Beijing (in the normative northern pronunciation - Peijing, Chinese 北京, pinyin Běijīng) literally means "Northern Capital", following a tradition common to East Asia, according to which the capital's status is directly reflected in the name. Other cities named in this way are Nanjing in China (南京 - "Southern Capital"), Dongkinh (now Hanoi) in Vietnam, and Tokyo in Japan (with the same character 東京 and the same meaning - "Eastern Capital"). The name of another Japanese city, Kyoto (京都) and the old name of Seoul Gyeongseong (京城), simply mean "capital" or "metropolitan city".
The name Beijing does not actually correspond to modern Chinese pronunciation. In the official Putonghua dialect (which mostly follows the Beijing phonetic norm), the name of the city is pronounced as Beijing. In English and some other languages, in the second half of the 20th century, the name of the city was brought into line with the real pronunciation and is usually written as Beijing. However, in Russian and in many languages, the old name is still used (for example, port. Pequim, Dutch. Peking, etc.). French missionaries first called the city “Beijing” four hundred years ago, when the consonant shift had not yet occurred in the northern Chinese dialects, when almost all sounds were transformed into. This shift did not occur in southern dialects, and in Cantonese, for example, the name of China's capital is still pronounced "Bakgin".
Throughout history, Beijing has been known in China by various names. From 136 to 1405 and again from 1928 to 1949 it was called Beiping (Chinese 北平, pinyin Beiping, literally "Northern Calm". In both cases, this was due to the transfer of the capital from Beijing to Nanjing (first time by the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming Dynasty, and the second - by the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China) and the loss of Beijing's capital status.
In 1949, after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China, the Communist Party of China returned the name Beijing (Beijing), emphasizing the return of the city's functions as a capital. The government of the Republic of China, which fled to Taiwan, never officially recognized the name change, and in the 1950s and 1960s in Taiwan, Beijing often continued to be called Beiping, indicating the illegitimacy of the PRC. Today, however, almost all Taiwanese, including the Taiwan authorities, use the name "Beijing", although some maps published in Taiwan still show the old name, as well as the pre-1949 administrative division of China.
The poetic name of Beijing - Yanjing (Chinese 燕京, pinyin Yānjīng, literally "Yan Capital") goes back to the ancient times of the Zhou Dynasty, when the kingdom of Yan existed in these places. This name is reflected in the name of the local brand of beer (Yanjing Beer) and in the name of Yanjing University (later became part of Peking University). During the Mongol Yuan Dynasty, the city was called Khanbalik, it can be found in the notes of Marco Polo in the spelling Cambuluc.
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Beijing 北京 Beijing translated from Chinese means "northern capital". This is one of the oldest cities not only in China, but also in the world. The current structure of Beijing began to take shape under (1360-1424), the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), who ruled under the motto Yun-le 永乐 ("Eternal joy", 1403-1424). It can be said that Beijing is the city of Emperor Yong-le's dream come true.
Like other Chinese cities, Beijing is built on the principles Feng Shui . Its layout, palaces, temples, parks contain many ideas of Chinese philosophy and culture. The restructuring of Beijing in the 20th-21st centuries is also subject to a certain plan, with the preservation, in general, of the former structure and the shift of only some accents.
Forbidden City (Gugong) in Beijing, view from Jingshan Park
Any city in its layout, urban ensembles expresses the attitude of people of a particular culture and era. The urban planning principles of European cities have changed over time, from antiquity to the present.
In China, we will see other cities, the basic principles of planning which have not changed over time. The foundations of urban planning, laid down in ancient times (in the eras of Shang-Yin, 1600-1027 BC and Zhou, 1045-221 BC), were repeated almost until the beginning of the 20th century.
This can be largely explained by the fact that China played a large role tradition. In particular, this was expressed in the repetition of the same forms and methods, unchanged since ancient times. We see this not only in urban planning, but also in other areas - philosophy, literature. The new is presented as a commentary on the classical work, revealing the meaning originally contained in it.
Several factors influenced the formation of the external appearance of Chinese cities:
1. Hieroglyphic writing which predetermined the originality of Chinese thinking. In particular, this was expressed in greater significance than in the West, lines and forms, the visual image as a whole. The Chinese city, house, garden is a complex system of symbols that the Chinese can easily read and which often remain out of sight of the European.
2. Religious tolerance . In the West, religious architecture differs from civil architecture, religious buildings of different religions and confessions differ significantly from each other (for example, a Catholic church and an Orthodox church). In China, Taoist and Buddhist monasteries are built according to the same principle, differing only in their altars and the names of pavilions. Moreover, in terms of their structure, they will repeat civil buildings, reproducing the traditional form of a siheyuan house (more on that below).
3. Features of chronology and the need to move the capital with the beginning of the reign of a new dynasty or ruler. This was expressed in a large number of cities that were capitals in one or another historical period (Yinxu, Luoyang, Chang'an, Nanjing, Beijing, etc.). In addition to the main capital, there were "spare" ones that took over the functions of the capital at the time of the residence of the imperial court there. The same city, depending on the current situation, could be renamed, and more than once.
