Catherine II Alekseevna "Great" (1729-1796) was born on May 2, 1729 in Prussia, the city of Stettin (today it is Poland). At birth, she was given the name Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst, and on July 9, 1744, having converted to Orthodoxy, and having undergone the rite of baptism, she received a new name Ekaterina Alekseevna.
The family of her father, the Duke of Zerbst, did not live well, so Sophia was homeschooled. She studied English, French and Italian, history, geography, theology, studied dance, music. She grew up a very lively, inquisitive and troubled girl, she loved to flaunt her fearlessness in front of the boys with whom she played on the street.
Appearance in Russia
Catherine appeared in Russia in 1744, she was invited by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Here she was expected to marry the heir to the throne, Peter Fedorovich. Their betrothal took place on July 10, 1744, and on September 1, 1745, they were married. Arriving in a foreign country, which became her second homeland, she began to learn the language, Russian customs and history.
After the wedding, Catherine began to live her own life, since the young husband did not pay any attention to her. They did not have children for a long time, and Catherine fell in love with hunting, enjoyed horseback riding, merry balls and masquerades, while reading a lot, was interested in painting. In 1754, their first child, Paul (Emperor Paul I), was born. But the young mother did not take care of her son, since Elizaveta Petrovna took him to her. In 1758, her daughter Anna was born. The husband was not sure of his paternity, and therefore was very unhappy with the birth of his daughter. Later, she had another son, whose father was considered to be Count Orlov. The husband also did not remain faithful to Catherine and openly met with his mistress.
Palace coup
Catherine ascended the throne, having arranged palace coup by forcing her husband Peter III to sign the abdication of the throne. She successfully took advantage of the fact that in Russia her husband was dissatisfied because of the rapprochement with Prussia.
The empress ruled the state from 1762 to 1796. The board was filled with the implementation of plans that Peter the Great did not manage to fulfill. The reign of Catherine, called the "golden age of Catherine", was marked by the fact that Russia entered the world arena, becoming a powerful world power. Catherine conceived how to take the throne back in 1756. She counted on the help of her confidants Bestuzhev, Apraksin and the guard, and they did not let her down. The coup took place on July 9, 1762, and in Moscow, on October 3, 1762, Catherine II was crowned reign.
During her time on the throne, the empress carried out a huge number of reforms. Under her, the power of the army and navy rose, the Crimea, the Black Sea region, the Kuban region were annexed, due to the annexation of lands, the population of Russia increased. Libraries, educational institutions and printing houses were opened. She left behind many art canvases, rare books on philosophy, history, economics, pedagogy, and raised the country's culture. But on the other hand, it strengthened the privilege of the nobility, restricting the freedoms and rights of the peasantry, and severely suppressed dissent.
While in the Winter Palace, she suffered a stroke, and in November, on the 17th of 1796, the Great Catherine died. With the honors that the great empress deserves, she was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral.
The reign of Catherine II
The era of Catherine II (1762-1796) constitutes a significant stage in the history of Russia. Although Catherine came to power as a result of a coup, her policies were inherently linked to those of Peter III.
Catherine's name was actually Sophia-Frederica-Augusta, she was born in Prussian Pomerania, in the city of Stettin, in 1729.Sophia's father, a general of the Prussian service, was the governor of Stettin, and later, when his cousin, the sovereign prince of Zerbst died, he became succeeded him and moved to his small principality. Sophia's mother was from a Holstein family, therefore, Sophia was a distant relative of her future husband, Peter Fedorovich. Frederick II, who hoped to enter into a close alliance with Russia, most of all, was concerned about the marriage of the future empress. At the age of 14, Sophia came with her mother to Russia; the bride converted to Orthodoxy, and in 1745 she was married to the heir to the throne.
Baptized into Orthodoxy, Sophia-Frederica-Augusta received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Naturally gifted with various abilities, Catherine managed to develop her mind by literary pursuits, especially by reading the best French writers of her time. By diligently studying the Russian language, the history and customs of the Russian people, she prepared herself for the great task that awaited her, that is, for ruling Russia. Catherine was characterized by discernment, the art of using circumstances and the ability to find people to fulfill her plans.
In 1762, as a result of a conspiracy of guards officers, in which Catherine herself took part, her husband Peter III was overthrown from the throne. The main assistants of Catherine in the implementation of the coup were the Orlov brothers, Panin, Princess Dashkova. The spiritual dignitary Dmitry Sechenov, the archbishop of Novgorod, who relied on the clergy, who was dissatisfied with the secularization of church estates, also acted in favor of Catherine.
The coup was carried out on June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in his beloved castle, Oranienbaum. On this morning, Catherine arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg. The guard immediately swore allegiance to her, and the whole capital followed the example of the guard. Peter, having received news of the events in the capital, was confused. Having learned about the movement against him of the troops led by Catherine, Peter III with his retinue boarded a yacht and sailed to Kronstadt. However, the garrison of Kronstadt had already gone over to Catherine's side. Peter III finally lost heart, returned to Oranienbaum and signed an act of abdication. A few days later, on July 6, he was killed by the guard officers in Ropsha. It was officially announced that death was due to "hemorrhoidal colic". All prominent participants in the events of June 28 were generously rewarded.
Catherine II was a subtle psychologist and an excellent connoisseur of people; she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented people. That is why Catherine's time was marked by the appearance of a whole galaxy of outstanding statesmen, military leaders, writers, artists and musicians. In dealing with her subjects, Catherine II was, as a rule, restrained, patient, tactful. She was an excellent conversationalist, knew how to listen carefully to everyone.
During the entire reign of Catherine II, there were practically no noisy resignations, none of the nobles was disgraced, was not exiled, and even more so executed. Therefore, there was an idea of Catherine's reign as the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, Catherine was very vain and valued her power more than anything else.
The way of her government can be characterized by one expression: Catherine ruled "with a stick and a carrot."
2. Foreign policy of Catherine II
Following Peter I, Catherine believed that Russia should take an active position in the world arena and pursue an offensive policy.
Catherine II began her foreign policy activities with the fact that she returned home the Russian troops that were abroad, confirmed peace with Prussia, but rejected the military alliance concluded with her by Peter III.
Catherine II successfully continued and triumphantly completed the creation of the Russian Empire as a great world power, begun by Peter I. The foreign policy results of Catherine's 34-year stay on the throne were significant territorial gains and the final consolidation of the status of a great power for Russia.
The country began to play one of the leading roles in world politics, which made it possible to influence in its own interests the solution of practically any international issue.
2.1 South direction
In the southern direction, from ancient times, the dream of the rulers of Russia was to reach the shores of the warm Black Sea.
For such a dream, the first war was the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774.
In 1768 Turkey declared war on Russia, the company in 1769 did not bring success to Russia. However, in 1770 Rumyantsev launched an offensive towards the Danube. In the battle on the Larga River, the Russian army put the Turkish troops to flight. On the Katu River - Rumyantsev, with only 27 thousand soldiers - defeated the 150 thousandth Turkish army. And the Baltic fleet under the command of Admiral Sviridov defeated the excellent forces of the Turks in the Chesme Bay. In 1774, the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy peace treaty was signed, according to which Russia received access to the Black Sea, the right to have a Black Sea fleet. The Crimean Khanate became independent from Turkey. Russia also received land between the Dnieper and the Bug, and from the North Caucasus to the Kuban. However, in 1783 Crimea was incorporated into Russia, and serf cities began to be built there. In the same year, the Georgievsky Treaty was signed, according to which Georgia came under the protectorate (patronage) of Russia. Therefore, the second Russian- turkish war.
The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had ceded to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, the Russians also won a number of important victories, both overland - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Fokshany, the Turks' campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, and others, and the sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Yassy Peace Treaty, securing the Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, as well as pushing the border between the two empires to the Dniester.
The Russian Empire, in need of access to the Black Sea, solved this problem through two Russian-Turkish wars.
2.2 West direction
Here, there is a desire of Russia to unite, into the Empire, all lands inhabited by closely related Russian peoples - Ukrainians and Belarusians. In the second half of the 18th century. Poland is a weak state with many internal problems, which went through roughly the same difficult times as the Ottoman Empire. Catherine II wanted to have in Poland - a weak state with her protégé. However, the allies of Russia - Austria and Prussia, were in favor of the division of Poland. As a result, there are three divisions of Poland:
1) 1772 - Russia received eastern Belarus and Latvian lands.
2) 1793 - Russia receives the center of Belarus, with Minsk and the right-bank Ukraine.
3) 1795 - Russia receives western Belarus, Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia.
On October 13, 1795, a conference of the three powers was held on the fall of the Polish state, it lost its statehood and sovereignty.
2.3 Other areas
In 1764, relations between Russia and Prussia were normalized, as a result of which a union treaty was concluded between the countries. This treaty served as the basis for the formation of the "Northern System" - the alliance of Russia, Prussia, England, Sweden, Denmark and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against France and Austria. Russian-Prussian-British cooperation continued further.
One of Catherine's grandiose plans in the foreign policy arena was the so-called Greek project - joint plans of Russia and Austria to divide Turkish lands, expel Turks from Europe, revive Byzantine Empire and the proclamation of her as emperor of Catherine's grandson, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich. According to the plans, on the site of Bessarabia, Moldavia and Wallachia, the buffer state of Dacia was created, and the western part of the Balkan Peninsula was transferred to Austria. The project was developed in the early 1780s, but was not implemented due to the contradictions of the allies and the conquest of significant Turkish territories by Russia on its own.
In the third quarter of the 18th century. There was a struggle of the North American colonies for independence from England - the bourgeois revolution led to the creation of the United States. In 1780, the Russian government adopted the "Declaration of Armed Neutrality", supported by most European countries (the ships of neutral countries had the right of armed defense in the event of an attack by the fleet of a belligerent country).
After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms. " However, in reality, she withdrew from participation in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all agreements concluded with France, ordered to expel all suspected sympathizers for the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.
With such a foreign policy, as it would seem at first glance, chaos and chaos should have reigned in the state. But here, too, the merits of Catherine II do not end there. In the state, many reforms were carried out to her, such as a letter of gratitude to nobles and cities, a decree on free printing houses and on the introduction of censorship, etc. She managed to systematize the authorities, dividing the Senate into 6 departments, and perfectly differentiate the territory of the Russian Empire, as a result of the provincial reform.
The reign of Paul I
The childhood years of Pavel Petrovich were not cloudless, but they did not bode well for a difficult character in adulthood. He had good teachers and educators, his main mentor was N.I. Panin. Paul studied easily, showing both a sharpness of mind and good abilities; was extremely developed imagination, lack of perseverance and patience, inconstancy. The character of Paul began to manifest itself from the time when he matured and began to realize his position as the heir to the throne, neglected by his mother. Paul was deeply offended by the dismissive attitude of Catherine's favorites and the fact that he was not trusted with any state affairs.
Gradually, the court opposition began to group around Paul (brothers N.I. and P.I. Panin, Prince N.V. Repnin, A.I. Razumovsky). Having visited Berlin, Paul became an ardent supporter of the Prussian order; he began to sharply criticize his mother's policies. The removal from the court followed: in 1783 Pavel received the Gatchina estate as a gift and moved there with his "yard". Removed from politics, he became isolated on his favorite military business: he organized three battalions according to the Prussian model, dressed them in the uniforms of the Prussian army, he himself was engaged in watch parades, reviews, maneuvers, while imitating Frederick II in clothes, gait, even in the manner of driving horses. The similarity with the actions of her father, Peter III, was striking, and Catherine herself noted this, ironically speaking about the Gatchina battalions: "Father's army."
Rumors of the mother's intentions to deprive Paul of the right to the throne and to make his son Alexander the heir were reflected in his character and behavior. Paul became suspicious, hot-tempered; irritability more and more often broke out in the form of fits of unbridled anger. At the same time, he was easygoing: he admitted his mistakes and asked for forgiveness, was generous, tried to take care of his subordinates, and had a kind, sensitive heart.
