as follows.
There was a mythical first man Purush. Brahmins came from his mouth, kshatriyas from his hands, vaisyas from his thighs, and sudras from his feet. Shudras were considered "ekajati" - "once born." How could members of the first three castes be born twice? In childhood, a complex rite was performed over the boys of the first three castes " upanayana"accompanied by solemn donning" upavita". After that, the boy was considered born a second time. The Shudras were not honored with such a rite.
The most honorable place in society was occupied, of course, by the Brahmins, who performed priestly duties, as they knew the sacred doctrine. They were called " avadhya» — « inviolable". The killing of a Brahmin was considered the greatest crime.
The king, the military nobility represented kshatriyas- "endowed with power." The well-known word rajah"(king, leader) refers specifically to the kshatriyas.
Free community members - farmers, cattle breeders, artisans, merchants - belonged to vaishyam.
The position of the Shudras in ancient Indian society was very difficult. They were not supposed to do anything except hard work everyday and humble service to the “twice born”.
Kshatriya - a representative of the Indian warrior caste
States of ancient India
The development of ancient India sometimes seemed to be interrupted and went backwards. So, for example, in the middle of 2 thousand BC. semi-nomadic tribes come and settle in India Aryans. Indian civilization is disappearing. There is a return to the primitive communal system. Only in the first half of the 1st millennium BC. states reappear. Cities also appear, but no longer large, characteristic of the Harappan culture, but small, very well fortified “puras”. The houses in them were stone, wooden, adobe, necessarily protected by an earthen rampart. Craftsmen reappear. Carpenters and blacksmiths enjoyed special respect among them.
In the lower reaches of the Ganges was Magadha- the largest and most powerful state of that time. It reached its highest power in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. , which united under its rule almost the entire territory of Hindustan. Favorable conditions arise for the development of the economy, the improvement of the political system, and the flourishing of culture.
In the 4th c. BC. emerged as a strong state Gupta that existed for nearly two centuries.
Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kushans, Guptas - each of these Indian dynasties is interesting in its own way. The Nandas had one of the largest armies in the Ancient East. The first king of the Mauryan Empire was the legendary Chandragupta. Kanishka was the king of the vast, through which the Great Silk Road passed in antiquity.
This fabulous country also attracted the great conqueror of antiquity. His army crossed the Hindu Kush and split up in the valley of the Coffen River (now Kabul). One part of it, led by Alexander, moved north, the other - under the command of Perdikkas and Gefistion - crossed the Indus and prepared to give battle. However, the warriors were expected to have a plentiful meal and rest. The local raja Taxil not only did not intend to fight the Greek-Macedonians, but even gave them horses and elephants.
Along with King Taxil, history has preserved the name of the brave King Pora, the ruler of a powerful state in northwestern India, who, despite the numerical superiority of the aliens, decided to give them an open battle.
In 326 BC there was a fierce battle. The Indian army was defeated. Bleeding, Por stood before the conqueror and demanded that he be treated as a king should be treated. Alexander, admired by his courage, not only returned Porus his possessions, but even presented new lands.
Alexander failed to conquer all of India. In the conquered territories, he left governors. The last of them, Evdem, left India in 317 BC, that is, already 6 years after the death of Alexander the Great.
The contact of the two cultures turned out to be short-lived, but did not go unnoticed: the influence of Greek culture is noticeable in the beautiful images of the North Indian Gandharian sculptures.
In the 2nd century BC. India broke up into many state formations, unable to repel the constant raids of the Parthians, Scythians and other nomads.
Buddhism and Hinduism in India
Indian history is full of surprises. To learn about one of them, let's go back a little. In 268 BC the Indian throne was occupied by the powerful ruler of the Mauryan dynasty Ashoka ("Deprived of sorrow"). He established diplomatic and trade relations with many countries of the West and East. Under him, the state became one of the largest in the East. In his youth, he was not known for his gentle nature and even earned the nickname Chanda-Ashoka ("Cruel Ashoka"). In the eighth year of his reign, he defeated the state of Kalinga (the territory of the modern Indian state of Orissa), received additional political and commercial advantages. It seemed that the great king was destined to continue to wage wars and strengthen his power.
However, the rock edict of Ashoka, left for posterity, read: “. .. And no matter how many people at the time when the Kalingans were subjugated, were killed or died, or taken away from there, even a hundredth of this number, even a thousandth, weighs on the thought of the One pleasing to the gods ”(as Ashoka called himself). He repented of what he had done.
Ashoka, once merciless, in another edict instructed: "And if someone harms, the God-beneficial believes that it is necessary to spare, as much as possible to forgive." The unexpected metamorphosis of Ashoka is explained by the fact that the king became an adherent of Buddhism, a religion that arose in India in the 6th century. BC, and began to follow its rules.
India is also home to Hinduism- one of the oldest religions on earth, which originated in 4 thousand BC.
A distinctive feature of Hinduism is polytheism. The ancient Indians believed that the gods, like people, love delicious food, beautiful clothes, they are also friends and quarrel. The gods of the most ancient origin are considered Surya(Sun God), Dyaus Pitar(sky god) Ushas(goddess of the dawn) Parjanya(storm god) Saraswati(goddess of the river of the same name), Agni(God of fire). Especially revered Indra- Lord of the rain, victorious Vritra- the demon of drought.
Later, the main gods of the Indians became Brahma(beginning of all beginnings in the world), Shiva(destroyer) and Vishnu(guard).