4. Anonymity . In the West, every building has (or implies) an architect. The architect expresses himself through the designed building. And we, for example, with some knowledge, can easily distinguish the "architectural style" of Trezzini, Rastrelli, Bazhenov, Kazakov, Rossi, Lvov and others. In China, the architect was reduced almost to the level of a master, who had to be able to combine the “bricks” prescribed by tradition into a holistic harmonious image.
Another significant factor that predetermined the originality of the Chinese city was the mandatory use geomancy.
Kanyu or Feng Shui
Generally, feng shui is the doctrine of the correct (harmonious) placement of a person and a structure in space . It is based on Chinese natural philosophy and is based on the doctrine of Yin Yang阴阳 (feminine and masculine), wu-sin五行 (five elements, or elements), ba-gua八卦 (eight trigrams of the Book of Changes), the Great Triad san cai三才 (Heaven, Earth, Man), numerology, etc.
Mountains have traditionally been valued in China. They were considered the abode of hermits and celestials. is likened to three steps, where the highest step is the Tibetan plateau, below which are medium-altitude mountains. The third step is the coastal lowlands, where the bulk of the population is concentrated. The Chinese believe that the brightest and most beautiful landscapes are located on the border of the first and second steps, and the most elegant and soft - between the third zone and the sea.
Shaping the Structure of Chinese Cities
The current traditional structure of Chinese cities began to take shape in ancient times. Well explored settlement banpo半坡 near Xi'an (Yangshao culture 仰韶文化, V-III millennium BC). It occupied an area of more than 5 thousand square meters, was surrounded by a moat and consisted of three zones: residential, craft and cemetery. In the center of the residential area there was a large building 20x12.5 meters at the base.
Over time, the settlements of the Yangshao culture merge with the settlements of the Longshan 龙山 culture. Permanent settlements appear, which were usually built in river valleys, on tops or hillsides. The houses were framed, on foundations made of rammed earth layer by layer (technique Khantu 夯土).
In the Shang-Yin era (XVII-XI centuries BC), permanent cities appeared: Xiaotun, Changzhou, Yangshi, Erlitou and others. Almost all of them were surrounded by adobe walls with a moat. In the center of the city there were palaces and temples erected on high single-tier stylobates with columns on stone or bronze foundations. These were the tallest buildings in the city. Around them were the houses of the nobility. Ordinary buildings were frame one-story, less often two-story houses, covered with thatch. The city was crossed by a wide central street.
The capital of the state of Yin was Shan city (Yinxu殷墟) in Anyang (Prov. Henan). The city was founded in the XIV century BC, during its heyday, about 120 thousand people lived in it. At that time it was the largest city in the world (for comparison: no more than 100 thousand people lived in Thebes at that time).
On an area of 1000x650 meters there was a palace and temple complex with more than 80 different buildings. The buildings were placed along the main axis "north-south" and the auxiliary "west-east", which indicates the use of the rudiments of the feng shui system. Yinxu was surrounded by adobe walls up to 10 meters high and with a base thickness of about 6 meters. The total length of the walls was about 7 km. The presence of zoning is traced - separate areas where artisans lived and craft workshops were located.
In the Zhou era, many principles of urban planning were laid down, which have existed unchanged in China for more than 2000 years.
Reconstruction of the palace of the ruler of Western Zhou in Fenghao 沣镐 (Shaanxi province, c. 1180 BC)
The capitals of the specific principalities were very crowded. So, according to some estimates, the population of the capital of the kingdom of Qi - Linzi 临淄, totaled about 750 thousand people.
The backbone of a typical city of the Eastern Zhou era (770-255 BC) was the palace of the ruler, in front of which was the intersection of the main streets. Urban development was divided into quarters ( fan方), which usually surrounded walls with gates that closed at nightfall. Such intra-quarter walls began to be demolished only in the 10th century. From the outside, the city was surrounded by a more powerful fortress wall.
There were ancestral altars in the city. Approximately since the 7th century, altars of land and agriculture appear. After the design of the concept of the “Son of Heaven”, temples of Heaven appeared in the capital cities, in which only the emperor could perform the sacrifice ceremony.
An obligatory attribute of the city was the existence of the bell and drum towers - "twin towers" ("morning ringing and evening drum"), counting the time and warning of important or extraordinary events.
In the treatises of Kaogong-chi and Mencius, one can see descriptions of the ideal city. So, according to Kaogong-chi, the city should have the shape of a square with a side of 9 li (4500 meters), and according to Menci - 3 li. The city is divided into 9 parts, according to the system of "well fields" 井 ching. Such a structure, on the one hand, was associated with the concept of the "heavenly well" 井 (the 22nd of the 28 zodiac constellations, the first of the seven constellations of the southern region of the sky), and on the other hand, it had a practical orientation, helping to keep records of people and resources.