Outside Gatchina, Pavel was stern, sullen, taciturn, sarcastic, and with dignity endured the ridicule of his favorites (it was no coincidence that he was called the "Russian Hamlet"). With his family, he was not averse to having fun, dancing. Paul's moral standards were unshakable. He idolized discipline and order, he himself was an example in this, he strove to be fair and to observe the rule of law, was honest and committed to strict standards of family morality.
Until the death of Catherine II, the Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich with his wife Maria Feodorovna (princess of Württemberg) lived mainly in Gatchina, away from public affairs. Catherine, who did not love her son, did not pay due attention to him and kept him at a distance. She hatched plans, bypassing Paul, to transfer the throne to her beloved grandson Alexander. However, these plans did not materialize. After the death of Catherine in 1796, Paul I ascended the throne, “Russian Hamlet,” “Tsar-knight,” as his contemporaries called him.
While still the heir, Paul thought out the program of his future actions and upon accession to the throne found tireless activity.
Foreign and domestic policy of Paul 1
The foreign and domestic policy of Paul 1 was distinguished by some contradictions and weak predictability. It did not affect the foundations of the existing system - the preservation of autocracy and serfdom. On the contrary, they became even more entrenched in his short reign. During the life of Catherine II, Paul 1 was in some opposition to the empress, hating his mother. His court in Gatchina was constantly opposed to the Petersburg imperial court, which was distinguished by luxury and idle high society life. An almost ascetic atmosphere reigned in the Gatchina courtyard; it even resembled a military camp. Paul, being a supporter of Prussia and its military order, built his life according to the Prussian military model. Having ascended the throne, he tried to turn the whole country into a kind of Gatchina camp. Reactionaryness was the dominant feature of Paul 1's domestic politics. He hated the French Revolution and fought revolutionary thought in Russia in every way he could. Even French clothing was banned, as was the use of foreign words reminiscent of the revolution. The import of foreign books into Russia is prohibited. Paul 1 introduced the Prussian military system into the army, dressed the army and even the officials in Prussian clothing. Barracks were established in the capital. At 8 o'clock in the evening, when the emperor went to bed, all other residents were supposed to extinguish the lights. The absurdity and imbalance of the monarch led to repression without guilt and rewards without merit. The army and, in particular, the guard were constantly engaged in parades, divorces, drills in St. Petersburg. Secular life has almost ceased. This caused a sharp discontent among the nobility. Fearing a revolutionary "infection", fearing any opposition, Paul 1 in his domestic policy led a course towards limiting the nobility's self-government. But he did not encroach on the basis of the foundations - noble land tenure and serfdom... During the years of his reign, they have become even stronger. Pavel 1, according to him, saw in the landowners 100 thousand free police chiefs. He extended serfdom to the Black Sea and Ciscaucasia. Over the four years of his reign, he distributed over 500 thousand state peasants to the nobles (Catherine in 34 years - 850 thousand). The reign of Paul 1 began in an atmosphere of peasant unrest in the country, which swept through 32 provinces. They were suppressed by military force. Paul himself was guilty of this, having ordered that the entire male population of the country, including serfs, be allowed to take the oath to him as emperor (before they were not allowed to take the oath). This gave rise to the hope of the peasants for the abolition of serfdom. But when they did not wait for her, peasant unrest began. Thus, even in his policy towards the peasantry, Paul turned out to be very contradictory.
The foreign policy of Paul 1. The foreign policy of Paul 1 was also contradictory. The ardent enemy of France, the emperor in 1798 entered the war against her. In the spring of 1799, the Russian army under the command A. V. Suvorova appears in Northern Italy. Having won several brilliant victories, Suvorov freed all of Northern Italy from the French. Austria fearing liberation movement Italians, asks for the transfer of Russian troops to Switzerland. There Suvorov had to continue the war with the French along with the Austrian troops. He makes an incredible heroic transition with battles across the Alps to Switzerland, but by that time the Austrians were defeated. Suvorov breaking through the French screens, gaining victory after victory, he takes the army out of the French encirclement. At the same time, the Russian fleet under the command Admiral Ushakov victoriously fighting at sea: he took by storm the most powerful fortress on about. Corfu, liberated Naples with battles. Then Russian sailors entered Rome. But in the end of 1799, there were changes in foreign policy: Russia ended the war. The anti-French coalition collapsed. Napoleon went to reconciliation with Paul 1. Their negotiations ended with the development of a plan of joint action against England. In January 1801, by a sudden order, without a supply of forage, Pavel sent 40 regiments of Don Cossacks on a campaign against the British possessions in India. The break with England caused discontent among the dignitaries of the nobility, who had trade relations with the English merchants. The British ambassador to Russia was also involved in the coup d'état of March 11, 1801, which resulted in the assassination of Paul 1. But the main reason that pushed the conspirators to a coup was acute discontent with the emperor of the capital's nobility. Paul had no social support and was overthrown.
Because of his extreme temper, Paul did not enjoy the love of the courtiers and dignitaries around him. This decided the fate of the emperor. As a result of a conspiracy from 11 to 12 March 1801, Paul I was killed. The new emperor Alexander I announced that his "father died of an apoplectic stroke"
EKATERINA II is one of the most significant figures in history
RUSSIA.
Her reign is one of the most remarkable in RUSSIAN history.
Catherine II was born on April 21, 1729 in Stettin. Nee Sophia
Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst came from a poor
GERMAN princely family. Her mother was a cousin of Peter III's father,
and the mother's brother was the fiancé of Elizabeth Petrovna, but died before the marriage.
On June 28, 1762, on behalf of Catherine, a manifesto was drawn up saying
about the reasons for the coup, about the threat to the integrity of the fatherland.
On June 29, Peter III signed a manifesto of his abdication. Since the ascent
to the throne and before the coronation, Catherine II participated in 15 sessions of the Senate, and not without success. In 1963, the Senate was reformed.
She founded the so-called Foundling Home. In this house they found a shelter for orphans.
Catherine II, as the Empress of the Orthodox people, has always been distinguished by her piety and devotion to Orthodoxy.
The reign of Catherine II is called the era of the "enlightened
absolutism ”.
The meaning of "enlightened absolutism" is politics
following the ideas of the Enlightenment, expressed in the implementation of reforms,
destroyed some of the most obsolete feudal institutions.
Catherine II made a significant contribution to the development of CULTURE and
ARTS in Russia.
She herself received an excellent education at home: teaching foreign languages, dance, political history, philosophy, economics, law and was considered an intelligent and educated woman.
Under Catherine, the Russian ACADEMY, the Free Economic Society was created, many magazines were founded, a system of public education was created, the Hermitage was founded, public THEATERS were opened, the emergence of the Russian opera, the flourishing of PAINTING.
A number of events of the era of "enlightened absolutism" had a progressive
meaning.
Founded on the initiative of Shuvalov and Lomonosov in 1755, Moscow University played a huge role in the development of ENLIGHTENMENT, Russian national science
and culture, having produced a large number of specialists in various fields of knowledge.
In 1757. the Academy of Arts began training.
The secularization of ecclesiastical land tenure significantly improved the position of the former monastic peasants who received arable land, meadows and other land on which they had previously served corvée, saved them from everyday punishment and torture, from service in the courtyard and forced marriages.
The Empress was much more decisive in her support for the REFORM of the legal procedure. She rejected torture and allowed the death penalty only in exceptional cases.
During the reign of Catherine II, masters such as Vasily create
Borovikovsky, who gained fame for his portraits of the Empress, Derzhavin, many nobles, Dmitry Grigorievich Levitsky, in the 60s, an academician, taught at the Academy of Arts, Fyodor Stepanovich Rokotov, who worked
together with Lomonosov, he painted the coronation portrait of Catherine II.
Domestic and foreign policy of the second half of the 18th century, prepared for the events and previous reigns, is marked by important
legislative acts, outstanding military events and significant territorial annexes.
This is due to the activities of major statesmen and military leaders: A.R. Vorontsov, P.A.Rumyantsev, A.G. Orlov, G.A. Potemkin,
A. A. Bezborodko, A. V. Suvorov, F. F. Ushakov and others.
Catherine II imagined the tasks of the “enlightened monarch” as follows:
1) "It is necessary to educate the nation, which must be ruled.
2) You need to enter a kind
order in the state, maintain society and make it comply
the laws.
3) It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
4) It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
5) It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect for its neighbors. "
Catherine II herself took an active part in state life.
Love for Russia, its people and everything Russian was an essential motive
her activities.
Jokes aside, the greatest contribution to the development of Russia was made, of course, by Catherine II (aka Frederica Sophia Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), who received the title of Catherine the Great during her lifetime.
After the victory in the war with Turkey on April 8, 1783, Catherine II issued a manifesto on the annexation of Crimea, where the Crimean residents were promised “sacredly and unwaveringly for themselves and the successors of our throne to keep them on an equal footing with our natural subjects, to protect and defend their faces, property, temples and their natural faith ... ".
During the wars with Sweden, the Russian Empire repeatedly found itself in such critical situations that European capitals were already wondering what concessions Petersburg would have to buy the world with. But all unfavorable circumstances for Russia were overcome by the iron will of the Empress, which relied on the unshakable staunchness of the Russian troops and on the skill of military generals and admirals. The first strategic success was achieved in the war in the Baltic: after exhausting resources and having achieved nothing, the Swedes asked for peace in 1791.
After that, it was the turn to deal with Poland. Catherine easily convinced the Prussian king of the need to change priorities, the Viennese court also joined the alliance of St. Petersburg and Berlin. And, uniting, the three of us set about solving the Polish question. That is, to the complete partition of Poland. At the same time, Catherine showed considerable political wisdom: having annexed Western Ukrainian, Western Belarusian and Lithuanian lands to Russia, she did not take a piece of the indigenous Polish territories, giving them to Prussian and Austrian partners. For she understood that the Poles would never accept the loss of their statehood.
Following the results of the third section of the Commonwealth, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Duchy of Courland and Semigalsk became part of the Russian Empire. This happened after Catherine II signed a manifesto on April 15, 1795, and the annexation of the territories of modern Baltic states to Russia.
And, in conclusion, I want to recall the words of the wise Ukrainian (unlike the current ones) A. Bezborodko, who held the post of Russian chancellor under Catherine the Great, which he said to young diplomats: Europe did not dare to blurt out without our permission ”. width = "700" height = "458" alt = "(! LANG: 740x485 (700x458, 278Kb)" /> !}
2.
Catherine II the Great (Ekaterina Alekseevna; at birth Sophia Frederic Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, German Sophie Auguste Friederike von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg) - April 21 (May 2) 1729, Stettin, Prussia - November 6 (17), 1796, Winter Palace Petersburg) - Empress of All Russia (1762-1796). The period of her reign is often considered the golden age of the Russian Empire.
Origin
Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the Holstein-Gottorp clan, was the cousin of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf-Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) from 1751 was king of Sweden (elected heir in 1743). The family tree of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.
Childhood, education and upbringing
The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. She was brought up in severity. She grew up as a playful, inquisitive, playful and even poor girl, she loved to play pranks and flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the Stetin streets. Parents did not burden her with upbringing and did not particularly stand on ceremony when expressing their displeasure. Her mother called her in childhood Fikchen (German Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederica").
In 1744, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, together with her mother, was invited to Russia for subsequent marriage with the heir to the throne, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter III and her second cousin. Immediately after arriving in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she strove to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers, the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (teacher of Orthodoxy), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (teacher of the Russian language) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher) are distinguished. Soon she fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so grave that her mother offered to bring in a Lutheran pastor. Sofia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9) 1744 Sophia Frederica Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name of Catherine Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as Elizabeth's mother, Catherine I), and the next day she was betrothed to the future emperor.
Marriage with the heir to the Russian throne
Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna with her husband Peter III Fedorovich
On August 21 (September 1), 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. The first years of their life together, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Catherine would write about this later:
I saw very well that Grand Duke Doesn't love me at all; two weeks after the wedding, he told me that he was in love with the maid Carr, the maid of honor of the empress. He told Count Divier, his chamberlain, that there was no comparison between this girl and me. Divière argued otherwise, and he was angry with him; this scene took place almost in my presence, and I saw this quarrel. To tell the truth, I told myself that with this person I would certainly be very unhappy if I succumbed to the feeling of love for him, for which they paid so poorly, and that there would be something to die of jealousy for no good at all.