The ancient Indians imagined Vishnu as a beautiful young man reclining on the mythical snake Shesha, which swims in the waters of the cosmic ocean. Vishnu has four arms, in which he holds a conch, a wheel, a club and a lotus flower. Vishnu has the gift of transforming himself into animals and humans.
Once, turning into a dwarf, Vishnu came to the demon king Bali and asked him to give him as much land as he could cover in three steps. Laughing, Bali willingly gave permission, but soon regretted it: the dwarf grew to a gigantic size and covered the sky with the first step, and the earth with the second. Seeing the horror of Bali, the magnanimous Vishnu did not take the third step.
High in the Himalayas on Mount Kailash, the god Shiva lives. His appearance is formidable Shiva is entwined with cobras, dressed in a tiger skin, wears a necklace of skulls. He is many-sided and many-armed, on his forehead is an all-withering third eye. As the legend says, saving people, Shiva drank poison, and his neck turned blue. Therefore, it is often called "Blue-throated". Shiva has a trident in his hand, and he always performs accompanied by the bull Nandin. Shiva and his wife Parvati, which means "Goryanka", have two sons. The first is the four-armed Ganesha, an elephant-headed man riding a rat. Until now, Ganesha is revered as the god of wisdom and good luck. His brother, the war god Skanda, has six heads. He rides on a huge peacock, holding a bow in one hand and arrows in the other.
The ancient Indians deified animals. The sacred cow Surabhi, which in translation means “Good-smelling”, was especially revered. According to legend, this cow resides in the paradise of the god Indra. The Indians also worshiped snakes - nagas. There is a state in modern India called Nagaland- "Land of Serpents".
In ancient India, it was customary to visit holy places. It was considered a special virtue to visit Hardwar - the place where the Ganges River enters the plain, at least once in a lifetime, no matter how far a person lives, to take a bath in its sacred waters.
The Mahabharata contains so many fantastic stories, replete with strange details, that sometimes it seems - what if at least a fraction of the truth is written here?
Mahabharata and Ramayana
The priceless heritage of the great Indian culture is " Mahabharata"- a huge collection of legends, fairy tales, traditions, religious and philosophical texts.
The author of this grandiose work is unknown. There are many stories in the Mahabharata, the main one of which tells about the struggle of two royal families - the Pandavas and the Kauravas. In a long dispute, the Pandava brothers won, but not without divine help: the chariot of one of them, the brave and powerful Arjuna, was ruled by his mentor the great Krishna. The conversation between Krishna and Arjuna before the battle is depicted in the Bahagavat Gita (Divine Song), which is considered the most sacred part of the Mahabharata. Some parts of the Bhagavad Gita sound quite modern:
He who defeated himself is his own ally,
Who does not own
he, being hostile, is hostile to himself.
Epic poem " Ramayana"as opposed to the Mahabharata" - a single and harmonious work attributed to the poet Valmiki. The Ramayana tells about the eldest son of King Dasaratha, Rama, who, due to the deceit of one of the royal wives, is forced to go into exile with his brother Lakshman and his faithful wife Sita. They lived in the forest, eating roots and fruits. The king of demons, the evil Ravana, kidnapped Sita and carried him away. In a terrible rage, Rama, united with the leader of the monkeys Hanuman, kills the kidnapper and frees the beautiful Sita. Returning to the capital, Rama becomes king.
"Ramayana" and "Mahabharta" can be called an encyclopedia of the life of Ancient India: there is so much information about the country, people's customs, government and culture.
The ancient Indians were knowledgeable not only in literature, but also in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. It was they who gave the world chess. The science of medicine was called Ayurveda- "the science of long life." The ancient Indian physician was at the same time a botanist, a pharmacologist, a biologist, and a psychologist. Skilled surgeons, they not only removed arrows from wounds almost painlessly for the patient, but even restored the correct shape of noses and ears crippled in battle, i.e. did plastic surgery. Well, in the treatment of snake bites, Indian doctors knew no equal!
The most interesting monuments of architecture have come down to us from ancient times. Buddhist shrines stupa outwardly very reminiscent of a bell.
When looking at them, thoughts about their cosmic origin unconsciously arise - they are so unusual. Their basis is an artificial mound, lined with bricks or covered with bleached plaster. The top of the building is crowned with a square terrace "harmika" ("palace of the gods"). A spire rushes upward from its center, on which umbrellas (three or seven), called "amalaka", are strung. Seven umbrellas symbolize seven steps from earth to heaven, and three - the number of heavenly spheres. Inside there is a small chamber (sometimes more than one) with the remains of the Buddha or Buddhist saints. All prayers and rituals are performed only outside.
The most famous is the sanctuary-stupa in Sanchi, which was built from the 3rd to the 1st century BC. BC. On its famous four gates, called "torana", the whole of India is represented: nature, architecture, traditions and legends associated with the life of gods and people, fantastic creatures, wildlife, trees and flowers, the biography of the Buddha. You can look at the gate for hours - how to read a fascinating book.
Ancient Indian civilization had a huge impact on many countries of the East. It is impossible to understand or study the history and culture of the peoples of South and Southeast Asia without knowing the history of Ancient India. She teaches a lot today. Do not forget the wisdom of the Vedas:
Let there be no hate
From brother to brother, and from sister to sister!
Turning to each other
following one vow,
Speak a good word!