A - a layout of cities with double rows of walls. B - reconstruction of the plan of the ideal capital according to Kaogongji (V.I. Luchkova, L.V. Zadvernyuk Urban planning of ancient and medieval China. Khabarovsk, 2012)
In the Zhou era, feng shui rules became mandatory in the construction of any objects, whether it be a residential building, a palace, a temple or a tomb. The most difficult thing was to fulfill the rule related to the presence of water in the south.
At the same time, the number and set of premises for each type of building, their colors and finishes are regulated. So, for example, the beams in the palace of the ruler of the kingdom were supposed to be made of hewn, polished and inlaid stones. In the house of the ruler of the province - hewn and polished, in the house of the head of the clan - only hewn, etc. In the imperial palace, bells could be placed on four sides, in the palace of the heirs - on three, in the house of a minister - on two, and an official - only on one side.
In the Tang era, the basic principles of the Chinese city are finally formed:
- General principles of space organization for all types of buildings, based on the principle of siheyuan.
- Longitudinal and transverse expansion of urban space, the development of the principle of symmetry and the Taoist principle of "long way" to the goal.
- Appearance in the capital and provincial centers of the Forbidden City
- Combining a Confucian house and a Taoist garden into a single ensemble.
- The complication of the most significant architectural elements - roofs and entrances, the secondary role of walls and windows.
- The hierarchy of structures is expressed through the color of tiles, walls and columns, the size and number of elements (courtyards, tiers of roofs, amulets on the roofs).
In the Ming and Qing eras (1644-1911), the concept of an ideal city and home was finally completed. The main principles that determine urban forms are the concepts of yin-yang and wu-xing, the Great Triad, qi, the Taoist "long way", the Confucian ideals of the family and society as a large family, the principle of "correcting names", as well as the idea of the middle and religious syncretism .
siheyuan
In the Zhou era, the main planning unit of the city appears - siheyuan四合院. In its simplest version, siheyuan is a quadrangular courtyard oriented to the cardinal points, along the perimeter of which there are four one-story buildings with windows facing inward. Depending on the size of the family and its well-being, numerous variations are possible while maintaining the overall structure.
Projection of trigrams "ba-gua" on the house-siheyuan
Composition axis
In the Zhou era, an axis begins to form (along the south-north line), on which the main buildings are “strung”. During the Chun-qiu period (722-479 BC), the rule of "three cabinets and five gates" 三朝五门 is formed sanchao wumen. In accordance with it, five courtyards were “strung” on the south-north axis. From the main entrance, located in the south, there was a path to the main pavilion, where the throne room was located. The back (northern) was private. According to this system, not only palace buildings, large siheyuan houses, but also monasteries were built.
A feature of the Chinese urban planning axis is its invisibility and hypothetical nature. In Europe, the compositional axis is usually open, and only at the end is closed by a significant structure.
In China, the central axis is more likely to be guessed, constantly overlapping with buildings and structures, passages through which are located on the sides. This is related to the ancient idea that evil spirits- gui鬼 only move in a straight line. Only on days of special celebrations, only the emperor could pass through the central gate, which was specially opened for him alone. The passage through them was accompanied by numerous rituals and rules.
The principle of symmetry remained the main city-forming principle. More ancient is vertical symmetry (along the north-south axis), which was later supplemented by horizontal symmetry (along the west-east axis). The heyday of horizontal symmetry came during the reign of the Tang Dynasty (618-907), when the old ensembles were expanded. Nevertheless, the principle of vertical symmetry remained the leading one.
In its most complete form, vertical-horizontal symmetry, which implies simultaneous expansion along two axes, is observed in such sites as Gugong in Beijing and Shenyang.
Plans of some Chinese capitals
The traditional Chinese city was formed from siheyuan houses, which were combined into quarters. Streets and lanes intersected at right angles and were oriented to the cardinal points. In the center of the city, sometimes shifting to the north, was the imperial palace.
Xi'an (Chang'an)
Plan of the city of Chang'an in the Tang era. 1. Chongxuan Gate 2. Daming Palace 3. Inner City 4. Imperial City 5. Western Market 6. Eastern Market 7. Mingde Gate
Luoyang
Luoyang in the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD)
Luoyang in the Northern Wei era (386-534)
forbidden city
A distinctive feature of Chinese capital cities is the presence of the Forbidden City, closed to most residents. This prohibition is connected with the concept of the Son of Heaven, according to which the emperor appears as a link between Heaven and Earth, performing both secular and priestly functions. That is why every action of the emperor is strictly regulated and sacred.
In ancient times, those who became kings chose the center of the Middle Kingdom in order to lay the capital city, the center of the capital city - to build a palace, and the center of the palace - to build an ancestral temple. (Luishi chunqiu, ch.6)
However, although the rules prescribed the construction of the Forbidden City strictly in the center, deviations are constantly encountered, which was explained not only by the existing natural conditions, but also by certain concepts.