So, out of pride, I tried to force myself not to be jealous of a person who does not love me, but in order not to be jealous of him, there was no other choice but not to love him. If he wanted to be loved, it would not be difficult for me: I was naturally inclined and accustomed to fulfilling my duties, but for this I would need to have a husband with common sense, but mine did not.
Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Beyle, a large number of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The lack of conjugal relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed her dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.
Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her by the will of the reigning Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, they call him Paul (the future Emperor Paul I) and are deprived of the opportunity to educate, allowing him to see only occasionally. A number of sources claim that Paul's true father was Catherine's lover S. V. Saltykov (there is no direct statement about this in the Notes of Catherine II, but they are also often interpreted this way). Others - that such rumors are groundless, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated the defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity was of interest to society as well.
Catherine after her arrival in Russia, a portrait by Louis Caravac
After the birth of Paul, relations with Peter and Elizabeth Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter called his wife "spare madam" and openly made mistresses, however, without hindering Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a connection with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland, which arose thanks to the efforts of the English ambassador Sir Charles Henbury Williams. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which aroused strong discontent with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows why my wife became pregnant again! I'm not at all sure whether this child is from me and whether I should take it personally. " At this time, the condition of Elizaveta Petrovna worsened. All this made real the prospect of Catherine's expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced field marshal Apraksins and the British ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov and Dashkova.
The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since the communication of the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when it came time to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the courtyard left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how Aleksey Bobrinsky was born, to whom his brother Pavel I later awarded the title of count.
Paul I Petrovich, son of Catherine (1777)
Having ascended the throne, Peter III carried out a number of actions that caused a negative attitude towards him in the officer corps. So, he entered into an unprofitable treaty for Russia with Prussia, while Russia won a number of victories over her during Seven Years War and returned to her the lands captured by the Russians. At the same time, he intended, in alliance with Prussia, to oppose Denmark (Russia's ally), in order to return Schleswig, which she had taken from Holstein, and he himself intended to march at the head of the guard. Peter announced the sequestration of the property of the Russian Church, the abolition of monastic land tenure and shared with the surrounding plans to reform church rituals. Supporters of the coup also accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia, dislike for Russia, complete inability to rule. Against his background, Catherine looked favorably - an intelligent, well-read, pious and benevolent wife who was persecuted by her husband.
After the relationship with her husband finally deteriorated, and dissatisfaction with the emperor on the part of the guards increased, Catherine decided to participate in the coup. Her associates, the main of whom were the Orlov brothers, Potemkin and Khitrovo, engaged in agitation in the guards units and persuaded them to their side. The immediate reason for the start of the coup was the rumors about the arrest of Catherine and the disclosure and arrest of one of the participants in the conspiracy - Lieutenant Passek.
In the early morning of June 28 (July 9) 1762, while Peter III was in Oranienbaum, Catherine, accompanied by Alexei and Grigory Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where the guards units swore allegiance to her. Peter III, seeing the hopelessness of resistance, abdicated the throne the next day, was taken into custody and died in early July under unexplained circumstances.
After her husband's abdication, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne as the reigning empress with the name of Catherine II, issuing a manifesto in which the basis for the removal of Peter indicated an attempt to change the state religion and peace with Prussia. To substantiate her own rights to the throne (and not the heir to Paul), Catherine referred to "the desire of all Our loyal subjects is obvious and unhypocritical." On September 22 (October 3), 1762, she was crowned in Moscow.
The reign of Catherine II: general information
Alexey Grigorievich Bobrinsky is the bastard son of the Empress.
In her memoirs, Catherine described the state of Russia at the beginning of her reign as follows:
The finances were drained. The army did not receive a salary for 3 months. Trade was in decline, for many of its branches were given to the monopoly. There was no correct system in the state economy. The War Department was plunged into debt; the sea could hardly hold on, being in utter disdain. The clergy were dissatisfied with the taking of his lands. Justice was sold with a bargain, and the laws were guided only in those cases when they favored a strong person.
The Empress formulated the tasks facing the Russian monarch as follows:
It is necessary to educate the nation, which should be governed.
It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect for its neighbors.
The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive, without sharp hesitation, development. After accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms - judicial, administrative, provincial, etc. The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million ( in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populated European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). Catherine II formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities. As Klyuchevsky wrote:
Grigory Orlov, one of the leaders of the coup. Portrait by Fyodor Rokotov, 1762-1763
The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 ships of the line and 6 frigates, in 1790 included 67 ships of the line and 40 frigates and 300 rowing ships, the amount of state revenues from RUB 16 million increased to 69 million, that is, more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: the Baltic - in increasing import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles, the Black Sea, Catherine and created - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand roubles. in 1796, the growth of internal turnover was indicated by the issue of coins in the 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 preceding years it was issued only for 97 million ".
The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), pig iron smelting increased more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sail-linen manufactures increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). The export of Russian goods to other European countries increased significantly, including through the created Black Sea ports.
Catherine II established a loan bank and introduced paper money into circulation.
Domestic policy
Catherine's adherence to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the internal politics of Catherine's time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Proceeding from this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified. Their main idea was to criticize the outgoing feudal society. They defended the idea that every person is born free, and advocated the elimination of medieval forms of exploitation and despotic forms government controlled.
Imperial Council and Senate transformation
The palace in Ropsha, in which Peter III died
Soon after the coup, the statesman N.I. Panin proposed to create an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 high dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as in 1730). Ekaterina rejected this project.
According to another project of Panin, the Senate was transformed - on December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, at the head was the prosecutor general. Each department had specific powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost the legislative initiative and became a body for control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Ekaterina and her office with state secretaries.
Stacked commission
An attempt was made to convene the Legislated Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out comprehensive reforms.
Virgilius Eriksen. Equestrian portrait of Catherine the Great
More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.
As guidance document To the commission of 1767, the empress prepared the "Order" - a theoretical basis for enlightened absolutism.
The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow
Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be disbanded.
Provincial reform
7 nov. In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - a province, a province, a district, a two-tier one began to operate - a province, a district (which was based on the principle of the size of the taxable population). Out of the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which had a population of 300-400 thousand dm. Provinces were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand dm.
Governor-General (Viceroy) - kept order in local centers and 2-3 provinces were subordinate to him, united under his rule. He had extensive administrative, financial and judicial powers; all military units and teams located in the provinces were subordinate to him.
Governor - stood at the head of the province. They reported directly to the emperor. Governors were appointed by the Senate. The provincial prosecutor was subordinate to the governors. Finance in the province was handled by the Treasury Chamber headed by the vice-governor. The provincial surveyor was engaged in land management. The executive body of the governor was the provincial government, which exercised general supervision over the activities of institutions and officials... The Public Charity Order was in charge of schools, hospitals and shelters (social functions), as well as estate judicial institutions: the Upper Zemsky Court for noblemen, the Provincial Magistrate, which considered litigations between the townspeople, and the Upper Massacre for the trial of state peasants. The criminal and civil chamber judged all estates, were the highest judicial bodies in the provinces.
Portrait of Catherine II in Russian attire by an unknown artist
The captain police officer - stood at the head of the district, the leader of the nobility, elected by him for three years. He was the executive body of the provincial government. In the counties, as in the provinces, there are estate institutions: for the nobles (the county court), for the townspeople (the city magistrate) and for the state peasants (lower reprisals). There was a county treasurer and a county surveyor. Representatives of the estates sat in the courts.
A conscientious court is called upon to end strife and reconcile those who argue and quarrel. This judgment was wordless. The Senate becomes the highest judicial body in the country.
Since the cities - the centers of the counties were clearly not enough. Catherine II renamed many large rural settlements into cities, making them administrative centers. Thus, 216 new cities appeared. The population of the cities began to be called bourgeois and merchants.
The city was removed into a separate administrative unit. At its head, instead of the governor, a governor was put in charge, endowed with all the rights and powers. Strict police control was introduced in the cities. The city was divided into parts (districts), which were under the supervision of a private bailiff, and the parts were divided into quarters controlled by the quarter overseer.
Liquidation of the Zaporizhzhya Sich
Carrying out the provincial reform in the Left-Bank Ukraine in 1783-1785. led to a change in the regimental structure (former regiments and hundreds) to a common administrative division for the Russian Empire into provinces and counties, the final establishment of serfdom and the equalization of the rights of the Cossack foreman with the Russian nobility. With the conclusion of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhiyskiy treaty (1774), Russia received access to the Black Sea and Crimea. In the west, the weakened Rzeczpospolita was on the verge of division.
Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky
Thus, the further need to preserve the presence of the Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was done by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.
The Sich was disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Zaporozhians was created, later the Black Sea Cossack army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gives them the Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.
The reforms on the Don created a military civilian government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.
The beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate
As a result of the general administrative reforms of the 70s, aimed at strengthening the state, it was decided to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.
By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby starting the process of annexing the Kalmyk state to Russia, which had previously had a vassal relationship with the Russian state. A special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established at the office of the Astrakhan governor, began to be in charge of Kalmyk affairs. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among the Russian officials. In 1772, at the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court - Zargo was established, consisting of three members - one representative each from three main uluses: torgouts, derbets and khoshouts.
Moscow Orphanage
This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress's consistent policy to limit the khan's power in the Kalmyk Khanate. So, in the 60s, the crisis intensified in the khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, the interference of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the establishment of the fortified Tsaritsyn line, thousands of Don Cossack families began to settle in the area of the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, which in turn exacerbated internal relations in the khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activity of the Russian Orthodox Church on the Christianization of nomads, as well as the outflow of people from uluses to cities and villages to work. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist Church, a conspiracy has matured with the aim of leaving the people to historical homeland- to Dzungaria.
On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the empress's policy, raised the uluses that roamed along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia... Back in November 1770, the army was assembled on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many noyons and zaisangs, realizing the disaster of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. A small Kalmyk ethnos lost about 100,000 people on the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, almost all livestock - the main wealth of the people.
These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in the poem by Sergei Yesenin "Pugachev".
Regional reform in Estonia and Livonia
The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, a special Baltic order was abolished, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant than that of Russian landowners.
Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region
Plague Riot of 1771
Siberia was divided into three provinces: Tobolsk, Kolyvan and Irkutsk.
The reform was carried out by the government without considering ethnic composition population: the territory of Mordovia was divided between 4 provinces: Penza, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhny Novgorod.
Economic policy
The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the development of the economy and trade. By a decree of 1775, factories and industrial plants were recognized as property, the disposal of which does not require special permission from the authorities. In 1763, the free exchange of copper money for silver was prohibited, so as not to provoke the development of inflation. The development and revival of trade was facilitated by the emergence of new credit institutions (state bank and loan office) and the expansion of banking operations (since 1770, the acceptance of deposits was introduced). A state bank was established and for the first time the issue of paper money - banknotes - was launched.
Of great importance was the state regulation of the price of salt, introduced by the empress, which was one of the most vital commodities in the country. The Senate legislated the price of salt at 30 kopecks per pood (instead of 50 kopecks) and 10 kopecks per pood in the regions of mass salting of fish. Without introducing a state monopoly on the salt trade, Catherine counted on increasing competition and ultimately improving the quality of the goods.
The role of Russia in the world economy has increased - Russian sailing linen has been exported to England in large quantities, exports of cast iron and iron increased to other European countries (consumption of cast iron in the domestic Russian market has also increased significantly).
Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys ... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of exported goods.
In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began sailing in the Mediterranean as well. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.
At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a number of financial crises and was forced to do external loans, the size of which by the end of the empress's reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.
Social politics
Vasily Perov "Pugachev's trial" (1879), Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
In 1768, a network of urban schools based on the classroom system was created. Schools began to open actively. Under Catherine, the systemic development of women's education began, in 1764 the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens were opened. The Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading in Europe scientific bases... An observatory, a physics study, an anatomical theater, a botanical garden, instrumental workshops, a printing house, a library, and an archive were founded. Founded in 1783 Russian academy.