From the Shang-Yin era, the imperial complexes were divided horizontally into two parts: the front solemn, where official events took place, and the rear private, where the life of the imperial family flowed. The border between these zones passed through the main palace. As the country grew, the structure of cities became more complex, and the structure of the Forbidden City became more complicated. Usually, growth went first along the vertical axis, as a result of which three main palaces appeared one after another - dian殿 and then the horizontal axis.
The presence of the Forbidden City has become mandatory since the Tang era. High walls, inaccessibility to outsiders, and a strict selection of servants guaranteed the safety of the emperor. After the overthrow of the Yuan Dynasty, the Forbidden City was first built in Nanjing, the first capital of the Ming Dynasty, which, unfortunately, has not survived to our time.
Under the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Di (ruled under the motto Yong-le), the capital was moved to Beijing, where at the beginning of the 15th century the Forbidden City - Gugong, or Zijincheng 紫禁城 ("Purple City"), which struck the imagination of contemporaries, was built. During the Qing era, the Forbidden City in Shenyang was built, inferior to Gugong in splendor and splendor.
History of Beijing
Beijing has inherited all the urban planning principles that have developed in previous eras and brought them to perfection. No other city in China has such a pronounced structure and clear concept.
The name Peking came from the first European missionaries, who took it by ear in accordance with the pronunciation of that time. Later, in many Western countries, it was replaced by a more accurate one - Beijing (Beijing). However, in Russia and some other countries, such as Australia or France, the old name is still used. Similarly, we pronounce Nanjing, whose correct name is Nanjing 南京 (Southern Capital).
Beijing is one of the oldest cities in China. The first people appeared in this area during the Paleolithic. AT caves of Zhoukoudian the remains of Sinanthropus belonging to the species Homo erectus were found. Sinanthropes lived here for a long time, as evidenced by a thick cultural layer, approximately from 230 to 77 thousand years ago. A distinctive feature of the Sinanthropes was the use of fire. In anthropology, the question is still debatable whether the Sinanthropes are the direct ancestors of the modern Chinese, or whether this is a dead end branch of evolution.
In Zhoukoudian, traces of Homo sapiens were also found, who lived in the Paleolithic era approximately 27-10 thousand years ago. On the plains around Beijing, Neolithic agricultural settlements have been discovered dating back to the 4th-5th millennium BC.
During the Zhou era, the area where Beijing is now located was part of the kingdom of Yan 燕. It occupied the territory of modern Hebei Province and lands to the northeast, including the Liaodong Peninsula. Yan was smaller and weaker than others from among the "seven strongest kingdoms", but it was of great strategic and political importance. From here there were important routes to South Manchuria and North Korea.
In 222 BC. it was conquered by the Qin. The capital of the state of Yan was originally located in the area of the village of Dongjialin, in Liulihe in the territory of the modern Fangshan district in the southwest of Greater Beijing. Then the capital was moved to the city Ji薊, which was located in the southwestern part of the modern city of Beijing, in the Xuanwu and Fengtai districts. Ji in translation from Chinese is translated as "Japanese thistle", or, more simply, thistle. Therefore, Beijing is often figuratively called 燕京 Yanjing(the capital of Yan). To protect against nomads, defensive structures were built north of the city of Ji.
Since the Qin era, the future Beijing has become one of the provincial towns near the northern border. During the Three Kingdoms era, Beijing was part of the Wei kingdom. During the reign of the Jin Dynasty (265-420), the Buddhist temple complex Tanzhe 潭柘寺 was built in the Xishan Mountains, where, according to legend, Princess Miaoyang, the daughter of Khan Kublai Khan and, accordingly, the great-granddaughter of Genghis Khan, who accepted Buddhist monasticism, was later buried. After the fall of the Jin Dynasty, Beijing ended up in the kingdoms of Later Zhao 后赵 (319-351), Early Qin 前秦 (351-395), Early Yan 前燕 (337-370) and Late Yan 后燕 (384-409). Ji was renamed to Youzhou幽州, after the county where he was located.
During the era of the Sui dynasty (581-618), Yuzhou found itself in a strategically important place: in 612, the next stage of the war with the Korean states began (Koguryeo-Sui wars, 598, 612-614), which ultimately led to the fall of the dynasty Sui and the reign of Tang in 618. To improve the supply, Emperor Yang-di built a network of canals that connected Yuzhou with the North China Plain. In memory of this inglorious war, in 645, Emperor Taizong built the Fayuan Temple 法源寺 dedicated to the Buddha Vairochana, originally called Minzhongsi 悯忠寺, the Temple of Loyalty and Compassion (now in the Xuanwu District).
After the fall of the Tang Dynasty, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era (907-960) began. In 923, the Shato Turks founded the state of the Later Tang (929-936), which took control of almost the entire northern China. In 936, the commander Shi Jingtang 石敬瑭 rebelled and turned to the Khitans for help. However, the Khitans demanded territorial concessions in return for their help. After the founding of the state of Later Jin 后晋 (936-947), Shi Jingtang (temple name Gaozu 高祖) handed over sixteen districts to the Khitan, including Youzhou.
In 938, Yelü Yaogu ordered that the county seat of Youzhou County 幽州 be made the southern capital of the Liao state, giving it an official name. Nanjing Yudufu 南京幽都府.
The Song Empire (960-1279), which unified much of China in 960, attempted to retake the lost northern territories. The Sung Taizu personally led the troops that approached the Liao Nanjing in 979 and laid siege to the city. The city withstood a three-month siege, until finally, in the battle on the Gaoliang River (to the northwest of modern Xizhimen), the Sung army was defeated by the Khitans. After that, the troops of the Song Empire never went so far to the north.
In 1012, the city's name was changed to Nanjing Xijinfu. In 996, the Niujie 牛街礼拜寺 Mosque, which still exists today, was built, and in the years 1100-1119, the Tianning Temple 天宁寺.
Ye Longli in "The History of the Khitan State" describes Nanjing as follows:
Southern capital - founded by Taizong.
The southern capital is located on the lands of the Yuzhou region, which in ancient times was part of the Jizhou region ... During the Tang Dynasty, the Fanyang Governor General was created here to control the Xi and Khitans. After the Later Jin abandoned these lands, the Southern capital was created on them, also called Yanjing, which was part of the Xijin district ...
The Imperial Palace looks big and majestic. In the northern part of the city there are markets where everything that the land and sea bestows is brought. The Buddhist temples in which the monks live are superior to all others in the north. The produced silk fabrics with woven and embroidered patterns and silk products are the best in China. All kinds of vegetables, fruits and grains grow on fertile soil. There is nothing to say about the mulberry tree, kudraniya, hemp, wheat, sheep, pigs, pheasants and hares.
The water is good and the soil is fertile. Numerous crafts are widespread among the population. The talented ones study books, and those who follow them practice horseback riding and archery, despite the difficulties ...
In 1125, the Khitans were expelled by the Jurchens, who founded their own Jin state. After the Jin commander Wanyan Digunai killed Emperor Xizong and took the throne himself, in the fourth month of the third year of his reign, under the motto "Tiande" (1151), he issued an edict on the transfer of the capital from Shangjing to Nanjing. The city was renamed from Nanjing ("Southern Capital") to Zhongdu(中都 "Central Capital"), and its full official name became Zhongdu Daxingfu(中都大兴府). Thus, for the first time in its history, Beijing became the capital of a major empire.
Zhongdu was surrounded by a fortress wall with 13 gates (4 in the northern wall, and 3 in each of the others), the remains of which are still preserved in the Fengtai area.
The city looked like a rectangle, the perimeter of which, according to modern measurements, was about 20 km. The walls today rise to 4.5 m with a base thickness of 18.5 m. The network of streets divided the inner part of the city into districts and quarters, 12 gates in the fortress wall were the natural endings of the avenues. Inside the capital, an inner city was built, the walls of which (with five gates) stretched for about 5.5 km. The imperial palace and the most important state institutions were located on the territory of the inner city. In the city itself there were many palaces, temples, chambers and trading establishments.
One of the sources of that time describes Zhongdu as follows:
The perimeter walls reached 75 li; 12 gates - three on each side ... The southern gate of the citadel had a multi-storey gate tower. The spectacle is impressive. Three gates stand in one line ... Multi-tiered towers rise in the corners. The tiles on them are glazed, gilded nails, red doors, five gates stand one after another.
In 1198, a stone building was built across the Yongdinghe River, which became famous for its beauty and was sung by many poets and depicted on paintings. In, standing behind him, the merchants stopped for the night before entering Beijing.
On July 7, 1937, there was a skirmish between soldiers of the Japanese Garrison Army in China and a company of Chinese troops stationed in Wanping Fortress, which served as a formal reason for the start (which the Chinese consider part of World War II).
Dadu (Khanbalik)
In 1215, Chungdu was taken by the troops of Genghis Khan. The Mongols completely destroyed the city. However, the place was successful, and therefore the Mongols founded their capital here, which they called Khanbalik, which means "the abode of the Khan." Marco Polo, who allegedly visited here in 1266, transcribed it as Kambala. In Chinese it sounds like Dadu大都, "Great Capital". The Mongols pronounced it as Daidu.
Dadu became the capital of the empire, and the former capital, the city of Shangdu 上都, 275 km north of Beijing, became the summer capital. Now it is an archaeological monument, where the remains of fortifications, foundations and adobe walls have been preserved.
Dadu was somewhat shifted to the northeast relative to the ruins of Zhongdu of the Jin dynasty and relative to the modern center of Beijing. It inherited the classic square layout of Chinese cities with the Forbidden City inside.