In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. The Widows Treasury was created to help widows.
Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state measures that were directly part of the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By order of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only at the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of Border and Port Quarantines" was created.
New directions of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and orphanages were opened. A number of fundamental works on medicine have been published.
National policy
After the annexation of the lands that had previously been part of the Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned out to be in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement to the central regions of Russia and attach them to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, outside of which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on living. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.
Catherine: "Rejected Returns"
In 1762-1764, Catherine published two manifestos. The first - "On the permission of all foreigners entering Russia, to settle in which provinces they wish, and on the rights granted to them" called upon foreign subjects to move to Russia, the second determined the list of benefits and privileges for immigrants. Soon, the first German settlements arose in the Volga region, set aside for immigrants. The influx of German colonists was so great that already in 1766 it was necessary to temporarily suspend the reception of new settlers until the settlement of those who had already entered. The creation of colonies on the Volga went on increasing: in 1765 - 12 colonies, in 1766 - 21, in 1767 - 67. According to the census of colonists in 1769, 6.5 thousand families lived in 105 colonies on the Volga, which amounted to 23.2 thousand people. In the future, the German community will play a significant role in the life of Russia.
By 1786, the country included the Northern Black Sea region, the Azov region, the Crimea, the Right-Bank Ukraine, the lands between the Dniester and the Bug, Belarus, Courland and Lithuania.
The population of Russia in 1747 was 18 million people, by the end of the century - 36 million people.
In 1726 there were 336 cities in the country, by the beginning. XIX century - 634 cities. In the end. In the 18th century, about 10% of the population lived in cities. V countryside 54% - private and 40% - public
Estate legislation
Apr 21 In 1785, two letters were issued: "Certificate for the rights, liberties and advantages of the noble nobility" and "Certificate of honor to cities."
Both charters regulated legislation on the rights and duties of estates.
Certificate of Appreciation to the Nobility:
Catherine II and Grigory Potemkin at the 1000th Anniversary of Russia Monument in Veliky Novgorod
Already existing rights were confirmed.
the nobility was exempt from the poll tax
from quartering military units and teams
from corporal punishment
from compulsory service
the right of unlimited disposal of the estate was confirmed
the right to own houses in cities
the right to start enterprises on estates and engage in trade
subsoil ownership
the right to have their own estate institutions
the name of the 1st estate changed: not "nobility", but "noble nobility".
it was forbidden to confiscate the estates of nobles for criminal offenses; estates were to be transferred to legal heirs.
the nobles have exclusive ownership of land, but the Letter does not say a word about the monopoly right to have serfs.
Ukrainian foremen were equal in rights with Russian nobles.
a nobleman who did not have an officer's rank was deprived of the right to vote.
only noblemen, whose income from estates exceeded 100 rubles, could occupy elective posts.
Diploma for the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire:
The right of the top of the merchant class not to pay the poll tax has been confirmed.
replacement of recruiting with a cash contribution.
The division of the urban population into 6 categories:
Noblemen, officials and clergy ("real city dwellers") - can have houses and land in cities without engaging in trade.
merchants of all three guilds (the lowest capital for merchants of the 3rd guild is 1000 rubles)
artisans registered in the guilds.
foreign and nonresident merchants.
eminent citizens - merchants with a capital of over 50 thousand rubles, wealthy bankers (at least 100 thousand rubles), as well as city intelligentsia: architects, painters, composers, scientists.
Posad people who “feed on trades, handicrafts and work” (who do not have real estate in the city).
Representatives of the 3rd and 6th categories were called "bourgeois" (the word came from the Polish language through Ukraine and Belarus, originally meant "city dweller" or "city dweller", from the word "place" - a city and "shtetl" - a town).
Merchants of the 1st and 2nd guilds and eminent citizens were exempted from corporal punishment. Representatives of the 3rd generation of eminent citizens were allowed to file a petition for the appropriation of the nobility.
Partitions of the Commonwealth under Catherine
Serf peasantry:
The decree of 1763 entrusted the maintenance of the military commands sent to suppress the peasant uprisings to the peasants themselves.
According to the decree of 1765, for open disobedience, the landowner could send the peasant not only into exile, but also to hard labor, and the term of hard labor was set by him himself; the landowners also had the right to return the exiled from hard labor at any time.
The decree of 1767 forbade the peasants to complain about their master; the disobedient were threatened with exile to Nerchinsk (but they could go to court),
The peasants could not take the oath, take bribes and contracts.
The trade of peasants reached a wide scale: they were sold in the markets, in advertisements on the pages of newspapers; they were lost at cards, exchanged, given, forced to marry.
The decree of May 3, 1783 prohibited the peasants of the Left-Bank Ukraine and Sloboda Ukraine from transferring from one owner to another.
The widespread idea of distributing state peasants to landowners by Catherine, as has now been proven, is a myth (peasants from lands acquired during the partition of Poland, as well as palace peasants were used for distribution). The serfdom zone under Catherine spread to the Ukraine. At the same time, the position of the monastic peasants was eased, and they were transferred to the jurisdiction of the College of Economy along with the lands. All their duties were replaced by monetary quitrent, which gave the peasants more independence and developed their economic initiative. As a result, the unrest of the monastery peasants stopped.
The clergy lost their autonomous existence due to the secularization of church lands (1764), which made it possible to exist without the help of the state and independently of it. After the reform, the clergy became dependent on the state that financed them.
Religious politics
Catherine II - the legislator in the Temple of Justice (Levitsky D.G., 1783, Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow)
In general, a policy of religious tolerance was pursued in Russia under Catherine II. Representatives of all traditional religions have not experienced pressure or oppression. Thus, in 1773, a law on the tolerance of all religions was issued, prohibiting the Orthodox clergy from interfering in the affairs of other confessions; secular authorities reserve the right to decide on the establishment of temples of any faith.
Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in February. 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economics. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.
In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786.
Thus, the clergy became dependent on the secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.
Catherine achieved from the government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth an equalization in the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.
Under Catherine II, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased. The Empress initiated the return from abroad of the Old Believers, the economically active population. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara region). They were allowed to have priests.
The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform divine services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.
The Jewish religion retained the right to publicly practice its faith. Religious affairs and disputes were left to the Jewish courts. The Jews, depending on the capital they had, were assigned to the corresponding class and could be elected to local government bodies, become judges and other civil servants.
By the decree of Catherine II in 1787 in the printing house of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, the full Arabic text of the Islamic holy book of the Koran was printed for free distribution to the “Kirghiz”. The publication significantly differed from the European ones, primarily in that it had a Muslim character: the text for publication was prepared by Mullah Usman Ibrahim. In St. Petersburg, from 1789 to 1798, 5 editions of the Koran were published. In 1788, a manifesto was issued, in which the empress commanded "to establish in Ufa a spiritual assembly of the Mohammedan law, which has in its department all the spiritual ranks of that law, ... excluding the Tauride region." Thus, Catherine began to build the Muslim community into the system of state structure of the empire. Muslims received the right to build and restore mosques.
Buddhism has also received government support in the regions where it has traditionally been practiced. In 1764, Catherine established the post of the Hambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. In 1766, Buryat lamas recognized Catherine as the incarnation of the Bodhisattva of White Tara for her benevolence towards Buddhism and humane rule.
Domestic political problems
Portrait by Lampi the Elder, 1793
At the time of the accession to the throne of Catherine II, the former Russian emperor Ivan VI continued to live in imprisonment in the Shlisselburg fortress. In 1764, second lieutenant V. Ya. Mirovich, who was on guard duty in the Shlisselburg fortress, won over part of the garrison to his side in order to free Ivan. The guards, however, in accordance with the instructions given to them, stabbed the prisoner, and Mirovich himself was arrested and executed.
In 1771, a major plague epidemic took place in Moscow, complicated by popular unrest in Moscow, called the Plague Riot. The rebels destroyed the Miracle Monastery in the Kremlin. The next day, the crowd attacked the Donskoy Monastery, killed Archbishop Ambrose who was hiding in it, and began to smash the quarantine outposts and houses of the nobility. Troops under the command of G. G. Orlov were sent to suppress the uprising. After three days of fighting, the riot was suppressed.
Peasant war of 1773-1775
In 1773-1774 there was a peasant uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev. It covered the lands of the Yaitsk army, the Orenburg province, the Urals, the Kama region, Bashkiria, part of Western Siberia, the Middle and Lower Volga regions. In the course of the uprising, the Bashkirs, Tatars, Kazakhs, Ural factory workers and numerous serfs from all provinces where hostilities were taking place joined the Cossacks. After the suppression of the uprising, some liberal reforms and conservatism intensified.
Main steps:
Sep 1773 - March 1774
March 1774 - July 1774
July 1774-1775
17 Sep 1773 uprising begins. Near the Yaitsky town, government detachments, going to suppress the rebellion, go over to the side of 200 Cossacks. Without taking the town, the rebels go to Orenburg.
March - July 1774 - the rebels seize the factories of the Urals and Bashkiria. The rebels are defeated at the Trinity Fortress. On July 12, Kazan is captured. On July 17, they again suffer defeat and retreat to the right bank of the Volga. 12 Sep 1774 Pugachev was captured.
Freemasonry, Novikov's case, Radishchev's case
1762-1778 - characterized by the organizational design of Russian Freemasonry and the dominance of the English system (Elagin Freemasonry).
In the 60s and especially in the 70s. XVIII century Freemasonry is gaining increasing popularity in the circles of the educated nobility. The number of Masonic lodges is increasing several times, despite even the skeptical (if not semi-hostile) attitude towards the Freemasonry of Catherine II. The question naturally arises, why a significant part of the Russian educated society is so interested in Masonic teaching? The main reason, in our opinion, was the search by a certain part of the noble society for a new ethical ideal, a new meaning of life. Traditional Orthodoxy could not satisfy them for quite understandable reasons. In the course of Peter's state reforms, the church turned into an appendage of the state apparatus, serving it and justifying any, even the most immoral, actions of its representatives.
That is why the Order of Free Masons became so popular, because it offered its adherents brotherly love and sacred wisdom based on the undistorted true values of early Christianity.
And, secondly, in addition to internal self-improvement, many were attracted by the opportunity to master secret mystical knowledge.
Portrait of Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, the future Catherine II
And finally, the magnificent rituals, dress, hierarchy, and the romantic atmosphere of the meetings of the Masonic lodges could not fail to attract the attention of the Russian noblemen as people, above all the military, accustomed to military uniforms and paraphernalia, honor, etc.
In the 1760s. a large number of representatives of the highest noble aristocracy and the nascent noble intelligentsia, as a rule, opposed to the political regime of Catherine II, enter Freemasonry. Suffice it to mention the Vice-Chancellor N. I. Panin, his brother General P. I. Panin, their grand-nephew A. B. Kurakin (1752-1818), friend of Kurakin Prince. G. P. Gagarin (1745-1803), Prince N. V. Repnin, future Field Marshal M. I. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Prince M. M. Shcherbatov, Secretary N. I. Panin and famous playwright D. I. Fonvizin and many others.
As for the organizational structure of Russian Freemasonry of this period, its development went in two directions. Most of the Russian lodges belonged to the system of English or John's Freemasonry, which consisted of only 3 traditional degrees with an elected leadership. The main goal was proclaimed the moral self-improvement of a person, mutual assistance and charity. The head of this direction of Russian Freemasonry was Ivan Perfilievich Elagin, who was appointed in 1772 by the Great London Lodge (of the old Masons) as the Great Provincial Master of Russia. In his name, the whole system is called Elagin Freemasonry.
A smaller part of the lodges worked according to various systems of Strict Observation, which recognized the highest degrees and emphasized the achievement of the highest mystical knowledge (the German direction of Freemasonry).
The exact number of lodges in Russia of that period has not yet been established. Of those that are known, the majority entered (albeit on different conditions) into an alliance headed by Elagin. However, this alliance turned out to be extremely short-lived. Elagin himself, despite the fact that he denied the highest degrees, nevertheless reacted with sympathy to the aspirations of many Masons to find the highest Masonic wisdom. It was with his submission that Prince A.B. Kurakin, a childhood friend of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich, under the pretext of announcing the new wedding of the heir to the Swedish royal house, went to Stockholm in 1776 on a secret mission to establish contacts with Swedish masons, who were rumored to have this higher knowledge.
However, Kurakin's mission gave rise to another split in Russian Freemasonry.
MATERIALS ABOUT THE PROSECUTION OF NOVIKOV, HIS ARREST AND CONSEQUENCES
Novikov's investigation case includes a huge number of documents - letters and decrees of Catherine, correspondence between Prozorovsky and Sheshkovsky during the investigation - with each other and with Catherine, numerous interrogations of Novikov and his detailed explanations, letters, etc. time in the archive and is now stored in the funds of the Central State Archive of Ancient Acts in Moscow (TsGADA, category VIII, file 218). At the same time, a significant number of the most important papers were not included in Novikov's file, since they remained in the hands of those who conducted the investigation - Prozorovsky, Sheshkovsky, etc. These originals subsequently passed into private ownership and remained forever lost to us. Fortunately, some of them were published in the middle of the 19th century, and therefore we know them only from these printed sources.
The publication of the materials of the investigation of the Russian educator began in the second half of the 19th century. The first large group of documents was published by the historian Ilovaisky in the Chronicle of Russian Literature published by Tikhonravov. These documents were taken from a genuine investigative case conducted by Prince Prozorovsky. In the same years, new materials appeared in a number of publications. In 1867, M. Longinov, in his research "Novikov and the Moscow Martinists", published a number of new documents taken from the "Novikov Case" and reprinted all previously published papers from the investigation file. Thus, in the Longinus book was given the first and most complete set of documents, which before today, as a rule, used by all scientists in the study of Novikov's activities. But this Longinus vault is far from complete. Many of the most important materials were unknown to Longinov and therefore were not included in the book. Already a year after the publication of his research - in 1868 - in the second volume of the "Collection of the Russian Historical Society" Popov published a number of important papers transferred to him by PA Vyazemsky. Apparently, these papers came to Vyazemsky from the archives of the chief executioner Radishchev and Novikov - Sheshkovsky. From Popov's publication, the questions posed by Sheshkovsky to Novikov became known for the first time (Longinov only knew the answers), and objections, apparently written by Sheshkovok himself. These objections are important for us because they undoubtedly arose as a result of remarks made by Catherine to Novikov's answers, the case of which she personally dealt with. Among the questions put to Novikov, there was question number 21 - about his relationship with the heir Paul (in the text of the question, Paul's name is not indicated, and it was about a "person"). Longinov did not know this question and the answer to it, since he was absent from the list that Longinov used. Popov was the first to publish both this question and the answer to it.
Catherine II for a walk in Tsarskoye Selo park. Painting by artist Vladimir Borovikovsky, 1794
A year later, in 1869, Academician Pekarsky published the book "Supplement to the History of Freemasons in Russia XVIII century ". The book contained materials on the history of Freemasonry; among many papers there were also documents related to Novikov's investigative case. Pekarskoy's publication is of particular value to us, since it characterizes in detail precisely the educational book-publishing activity of Novikov. In particular, papers describing the history of Novikov's relationship with Pokhodyashin deserve special attention, and from them we learn about Novikov's most important activity - organizing aid to starving peasants. The significance of Novikov's investigative case is extremely great. First of all, it contains abundant biographical material, which, despite the general paucity of information about Novikov, is sometimes the only source for studying the life and work of the Russian educator. But the main value of these documents is different - a careful study of them with perfect evidence convinces us that Novikov was persecuted for a long time and systematically, that he was arrested, having previously destroyed all publishing business, and then secretly and cowardly, without trial, imprisoned in the casemate of the Shlisselburg fortress - not for Freemasonry, but for the enormous educational activities independent of the government, which became a major phenomenon in public life in the 80s.
Answers to questions 12 and 21, which speak of "repentance" and pin hopes on "royal mercy", should be understood by the modern reader historically correctly, with a clear understanding not only of the era, but also of the circumstances under which these confessions were made. It should also be remembered that Novikov was in the hands of the cruel official Sheshkovsky, whom his contemporaries called the "domestic executioner" of Catherine II. Questions 12 and 21 concerned such cases, which Novikov could not deny - he published books, he knew about relations with a "special" - Paul. Therefore, he showed that he had committed these "crimes" "out of thoughtlessness about the importance of this act," and pleaded guilty. It is worth recalling that in similar conditions Radishchev did exactly the same when, forced to admit that he really called the serfs to an uprising or “threatened the tsars with a harrow,” showed: “I wrote this without consideration,” or: “I admit my delusion,” etc. etc.
Appeals to Catherine II were officially binding. Likewise, in Radishchev's answers to Sheshkovsky, we will find appeals to Catherine II, which quite obviously do not express the real attitude of the revolutionary to the Russian empress. The same necessity compelled "to cast oneself at the feet of her imperial majesty"And Novikov. A serious illness, a depressed state of mind from the consciousness that not only the whole work of his life was destroyed, but his name was blackened with slander - all this, of course, also determined the nature of emotional appeals to the empress.
At the same time, it should be remembered that, despite the courage shown by Novikov during the investigation, his behavior differs from that of the first Russian revolutionary. Radishchev drew the firmness that was so necessary in such circumstances from the proud consciousness of his historical righteousness, relied in his behavior on the morality of a revolutionary forged by him, which called for an open approach to danger, and if necessary, death, in the name of the triumph of the great cause of the liberation of the people. Radishchev fought, and, sitting in the fortress, he defended himself; Novikov made excuses.
The investigative case of Novikov has not yet been systematically and scientifically studied. Until now, they have only resorted to it for information. Systematic study, undoubtedly, was hindered by the following two circumstances: a) the extreme scattering of documents for publications that have long become a bibliographic rarity, and b) the established tradition of printing documents from Novikov's investigation file, surrounded by abundant materials on the history of Freemasonry. In this sea of Masonic papers, the actual Novikov case was lost, the main thing in it was lost - the growth of Catherine's persecution of Novikov, and his only (and not Freemasonry), for publishing, for educational activities, for works, - persecutions, which ended not only with arrest and imprisonment in the fortress of the forward hated by the empress public figure, but also by the defeat of the entire educational work (a decree prohibiting the lease of a university printing house to Novikov, the closure of a bookstore, confiscation of books, etc.).
Russian foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II
The foreign policy of the Russian state under Catherine was aimed at strengthening Russia's role in the world and expanding its territory. The motto of her diplomacy was as follows: "you need to be in friendship with all powers in order to always retain the opportunity to take the side of the weaker ... keep your hands free ... not drag your tail along."
Expanding the boundaries of the Russian Empire
The new territorial growth of Russia begins with the accession of Catherine II. After the first Turkish war, Russia acquired in 1774 important points in the estuaries of the Dnieper, Don and in Kerch Strait(Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). Then, in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region join. Second Turkish War ends with acquisition coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea. At the same time, the Polish partitions ceded Western Russia to Russia. According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia receives a part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the following regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; in the third (1795-1797) - the Lithuanian provinces (Vilenskaya, Kovno and Grodno), Black Russia, the upper reaches of the Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third section, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia (the act of abdication of the Duke of Biron).
Divisions of the Commonwealth
The Polish-Lithuanian federal state Rzeczpospolita included the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
The reason for the interference in the affairs of the Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they would be equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry in order to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing the strengthening of Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening a war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops.
In 1772, the 1st section of the Commonwealth took place. Austria received all of Galicia with districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorie), Russia - eastern part Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.
The Polish Sejm was forced to agree to the partition and abandon claims for the lost territories: Poland lost 380,000 km² with a population of 4 million people.
Polish noblemen and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targovitsa Confederation turned to Russia for help.
In 1793, the 2nd partition of the Commonwealth took place, approved at the Grodno Seim. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and the Right-Bank Ukraine.
In March 1794, an uprising began under the leadership of Tadeusz Kosciuszko, whose goals were to restore territorial integrity, sovereignty and the Constitution on May 3, but in the spring of the same year it was suppressed by the Russian army under the command of A. V. Suvorov.
In 1795, the third partition of Poland took place. Austria received Southern Poland with Luban and Krakow, Prussia - Central Poland with Warsaw, Russia - Lithuania, Courland, Volhynia and Western Belarus.
October 13, 1795 - a conference of the three powers on the fall of the Polish state, it lost its statehood and sovereignty.
Russian-Turkish wars. The annexation of Crimea
An important area of the foreign policy of Catherine II was also the territories of the Crimea, the Black Sea region and the North Caucasus, which were under Turkish rule.
When the uprising of the Bar confederation broke out, the Turkish sultan declared war on Russia (Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774), using as an excuse that one of the Russian detachments, pursuing the Poles, entered the territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russian troops defeated the Confederates and began to gain victories one after another in the south. Having achieved success in a number of land and sea battles (the Battle of Kozludzhi, the Battle of the Pockmarked Tomb, the Battle of Kagul, the Battle of Largha, the Battle of Chesme, etc.), Russia forced Turkey to sign the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi, as a result of which the Crimean Khanate formally gained independence, but de facto became dependent on Russia. Turkey paid Russia military indemnities in the order of 4.5 million rubles, and also ceded the northern coast of the Black Sea along with two important ports.
After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, Russia's policy towards the Crimean Khanate was aimed at establishing a pro-Russian ruler in it and joining Russia. Under pressure from Russian diplomacy, Shahin Girey was elected khan. The previous khan, a protege of Turkey, Devlet IV Girey, at the beginning of 1777 tried to resist, but it was suppressed by A. V. Suvorov, Devlet IV fled to Turkey. At the same time, the landing of a Turkish landing in the Crimea was prevented and thus an attempt to unleash a new war was prevented, after which Turkey recognized Shahin Giray as a khan. In 1782, an uprising broke out against him, which was suppressed by the Russian troops introduced to the peninsula, and in 1783 by the manifesto of Catherine II the Crimean Khanate was annexed to Russia.
After the victory, the empress, together with the Austrian emperor Joseph II, made a triumphant trip across the Crimea.
The next war with Turkey took place in 1787-1792 and was an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain the lands that had ceded to Russia during the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774, including Crimea. Here, the Russians also won a number of important victories, both overland - the Battle of Kinburn, the Battle of Rymnik, the capture of Ochakov, the capture of Izmail, the battle of Fokshany, the Turks' campaigns against Bendery and Akkerman were repulsed, and others, and the sea - the battle of Fidonisi (1788), The Kerch naval battle (1790), the Battle of Cape Tendra (1790) and the Battle of Kaliakria (1791). As a result, the Ottoman Empire in 1791 was forced to sign the Yassy Peace Treaty, securing the Crimea and Ochakov to Russia, as well as pushing the border between the two empires to the Dniester.
The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, they ceded to Russia the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, the Kuban region, strengthened its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans, strengthened Russia's prestige on the world stage.
Relations with Georgia. Georgievsky treatise
Georgievsky treatise of 1783
Under the king of Kartli and Kakheti, Irakli II (1762-1798), the united Kartli-Kakhetian state was significantly strengthened, and its influence in Transcaucasia was growing. Turks are driven out of the country. Georgian culture is reviving, book printing is emerging. Enlightenment is becoming one of the leading directions of social thought. Irakli turned to Russia for protection from Persia and Turkey. Catherine II, who fought with Turkey, on the one hand, was interested in an ally, on the other, she did not want to send significant military forces to Georgia. In 1769-1772, an insignificant Russian detachment under the command of General Totleben fought against Turkey on the side of Georgia. In 1783, Russia and Georgia signed the Georgievsk Treaty establishing a Russian protectorate over the kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti in exchange for Russia's military protection. In 1795, the Persian shah Aga Mohammed Khan Qajar invaded Georgia and after the Krtsanisi battle he ravaged Tbilisi.
Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the German Pomeranian city of Stettin (now Szczecin in Poland). My father came from the Zerbst-Dornburg line of the Anhalt house and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully, finished his service as a Prussian field marshal. Mother - from the Holstein-Gottorp clan, was the great-aunt of the future Peter III. Maternal uncle Adolf-Friedrich (Adolf Fredrik) from 1751 was king of Sweden (elected heir in the city). The family tree of Catherine II's mother goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.
Childhood, education and upbringing
The family of the Duke of Zerbst was not rich, Catherine was educated at home. She studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. She was brought up in severity. She grew up inquisitive, inclined to outdoor games, persistent.
Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Beyle, a large number of other literature. The main entertainment for her was hunting, horse riding, dancing and masquerades. The lack of conjugal relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of lovers for Catherine. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed her dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.
Finally, after two unsuccessful pregnancies, on September 20 (October 1), 1754, Catherine gave birth to a son, who was immediately taken away from her, called Paul (the future Emperor Paul I) and deprived of the opportunity to educate, but only allowed to see it occasionally. A number of sources claim that the true father of Paul was Catherine's lover S.V. Saltykov. Others - that such rumors are groundless, and that Peter underwent an operation that eliminated the defect that made conception impossible. The question of paternity was of interest to society as well.
After the birth of Paul, relations with Peter and Elizabeth Petrovna finally deteriorated. Peter openly made mistresses, however, without hindering Catherine from doing this, who during this period had a relationship with Stanislav Poniatowski, the future king of Poland. On December 9 (20), 1758, Catherine gave birth to her daughter Anna, which aroused strong discontent with Peter, who said at the news of a new pregnancy: “God knows where my wife is getting pregnant; I don’t know for sure whether this child is mine and whether I should recognize him as mine. ” At this time, the condition of Elizaveta Petrovna worsened. All this made real the prospect of Catherine's expulsion from Russia or her imprisonment in a monastery. The situation was aggravated by the fact that Catherine's secret correspondence with the disgraced field marshal Apraksins and the British ambassador Williams, dedicated to political issues, was revealed. Her previous favorites were removed, but a circle of new ones began to form: Grigory Orlov, Dashkova and others.
The death of Elizabeth Petrovna (December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762)) and the accession to the throne of Peter Fedorovich under the name of Peter III further alienated the spouses. Peter III began to live openly with his mistress Elizaveta Vorontsova, settling his wife at the other end of the Winter Palace. When Catherine became pregnant from Orlov, this could no longer be explained by accidental conception from her husband, since the communication of the spouses had completely ceased by that time. Catherine hid her pregnancy, and when it came time to give birth, her devoted valet Vasily Grigorievich Shkurin set fire to his house. A lover of such spectacles, Peter with the courtyard left the palace to look at the fire; at this time, Catherine gave birth safely. This is how the first in Russia Count Bobrinsky was born - the founder of the famous surname.
Coup on June 28, 1762
- It is necessary to educate the nation, which should be governed.
- It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws.
- It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state.
- It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant.
- It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspiring respect for its neighbors.
The policy of Catherine II was characterized by progressive, without sharp hesitation, development. After accession to the throne, she carried out a number of reforms (judicial, administrative, etc.). The territory of the Russian state increased significantly due to the annexation of fertile southern lands - Crimea, the Black Sea region, as well as the eastern part of the Commonwealth, etc. The population increased from 23.2 million (in 1763) to 37.4 million (in 1796), Russia became the most populated European country (it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe). As Klyuchevsky wrote, “The army from 162 thousand people was strengthened to 312 thousand, the fleet, which in 1757 consisted of 21 ships of the line and 6 frigates, in 1790 counted 67 ships of the line and 40 frigates, the amount of state revenues from 16 million rubles. rose to 69 million, that is, more than quadrupled, the success of foreign trade: Baltic; in the increase in import and export, from 9 million to 44 million rubles., Black Sea, Catherine and created, - from 390 thousand in 1776 to 1900 thousand rubles. in 1796, the growth of internal turnover was indicated by the issue of coins in the 34 years of the reign for 148 million rubles, while in the 62 previous years it was issued only for 97 million. "
The Russian economy continued to be agrarian. The share of the urban population in 1796 was 6.3%. At the same time, a number of cities were founded (Tiraspol, Grigoriopol, etc.), pig iron smelting increased more than 2 times (in which Russia took 1st place in the world), and the number of sail-linen manufactures increased. In total, by the end of the 18th century. there were 1200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were 663 of them). The export of Russian goods to European countries has significantly increased, including through the created Black Sea ports.
Domestic policy
Catherine's adherence to the ideas of the Enlightenment determined the nature of her domestic policy and the direction of reforming various institutions of the Russian state. The term "enlightened absolutism" is often used to characterize the internal politics of Catherine's time. According to Catherine, based on the works of the French philosopher Montesquieu, the vast Russian spaces and the severity of the climate determine the regularity and necessity of autocracy in Russia. Proceeding from this, under Catherine, the autocracy was strengthened, the bureaucratic apparatus was strengthened, the country was centralized and the management system was unified.
Stacked commission
An attempt was made to convene the Legislated Commission, which would systematize the laws. The main goal is to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out comprehensive reforms.
More than 600 deputies took part in the commission, 33% of them were elected from the nobility, 36% from the townspeople, which also included nobles, 20% from the rural population (state peasants). The interests of the Orthodox clergy were represented by a deputy from the Synod.
As a guiding document of the Commission of 1767, the Empress prepared the "Order" - a theoretical substantiation of enlightened absolutism.
The first meeting was held in the Faceted Chamber in Moscow
Due to the conservatism of the deputies, the Commission had to be disbanded.
Soon after the coup, the statesman N.I. Panin proposed to create an Imperial Council: 6 or 8 high dignitaries rule together with the monarch (as in 1730). Ekaterina rejected this project.
According to another project of Panin, the Senate was transformed - on December 15. 1763 It was divided into 6 departments, headed by chief prosecutors, at the head was the prosecutor general. Each department had specific powers. The general powers of the Senate were reduced, in particular, it lost the legislative initiative and became a body for control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest court. The center of legislative activity moved directly to Ekaterina and her office with state secretaries.
Provincial reform
7 nov. In 1775, the "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. Instead of a three-tier administrative division - a province, a province, a district, a two-tier one began to operate - a province, a district (which was based on the principle of the size of the taxable population). Out of the previous 23 provinces, 50 were formed, each of which had a population of 300-400 thousand dm. Provinces were divided into 10-12 counties, each with 20-30 thousand dm.
Thus, the further need to preserve the presence of the Zaporozhye Cossacks in their historical homeland to protect the southern Russian borders disappeared. At the same time, their traditional way of life often led to conflicts with the Russian authorities. After repeated pogroms of Serbian settlers, as well as in connection with the support of the Pugachev uprising by the Cossacks, Catherine II ordered the disbandment of the Zaporizhzhya Sich, which was done by order of Grigory Potemkin to pacify the Zaporozhye Cossacks by General Peter Tekeli in June 1775.
The Sich was bloodlessly disbanded, and then the fortress itself was destroyed. Most of the Cossacks were disbanded, but after 15 years they were remembered and the Army of the Faithful Zaporozhians was created, later the Black Sea Cossack army, and in 1792 Catherine signed a manifesto that gave them the Kuban for eternal use, where the Cossacks moved, founding the city of Yekaterinodar.
The reforms on the Don created a military civilian government modeled on the provincial administrations of central Russia.
The beginning of the annexation of the Kalmyk Khanate
As a result of the general administrative reforms of the 70s, aimed at strengthening the state, it was decided to annex the Kalmyk Khanate to the Russian Empire.
By her decree of 1771, Catherine liquidated the Kalmyk Khanate, thereby starting the process of annexing the Kalmyk state to Russia, which had previously had a vassal relationship with the Russian state. A special Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, established at the office of the Astrakhan governor, began to be in charge of Kalmyk affairs. Under the rulers of the uluses, bailiffs were appointed from among the Russian officials. In 1772, at the Expedition of Kalmyk Affairs, a Kalmyk court - Zargo was established, consisting of three members - one representative each from three main uluses: torgouts, derbets and khoshouts.
This decision of Catherine was preceded by the empress's consistent policy to limit the khan's power in the Kalmyk Khanate. So, in the 60s, the crisis intensified in the khanate associated with the colonization of Kalmyk lands by Russian landowners and peasants, the reduction of pasture lands, the infringement of the rights of the local feudal elite, the interference of tsarist officials in Kalmyk affairs. After the establishment of the fortified Tsaritsyn line, thousands of Don Cossack families began to settle in the area of the main Kalmyk nomads, and cities and fortresses began to be built throughout the Lower Volga. The best pasture lands were allocated for arable land and hayfields. The nomadic area was constantly narrowing, which in turn exacerbated internal relations in the khanate. The local feudal elite was also dissatisfied with the missionary activity of the Russian Orthodox Church to Christianize the nomads, as well as the outflow of people from the uluses to the cities and villages to work. Under these conditions, among the Kalmyk noyons and zaisangs, with the support of the Buddhist Church, a conspiracy has matured with the aim of leaving the people for their historical homeland - in Dzungaria.
On January 5, 1771, the Kalmyk feudal lords, dissatisfied with the empress's policy, raised the uluses that roamed along the left bank of the Volga, and set off on a dangerous journey to Central Asia. Back in November 1770, the army was assembled on the left bank under the pretext of repelling the raids of the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. The bulk of the Kalmyk population lived at that time on the meadow side of the Volga. Many noyons and zaisangs, realizing the disaster of the campaign, wanted to stay with their uluses, but the army coming from behind drove everyone forward. This tragic campaign turned into a terrible disaster for the people. A small Kalmyk ethnos lost about 100,000 people on the way, killed in battles, from wounds, cold, hunger, disease, as well as prisoners, almost all livestock - the main wealth of the people. ,,.
These tragic events in the history of the Kalmyk people are reflected in the poem by Sergei Yesenin "Pugachev".
Regional reform in Estonia and Livonia
The Baltic states as a result of the regional reform in 1782-1783. was divided into 2 provinces - Riga and Revel - with institutions that already existed in other provinces of Russia. In Estland and Livonia, a special Baltic order was eliminated, which provided for more extensive rights of local nobles to work and the personality of a peasant than that of Russian landowners.
Provincial reform in Siberia and the Middle Volga region
Under the new protectionist tariff of 1767, the import of those goods that were or could be produced within Russia was completely prohibited. Duties from 100 to 200% were imposed on luxury goods, wine, grain, toys ... Export duties amounted to 10-23% of the value of imported goods.
In 1773, Russia exported goods worth 12 million rubles, which was 2.7 million rubles more than imports. In 1781, exports already amounted to 23.7 million rubles against 17.9 million rubles of imports. Russian merchant ships began sailing in the Mediterranean as well. Thanks to the policy of protectionism in 1786, the country's exports amounted to 67.7 million rubles, and imports - 41.9 million rubles.
At the same time, Russia under Catherine went through a series of financial crises and was forced to make foreign loans, the amount of which by the end of the empress's reign exceeded 200 million silver rubles.
Social politics
Moscow Orphanage
In the provinces there were orders of public charity. In Moscow and St. Petersburg - Orphanages for street children (currently the building of the Moscow Orphanage is occupied by the Peter the Great Military Academy), where they received education and upbringing. The Widows Treasury was created to help widows.
Compulsory smallpox vaccination was introduced, and Catherine was the first to receive such a vaccination. Under Catherine II, the fight against epidemics in Russia began to take on the character of state measures that were directly part of the responsibilities of the Imperial Council and the Senate. By order of Catherine, outposts were created, located not only at the borders, but also on the roads leading to the center of Russia. The "Charter of Border and Port Quarantines" was created.
New directions of medicine for Russia developed: hospitals for the treatment of syphilis, psychiatric hospitals and orphanages were opened. A number of fundamental works on medicine have been published.