Diagram of Dadu. The green dotted line marks the borders of Zhongdu
Dadu was surrounded by fortifications: a moat, ramparts and walls. Some of their fragments have survived to this day, in 元大都城垣遗址公园.
Canal and ramparts of Dadu city
During the Yuan era in Beijing appeared hutongs, which became one of his "visiting cards". These are narrow, often winding streets, built up on two sides with one-story siheyuan houses.
According to one version, the word hutong comes from the Mongolian words hot- "well", and hudun- "village", "camp". Initially, the hutongs were strictly oriented along the west-east line. They were connected by lanes oriented along the north-south line. However, over time, the development became more and more chaotic.
In the Yuan era, 白塔 was built, which is located in the monastery of the same name in Fuchengmen Street and repeats the famous White Pagoda in its outlines.
Around the same time, the reconstruction of the ancient imperial building began. In 1267, the Beihai, Zhonghai and Nanhai ponds were dug to the west of the palace, along the banks of which a park was laid out.
Beihai Lake and White Dagoba on Jade Island in Beihai Park
Founding of the capital of the Ming Dynasty
After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty and the rise of the Ming Dynasty, the capital was moved to Nanjing. The first emperor of the Ming Dynasty was Zhu Yuanzhang(1328-1398), a very low social origin - his paternal grandfather was a prospector, and maternally - a shaman. Zhu Yuanzhang received a monastic education, however, even as an emperor he wrote with errors. Later, he joined the robbers, becoming one of the leaders of the gang, and then took an active part in the uprising of the Red Turbans. Due to his qualities, he soon becomes one of the leaders of the uprising.
On January 23, 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang in Nanjing proclaimed himself emperor and the founder of a new dynasty - Ming 明. He ruled under the motto Hong-wu洪武 "Spill of Militancy". Dadu was renamed Beiping 北平, which means "Pacified North".
Zhu Biao (1355-1392), who died during the life of his father, was appointed heir to the throne. Therefore, after the death of Hongwu, the throne passed to his 11-year-old grandson. Zhu Yunwen(1377-1403), who ruled under the motto jian wen建文 "Creating culture". His accession did not please the rest of the sons of the deceased emperor. In turn, the young emperor did not have warm feelings for his uncles. He especially disliked Zhu Di, the emperor's fourth son.
Zhu Di owned an allotment with its capital in Beiping. A brilliant commander, a connoisseur of the military art of Sun Tzu, he quickly won the love and respect of his subordinates. In 1402, Zhu Di approached Nanjing and the gates were opened before him. The Imperial Palace was on fire. Zhu Yunwen fled and most likely died in the fire.
Having ascended the throne, Zhu Di brutally cracked down on the supporters of the second emperor. Since not everyone supported his rights to the throne, the new emperor began mass repressions. Among those executed was the historian Fang Xiaorhu 方孝孺 for refusing to write a performance for the inauguration. His family and disciples were "slaughtered in ten generations."
Nevertheless, despite the repressions at the very beginning of the reign, the Yong-le period entered the history of China as one of the most prosperous. Although the emperor adhered to Confucian norms and rituals, he provided strong support. Significant reforms were carried out in domestic and foreign policy, aimed at raising the economic level of the country inside and spreading the influence of the Ming dynasty outside.
However, until the end of his life, Zhu Di feared the return of the deposed emperor. He began a large construction in his specific city, and in 1421 he moved the capital there, renaming it Beijing - Beijing, which means "Northern Capital".
If St. Petersburg is the city of Peter the Great's dream come true, then Beijing is without a doubt the city of Emperor Yongle's dream come true. It was to become a model city, the capital of a world empire. The location of Beijing almost perfectly matches the rules of feng shui: mountains lie to the north of it, lower hills to the west and east. Beijing itself is located on a plain. Rivers flow from the mountains, and a small river, Lianshui, flows south of the city. In the city itself, canals were dug and lakes were built.
Central Axis and Five Altars of Beijing
Under Zhu Di, the Forbidden City and the majestic Temple of Heaven were built. A 6-kilometer main axis stretched through Beijing, on which the main objects were strung. For the defense of the northern borders near Beijing, the construction of new sectors began.
1. Yongdingmen Gate, southern entrance to the Outer City
2. Temple of Heaven
3. Temple of Agriculture
4. Qianmen Gate
5. Street of government buildings (future Tiananmen Square)
6. Chengtian Gate (Tiananmen)
7. Temple of the Imperial Ancestors Taimiao (now the Palace of Culture of the Workers)
8. Temple of Earth and Cereals (now Sun Yat Sen Park)
10. Beihai Park
11. Jingshan Park
12. Imperial City
13. Drum Tower
14. Bell tower
15. Andingmen Gate
16. Proportional analysis of the central part of the Beijing Axis
In accordance with the principles of wu-xing, five main altars were built in Beijing, where the emperor regularly held sacrificial ceremonies: temples of Heaven, Earth, Sun, Moon and Sheji (gods of the Earth and Cereals).
In accordance with the rules of Feng Shui, artisans settled in the south, and more affluent people settled in the west and east. To the north of the Forbidden City were the residences of the goons - princes, members of the imperial family. In addition, in the north, symbolizing wisdom, are located, to the northwest of it at the end of the 19th century, a university campus arose - Tsinghua Universities, Beida (Peking University), a number of universities, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Innovation Development Zone -.
Even longer, closer to the mountains, there are parks:, the Botanical Garden with the Temple of the Sleeping Buddha, (Fragrant Hills) and others.
Beijing was conceived as the center of the world. The Forbidden City and the surrounding Imperial City were surrounded by their respective altars, where the emperor, considered the Son of Heaven, performed sacrifices. But the main thing in the city was, of course, the center. There are two of them in Beijing - the Forbidden City itself, where the emperor lived, and Tiananmen Square, lying to the south of it, "the people's heart of China," as it is called.
Tiananmen Square
Above the emperor's throne in the Hall of Harmony Preservation is a four-character inscription: 皇建有极 huang jian you ji. Hieroglyph chi(“limit”, cf. 太极 Taiji - ) also means middle (中 zhong), middle way (中道 zhongdao), Way (道 tao). Thus, the meaning of the phrase lies in the fact that the emperor, ruling the state, must limit himself, adhere to the principles of the middle, impartiality, moderation.
On the north side of Gugong, Jingshan 景山 Park is located on man-made hills. This is the so-called "small dragon", a hill lying south of the big mountains.
In Gugun there are several large marble bas-reliefs depicting dragons. is not only a symbol of China and the Chinese nation, but also of the emperor.
There are many other sacred images in Gugun - a turtle (a symbol of longevity), a crane (a symbol of marital fidelity), lions (a symbol of royalty) and others.
Every building, every architectural element of Gugun has the deepest meaning. Everything here is a symbol and expresses the idea of the sacred power of the Son of Heaven, extending to the entire Celestial Empire, giving peace and prosperity to subjects.
Beijing as the center of the world
Thus, if we look at the plan of the Imperial City, Gugong and the central part of Beijing, we will see this picture:
The image of the "Great Triad" (Heaven, Earth, Man)
Here the mission of the emperor is clearly visible. He is the Son of Heaven, who is in the space between Heaven and Earth (symbolically expressed by the Tiananmen Gate of Heavenly Peace in the south and the Tiananmen Earthly Peace Gate in the north, as well as the round Temple of Heaven in the south and the square Altar of Earth in the north). The task of the emperor is to maintain harmony between Heaven and Earth.
The sacred center of the Chinese world is the Hall of Middle Harmony, where future officials “received initiation” through passing state exams.
The receipt by the sovereign of a heavenly command is sent down [according to] the plans of Heaven. Therefore, his title is “Son of Heaven”. He must look to Heaven as a father, and serve Heaven [according to] the path of filial piety. (Dong Zhongshu, “Chun-qiu fan-lu”, chapter “Deep study of the meaning of names and titles”).
The one who invented writing in ancient times drew three horizontal lines and connected them in the middle with a vertical line, calling this character "king" 王. The three horizontal lines are heaven, earth, and humanity, and the vertical one, passing in the middle, unites the principles of all three (Dong Zhongshu, "How the path of the king unites the triad").
The central part of Beijing is often associated with the Dragon with its head facing south. The dragon's head extends from Zhengyangmen gate to Wumen gate. His body is Gugong, the Forbidden City. The tail of the dragon stretches from the central hill in Jingshan Park to the Bell and Drum towers and further north.
With all of the above in mind, if we carefully look at the map of the historical part of Beijing, we will see this picture:
The character 中 zhong ("middle") projected onto central Beijing
Here the Central axis is clearly visible, which, with some deviations, stretches almost from the Temple of Heaven in the south to the towers of the Bell and the Drum in the north. Almost in its center is a square formed by the walls of the Forbidden City and the canal around it.
Axis passing through the Temple of Heaven, photo from the 1980s
Jingshan Park north of the Forbidden City with its mountain symbolizes yang- masculine, active, bright beginning. The Jinshui River south of the Forbidden City symbolizes yin- feminine, passive, dark beginning. In the south is the Temple of Heaven, in the north - the Altar of the Earth, that is, yin contains yang, and yang - yin. On both sides of the sacred center are the altars of the Sun and the Moon.
The intersection of the central axis and the walls of the Forbidden City form the hieroglyph 中 zhong - "center", "middle". In its center is the Hall of Median Harmony 中和 zhonghe. This is the main "message" of Beijing to the world. Harmony and Medianness, Median Harmony, the unity of Heaven, Earth and Man.
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The first information about Beijing in historical chronicles refer to the XI century. BC, when the historian Sima Qian in his "Historical Notes" writes: "Zhou Wu-wang, having defeated the Yin ruler Zhou, granted land to Shao-gun in Northern Yan."