National policy
After the annexation of the lands that had previously been part of the Commonwealth to the Russian Empire, about a million Jews turned out to be in Russia - a people with a different religion, culture, way of life and way of life. To prevent their resettlement to the central regions of Russia and attach them to their communities for the convenience of collecting state taxes, Catherine II in 1791 established the Pale of Settlement, outside of which Jews had no right to live. The Pale of Settlement was established in the same place where the Jews had lived before - on the lands annexed as a result of the three partitions of Poland, as well as in the steppe regions near the Black Sea and sparsely populated areas east of the Dnieper. The conversion of Jews to Orthodoxy removed all restrictions on living. It is noted that the Pale of Settlement contributed to the preservation of Jewish national identity, the formation of a special Jewish identity within the Russian Empire.
Having ascended the throne, Catherine canceled the decree of Peter III on the secularization of lands near the church. But already in February. 1764 she again issued a decree depriving the Church of land property. Monastic peasants numbering about 2 million people. of both sexes were removed from the jurisdiction of the clergy and transferred to the management of the College of Economics. The jurisdiction of the state included the estates of churches, monasteries and bishops.
In Ukraine, the secularization of monastic possessions was carried out in 1786.
Thus, the clergy became dependent on the secular authorities, since they could not carry out independent economic activities.
Catherine achieved from the government of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth an equalization in the rights of religious minorities - Orthodox and Protestants.
Under Catherine II, the persecution ceased Old Believers... The Empress initiated the return from abroad of the Old Believers, the economically active population. They were specially assigned a place on the Irgiz (modern Saratov and Samara regions). They were allowed to have priests.
The free resettlement of Germans to Russia led to a significant increase in the number of Protestants(mostly Lutherans) in Russia. They were also allowed to build churches, schools, and freely perform divine services. At the end of the 18th century, there were more than 20 thousand Lutherans in St. Petersburg alone.
Expanding the boundaries of the Russian Empire
Partitions of Poland
The federal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth included Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and Belarus.
The reason for the interference in the affairs of the Commonwealth was the question of the position of dissidents (that is, the non-Catholic minority - Orthodox and Protestants), so that they would be equalized with the rights of Catholics. Catherine exerted strong pressure on the gentry in order to elect her protege Stanislav August Poniatowski to the Polish throne, who was elected. Part of the Polish gentry opposed these decisions and organized an uprising in the Bar Confederation. It was suppressed by Russian troops in alliance with the Polish king. In 1772, Prussia and Austria, fearing an increase in Russian influence in Poland and its successes in the war with the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), offered Catherine to partition the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in exchange for ending the war, otherwise threatening a war against Russia. Russia, Austria and Prussia brought in their troops.
In 1772 took place 1st section of the Commonwealth... Austria received all of Galicia with its districts, Prussia - West Prussia (Pomorie), Russia - the eastern part of Belarus to Minsk (Vitebsk and Mogilev provinces) and part of the Latvian lands that were previously part of Livonia.
The Polish Sejm was forced to agree with the partition and abandon claims to the lost territories: it lost 3,800 km² with a population of 4 million people.
Polish noblemen and industrialists contributed to the adoption of the Constitution of 1791. The conservative part of the population of the Targovitsa Confederation turned to Russia for help.
In 1793 the 2nd section of the Commonwealth, approved at the Grodno Sejm. Prussia received Gdansk, Torun, Poznan (part of the land along the Warta and Vistula rivers), Russia - Central Belarus with Minsk and the Right-Bank Ukraine.
The wars with Turkey were marked by major military victories of Rumyantsev, Suvorov, Potemkin, Kutuzov, Ushakov, and the establishment of Russia in the Black Sea. As a result, they ceded to Russia the Northern Black Sea region, Crimea, the Kuban region, strengthened its political positions in the Caucasus and the Balkans, strengthened Russia's prestige on the world stage.
Relations with Georgia. Georgievsky treatise
Georgievsky treatise of 1783
Catherine II and the Georgian tsar Irakli II in 1783 signed the Treaty of St. George, according to which Russia established a protectorate over the Kartli-Kakhetian kingdom. The agreement was concluded in order to protect Orthodox Georgians, since Muslim Iran and Turkey threatened the national existence of Georgia. The Russian government took Eastern Georgia under its patronage, guaranteed its autonomy and protection in case of war, and, during peace negotiations, pledged to insist on the return to the Kartli-Kakhetian kingdom of possessions that had long belonged to it and illegally taken away by Turkey.
The result of the Georgian policy of Catherine II was a sharp weakening of the positions of Iran and Turkey, which formally destroyed their claims to Eastern Georgia.
Relations with Sweden
Taking advantage of the fact that Russia entered the war with Turkey, Sweden, supported by Prussia, Britain and Holland, unleashed a war with her for the return of previously lost territories. The troops that entered the territory of Russia were stopped by General-in-Chief V.P. Musin-Pushkin. After a series of naval battles that did not have a decisive outcome, Russia defeated the Swedish line fleet in the battle of Vyborg, but because of the oncoming storm it suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of rowing fleets at Rochensalm. The parties signed the Verela Peace Treaty in 1790, according to which the border between the countries did not change.
Relations with other countries
After the French Revolution, Catherine was one of the initiators of the anti-French coalition and the establishment of the principle of legitimism. She said: “The weakening of monarchical power in France endangers all other monarchies. For my part, I am ready to resist with all my might. It's time to act and take up arms. " However, in reality, she withdrew from participation in hostilities against France. According to popular belief, one of the real reasons for the creation of the anti-French coalition was to divert the attention of Prussia and Austria from Polish affairs. At the same time, Catherine refused all agreements concluded with France, ordered to expel all suspected sympathizers for the French Revolution from Russia, and in 1790 issued a decree on the return of all Russians from France.
During the reign of Catherine, the Russian Empire acquired the status of a "great power". As a result of two successful Russian-Turkish wars in 1768-1774 and 1787-1791 for Russia. the Crimean peninsula and the entire territory of the Northern Black Sea region were annexed to Russia. In 1772-1795. Russia took part in three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which it annexed the territories of present-day Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland. The Russian Empire also included Russian America - Alaska and the West coast of the North American continent (the current state of California).
Catherine II as a figure of the Age of Enlightenment
Ekaterina - writer and publisher
Catherine belonged to a small number of monarchs who would communicate so intensively and directly with their subjects by drawing up manifestos, instructions, laws, polemical articles and indirectly in the form of satirical works, historical dramas and pedagogical opuses. In her memoirs, she confessed: "I cannot see a blank pen without not feeling the urge to immediately dip it in ink."
She had an extraordinary talent for writing, leaving behind a large collection of works - notes, translations, librettos, fables, fairy tales, comedy "Oh, time!" “The Invisible Bride” (-), essays, etc., participated in the weekly satirical magazine “Anything and everything”, published in the city. The Empress turned to journalism in order to influence public opinion, therefore the main idea of the magazine was to criticize human vices and weaknesses ... Other subjects of irony were the superstitions of the population. Catherine herself called the magazine "Satire in a smiling spirit."
Ekaterina - philanthropist and collector
Development of culture and art
Catherine considered herself a "philosopher on the throne" and favored the European Enlightenment, was in correspondence with Voltaire, Diderot, d "Alambert.
Under her, the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg. She patronized various fields of art - architecture, music, painting.
It is impossible not to mention the mass settlement of German families in various regions of modern Russia, Ukraine, as well as the Baltic countries, initiated by Catherine. The goal was to "infect" Russian science and culture with European ones.
Courtyard of the times of Catherine II
Features of personal life
Ekaterina was a brunette of average height. She combined high intelligence, education, statesmanship and commitment to "free love".
Catherine is known for her connections with numerous lovers, whose number (according to the list of the authoritative Catherine scholar P.I.Bartenev) reaches 23. The most famous of them were Sergei Saltykov, G.G. Orlov (later Count), Horse Guards Lieutenant Vasilchikov, G.A. Potemkin (later prince), hussar Zorich, Lanskoy, the last favorite was the cornet Platon Zubov, who became the count of the Russian Empire and a general. With Potemkin, according to some sources, Catherine was secretly married (). After she planned a marriage with Orlov, however, on the advice of those close to her, she abandoned this idea.
It is worth noting that Catherine's "debauchery" was not such a scandalous phenomenon against the background of the general licentiousness of the 18th century. Most kings (with the possible exception of Frederick the Great, Louis XVI and Charles XII) had numerous mistresses. Catherine's favorites (with the exception of Potemkin, who possessed state abilities) did not influence politics. Nevertheless, the institution of favoritism had a negative effect on the higher nobility, which sought benefits through flattery to a new favorite, tried to lead “their own man” into lovers to the empress, etc.
Catherine had two sons: Pavel Petrovich () (it is suspected that his father was Sergei Saltykov) and Alexei Bobrinsky (- the son of Grigory Orlov) and two daughters: Grand Duchess Anna Petrovna (1757-1759, who died in infancy, possibly the daughter of the future king) Poland Stanislav Poniatovsky) and Elizaveta Grigorievna Tyomkina (- Potemkin's daughter).
Famous figures of Catherine's era
The reign of Catherine II was characterized by the fruitful activity of outstanding Russian scientists, diplomats, military, statesmen, cultural and art workers. In 1873 in St. Petersburg, in the park in front of the Alexandrinsky Theater (now Ostrovsky Square), an impressive multi-figured monument to Catherine was erected, designed by M.O. Mikeshin by sculptors A.M. Opekushin and M.A. Chizhov and architects V.A. Schreter and D. I. Grimm. The foot of the monument consists of a sculptural composition, the characters of which are prominent personalities of the Catherine's era and associates of the Empress:
The events of the last years of the reign of Alexander II - in particular, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 - prevented the implementation of the plan to expand the memorial to the Catherine era. DI Grimm developed a project for the construction of bronze statues and busts depicting the leaders of the glorious reign in the park next to the monument to Catherine II. According to the final list, approved a year before the death of Alexander II, six bronze sculptures and twenty-three busts on granite pedestals were to be placed next to the monument to Catherine.
In growth were to be depicted: Count N.I. Panin, Admiral G.A. Spiridov, writer D.I.Fonvizin, Prosecutor General of the Senate Prince A.A. Vyazemsky, Field Marshal Prince N.V. Repnin and General A. I. Bibikov, former chairman of the Stowage Commission. In the busts - publisher and journalist N.I. Novikov, traveler P.S.Pallas, playwright A.P. Sumarokov, historians I.N.Boltin and Prince M.M.Shcherbatov, artists D.G. Levitsky and V.L Borovikovsky, architect A.F. Kokorinov, favorite of Catherine II Count G.G. Orlov, admirals F.F.Ushakov, S.K. Greig, A.I.Kruz, military leaders: Count Z.G. Chernyshev, Prince V. M. Dolgorukov-Krymsky, Count IE Ferzen, Count VA Zubov; Moscow Governor-General Prince M. N. Volkonsky, Novgorod Governor Count Y. E. Sivers, diplomat Y. I. Bulgakov, suppressor of the "plague riot" of 1771 in Moscow
Years of government: 1762-1796
1. For the first time since Peter I reformed the public administration system. Culturally Russia has finally become one of the great European powers. Catherine patronized various fields of art: under her the Hermitage and the Public Library appeared in St. Petersburg.
2. Held administrative reform , which determined the territorial structure of the country up to before 1917... She formed 29 new provinces and built about 144 cities.
3. Increased the territory of the state due to the annexation of the southern lands - Crimea, The Black Sea region and the eastern part of the Commonwealth. In terms of population, Russia became the largest European country: it accounted for 20% of the population of Europe
4. Brought Russia to the first place in the world in pig iron smelting... By the end of the 18th century, there were 1,200 large enterprises in the country (in 1767 there were only 663 of them).
5. Strengthened Russia's role in the global economy: the volume of exports increased from 13.9 million rubles in 1760 to 39.6 million rubles in 1790. Sailing cloth, cast iron, iron, and also bread were exported in large quantities. The volume of timber exports has grown fivefold.
6. Under Catherine II, Russian the Academy of Sciences has become one of the leading scientific bases in Europe. Special attention The empress devoted herself to the development of women's education: in 1764, the first educational institutions for girls in Russia were opened - the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens and the Educational Society for Noble Maidens.
7. Organized new credit institutions - state bank and loan office, and also expanded the range of banking operations (since 1770, banks began to accept deposits for safekeeping) and for the first time established the issue of paper money - bank notes.
8. Has given the fight against epidemics the character of government actions... Having introduced compulsory smallpox vaccination, she decided to set a personal example for her subjects: in 1768, the empress herself was vaccinated against smallpox.
9. Provided support for Buddhism, in 1764 establishing the post of the Hambo Lama - the head of the Buddhists of Eastern Siberia and Transbaikalia. Buryat lamas recognized Catherine II as the incarnation of the main goddess of White Tara and since then have sworn allegiance to all Russian rulers.
10 Belonged to those few monarchs who intensively communicated with subjects by drawing up manifestos, instructions and laws. She had a talent for writing, leaving behind a large collection of works: notes, translations, fables, fairy tales, comedies and essays.
Catherine the Great is one of the most outstanding women in world history. Her life is a rare example of self-education through deep education and strict discipline.
The epithet "Great" empress deserved by right: she, a German and a foreigner, the Russian people called "their own mother." And historians almost unanimously decided that if Peter I wanted to instill in Russia everything German, then the German woman Catherine dreamed of reviving precisely Russian traditions. And in many ways she did it very successfully.
The long reign of Catherine is the only period of transformations in Russian history, about which one cannot say "the forest is being cut, the chips are flying." The population of the country doubled, while there was practically no censorship, torture was prohibited, elected bodies of estate self-government were created ... The "firm hand" that the Russian people allegedly needed so much, this time did not come in handy.
Princess sofia
The future Empress Catherine II Alekseevna, nee Sophia Frederica Augusta, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, was born on April 21, 1729 in the unknown Stettin (Prussia). Father - an unremarkable prince Christian August - thanks to his devotion to the Prussian king, made a good career: regiment commander, commandant of Stettin, governor. Constantly engaged in the service, he became for Sofia an example of conscientious service in the public arena.
Sofia was educated at home: she studied German and French, dance, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. Her independent character and perseverance manifested itself already in early childhood. In 1744, together with her mother, she was summoned to Russia by Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. Here she, before that Lutheran, was accepted into Orthodoxy under the name Catherine (this name, like the patronymic Alekseevna, was given to her in honor of Elizabeth's mother - Catherine I) and was named the bride of Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (future Emperor Peter III), with whom the princess married in 1745.
Mind chamber
Catherine set herself the goal of winning the favor of the empress, her husband and the Russian people. From the very beginning, her personal life was unfortunate, but grand duchess she judged that she had always liked the Russian crown more than her groom, and turned to reading works on history, jurisprudence and economics. She was absorbed in studying the works of the French encyclopedists and already at that time intellectually outgrew everyone around her head.
Catherine really became a patriot of her new homeland: she scrupulously observed the rituals of the Orthodox Church, tried to return the Russian national costume to the everyday life of the court, and diligently studied the Russian language. She even practiced at night and once became dangerously ill from overwork. The Grand Duchess wrote: “Anyone who succeeded in Russia could be sure of success throughout Europe. Nowhere, as in Russia, are there such masters of noticing the weaknesses or shortcomings of a foreigner; you can be sure that nothing will be let off to him. "
The communication between the Grand Duke and the princess demonstrated the cardinal difference in their characters: the infantilism of Peter was opposed by the active, purposeful and ambitious nature of Catherine. She began to fear for her fate if her husband came to power and began to recruit supporters at court. The ostentatious piety of Catherine, prudence and sincere love for Russia contrasted sharply with the behavior of Peter, which allowed her to gain prestige both among the high society and among the ordinary population of St. Petersburg.
Double capture
Having ascended the throne after the death of his mother, Emperor Peter III for six months of his reign managed to turn the nobility against himself to such an extent that he himself opened the way for his wife to power. As soon as he ascended the throne, he concluded a treaty with Prussia that was unfavorable for Russia, announced the seizure of the property of the Russian Church and the abolition of monastic land tenure. Supporters of the coup accused Peter III of ignorance, dementia and complete inability to govern the state. A well-read, pious and benevolent wife looked favorably against his background.
When Catherine's relationship with her husband became hostile, the twenty-year-old Grand Duchess decided to “perish or reign”. Having carefully prepared the conspiracy, she secretly arrived in St. Petersburg and in the barracks of the Izmailovsky regiment was proclaimed the autocratic empress. The rebels were joined by soldiers of other regiments, who unquestioningly swore allegiance to her. The news of Catherine's accession to the throne quickly spread throughout the city and was enthusiastically greeted by the Petersburgers. Over 14,000 people surrounded the palace, welcoming the new ruler.
The foreigner Catherine did not have any rights to power, but the "revolution" she accomplished was presented as a national liberation. She correctly captured the critical moment in her husband's behavior - his contempt for the country and Orthodoxy. As a result, the grandson of Peter the Great was considered more German than the purebred German Catherine. And this is the result of her own efforts: in the eyes of society, she managed to change her national identity and received the right to "free the fatherland" from the foreign yoke.
MV Lomonosov on Catherine the Great: "On the throne of a woman - the ward of the mind."
Upon learning of what had happened, Peter began to send proposals for negotiations, but they were all rejected. Catherine herself, at the head of the guards regiments, came forward to meet him and on the way received the emperor's written abdication from the throne. The long 34-year reign of Catherine II began with a solemn coronation in Moscow on September 22, 1762. In fact, she made a double seizure: she took power from her husband and did not transfer it to her natural heir - her son.
The era of Catherine the Great
Catherine came to the throne with a certain political program based on the ideas of the Enlightenment and at the same time taking into account the peculiarities of the historical development of Russia. Already in the first years of her reign, the empress carried out a reform of the Senate, which made the work of this institution more effective, and carried out the secularization of church lands, which replenished the state treasury. At the same time, a number of new educational institutions were founded, including the first educational institutions for women in Russia.
Catherine II was an excellent connoisseur of people, she skillfully selected assistants for herself, not being afraid of bright and talented personalities. That is why its time is marked by the appearance of a galaxy of prominent statesmen, military leaders, writers, artists and musicians. During this period, there were no noisy resignations, none of the nobles fell into disgrace - that is why the reign of Catherine is called the "golden age" of the Russian nobility. At the same time, the Empress was very vain and valued her power more than anything else. For her sake, she was ready to make any compromises to the detriment of her convictions.
Catherine was distinguished by her ostentatious piety, she considered herself the head and protector of the Russian Orthodox Church and skillfully used religion in political interests.
After the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 and the suppression of the uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev, the Empress independently developed key legislative acts. The most important of them were letters of honor to the nobility and cities. Their main importance is associated with the implementation of the strategic goal of Catherine's reforms - the creation in Russia of full-fledged estates of the Western European type.
Autocracy in the fight for the future
Catherine was the first Russian monarch who saw in people individuals with their own opinions, character and emotions. She willingly recognized for them the right to make mistakes. From the distant skies of autocracy, Catherine saw a man below and turned him into a measure of her politics - an incredible somersault for Russian despotism. The philanthropy that she made fashionable would later become the main feature of the high culture of the 19th century.
Catherine demanded naturalness from her subjects, and therefore easily, with a smile and self-irony, eliminated any hierarchy. It is known that, being susceptible to flattery, she calmly accepted criticism. For example, her secretary of state and the first major Russian poet, Derzhavin, often argued with the empress on administrative issues. Once their discussion became so heated that the empress invited her other secretary: “Sit here, Vasily Stepanovich. This gentleman, it seems to me, wants to beat me down. " His harshness had no consequences for Derzhavin.
One of his contemporaries figuratively described the essence of Catherine's reign as follows: "Peter the Great created people in Russia, but Catherine II put souls in them."
It’s hard to believe that there were two Russian-Turkish wars, the annexation of Crimea and the creation of New Russia, the construction of the Black Sea fleet, the three partitions of Poland, which brought Russia Belarus, Western Ukraine, Lithuania and Courland, the war with Persia, the annexation of Georgia and the conquest of the future of Azerbaijan, the suppression of the Pugachev rebellion, the war with Sweden, as well as numerous laws, which Catherine worked on personally. In total, she issued 5798 acts, that is, an average of 12 laws per month. Her pedantry and hard work are described in detail by her contemporaries.
Revolution of femininity
Longer than Catherine II, only Ivan III (43 years old) and Ivan IV the Terrible (37 years old) ruled in Russian history. More than three decades of her reign are almost equal to half of the Soviet period, and it is impossible to ignore this circumstance. Therefore, Catherine has always historical consciousness special place... However, the attitude towards her was ambiguous: German blood, the murder of her husband, numerous novels, Voltairianism - all this made it difficult to selflessly admire the empress.
Catherine was the first Russian monarch who saw in people individuals with their own opinions, character and emotions. From the distant skies of autocracy, she saw a man below and turned him into a measure of her politics - an incredible somersault for Russian despotism
Soviet historiography added class cuffs to Catherine: she became a "cruel serf woman" and a despot. It got to the point that only Peter was allowed to remain the "Great", and she was emphatically called the "Second". The empress's undoubted victories, which brought Crimea, Novorossiya, Poland and part of the Transcaucasia to Russia, were largely usurped by her military leaders, who, in the struggle for national interests, allegedly heroically overcame the intrigues of the court.
However, what is mass consciousness the personal life of the empress overshadowed her political activities, testifies to the search for psychological compensation by the descendants. After all, Catherine violated one of the oldest social hierarchies - the superiority of men over women. Its overwhelming successes, and especially the military, caused bewilderment, bordering on irritation, and needed some "but". Catherine gave cause for anger already by the fact that, contrary to the existing order, she herself chose men for herself. The Empress refused to take for granted not only her nationality: she also tried to overcome the boundaries of her own gender, capturing typically male territory.
Manage passions
Throughout her life, Catherine has learned to cope with her feelings and ardent temperament. Long life in a foreign land taught her not to succumb to circumstances, to always remain calm and consistent in her actions. Later, in her memoirs, the Empress wrote: “I came to Russia, a country completely unknown to me, not knowing what would be ahead. Everyone looked at me with annoyance and even contempt: the daughter of a Prussian major general is going to be the Russian empress! " Nevertheless, the main goal of Catherine has always been the love of Russia, which, according to her own admission, "is not a country, but the Universe."
The ability to plan a day, not to deviate from what was conceived, not to succumb to blues or laziness and at the same time to rationally treat your body could be attributed to German upbringing. However, it seems that the reason for this behavior is deeper: Catherine subordinated her life to a super task - to justify her own tenure on the throne. Klyuchevsky noted that approval meant the same to Catherine as "applause to a debutant." The desire for fame was for the empress a way to actually prove to the world the virtue of her intentions. Such a life motivation, of course, turned her into self-made.
The fact that in the mass consciousness the empress's personal life overshadowed her political activities testifies to the search for psychological compensation by the descendants. After all, Catherine violated one of the oldest social hierarchies - the superiority of a man over a woman.
For the sake of the goal - to rule the country - Catherine without regrets overcame a lot of realities: her German origin, and her confessional affiliation, and the notorious weakness of the female sex, and the monarchical principle of inheritance, which they dared to remind her almost in person. In a word, Catherine resolutely went beyond the limits of those constants in which her entourage tried to put, and with all her successes, she proved that "happiness is not as blind as it is imagined."
The craving for knowledge and the multiplication of experience did not kill the women in her, in addition, until recent years, Catherine continued to behave actively and energetically. Even in her youth, the future empress wrote in her diary: "It is necessary to create yourself, your character." She brilliantly coped with this task, putting knowledge, determination and self-control at the heart of her life trajectory. She was often compared and continues to be compared with Peter I, but if he, in order to "Europeanize" the country, introduced violent changes to the Russian way of life, then she meekly finished what her idol had begun. One of his contemporaries figuratively described the essence of Catherine's reign as follows: "Peter the Great created people in Russia, but Catherine II put souls into them."
text Marina Kvash
Source tmnWoman # 2/4 | autumn | 2014