The capital city of Yan's possessions was the city of Ji, located in the southwestern part of modern Beijing. The well-known name of Beijing - "Yanjing" can be translated as "the capital of Yan".
History of Beijing during the Chinese Empire
After the conquest of the Yan kingdom by the Qin empire, the city of Ji becomes a provincial city on the northern borders of the state.
After a brief heyday of the Qin Empire, it was replaced by the Han Dynasty. Under the new Beijing Dynasty, or rather, the city of Ji becomes the capital of Youzhou County.
After the invasion of the steppes, which destroyed the state of Jin, the city of Ji was part of various barbarian states.
In 386, northern China was unified by the Northern Wei dynasty. Ji City becomes the county seat again. In the same period, it is called Youzhou, like the whole county. AT history of beijing this time was the heyday of the city.
During the wars with the Korean states, numerous canals were built, which were used to transport troops and supply them with food.
In 755, an uprising led by An Lushan was raised in Yuzhou, which led to a civil war and the collapse of a single state.
History of Beijing under the Liao and Jin dynasties
In 938, the ruler of the Liao dynasty, Yelü Yaogu, ordered that the city of Yuzhou be made the capital of his state. The official name of Yuzhou became Nanjing Yudfu. In 1012, the name of the city was changed to Nanjing Xijinfu.
In 1125, the Jurchen tribes defeated the Liao state and founded their own Jin dynasty. In 1151, the capital was moved to Nanjing and the city was simultaneously renamed Zhudu Dasnfu.
Dramatic event history of beijing, the then Zhudu Dasnfu was the Mongol invasion.
The city of Zhongdu was heavily fortified, it was surrounded by a powerful fortress wall, in which there were 13 gates. However, these strong fortifications failed to protect the city from the Mongol troops, who completely destroyed the city.
Beijing under the Yuan and Ming dynasties
In 1264, the ruler of the Mongol state, which included China, decided to establish the capital of his state near the ruins of Zhudu. After the construction was completed, the city was named Khanbalik, in Chinese it was called Daydu.
As a result of the anti-Mongol uprising, Zhu Yuanzhan, who became the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty, comes to power. After the capture of Daidu, the city becomes the capital of a new dynasty.
History of Beijing under the Qing Dynasty
After the fall of the Ming Dynasty, Beijing was captured by the Manchu troops, who established their rule. During this period, the city began to be called Gemun-hetsen in Manchu and Jingshi in Chinese.
Under the new rulers, the old layout of the city was preserved, the lands outside the city walls were distributed to high-ranking Manchus.
In 1827 an important event took place not only in history of beijing but all of China. In that year, theater troupes from the provinces of Anhui and Hubei were invited to Beijing, which subsequently led to the appearance in 1854 of the famous Peking Opera.
During the Second Opium War in 1860, the city was occupied by the Anglo-French troops, part of the palace complex was burned down. After the signing of the peace treaty, a special Embassy Quarter was built to the southeast of the Forbidden City to accommodate diplomatic residences.
History of Beijing during the ROC period
After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, the Qing Dynasty was overthrown and the Republic of China was proclaimed. This revolution had a huge impact on the future the history of Beijing.
The overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the proclamation of the republic led to a difficult political situation that resulted in a civil war, also called the era of militarists. During this period, the country was divided between various military factions that were at war with each other.
However, the civil war did not prevent the city authorities from starting large-scale work on the redevelopment of the city. Several large gardens were laid out in the territories of the old imperial gardens and temples.
The Kuomintang Party, having concentrated power in its hands, moved the capital of China to Nanjing.
During the Sino-Japanese conflict in 1937, the Japanese army attacked Beijing and almost immediately took possession of the city. The capture of Beijing by the Japanese was the beginning of a long war.
After capturing the city, the Japanese created a puppet government of the Republic of China. After the surrender of the Japanese, Beijing returned to Chinese control.
History of Beijing - the capital of communist China
After the Sino-Japanese War, in which the Kuomintang Party and the Communists were allies, a civil war broke out in the country. Former allies have become bitter enemies.
On January 31, 1949, the Communist People's Liberation Army entered Beijing. Soon the Kuomintang government fled to the island of Taiwan.
Having survived many upheavals, Beijing becomes the capital of the People's Republic of China.
Beijing- one of the oldest cities in the world. Its history, like the history of China itself, is at least three and a half thousand years old.
Settlements in the area where the capital of China is now located have existed since the dawn of human history: about 150 thousand years ago, and possibly much earlier, representatives of the species Homo Erectus, a probable ancestor, settled in the caves of Mount Longgushan, southwest of Beijing. person. Later, about 10-20 thousand years ago, ancient people, Homo Sapiens, lived there. Also, archaeological data show that people lived and farmed on the plains around present-day Beijing and in the Neolithic era, about 6-7 thousand years ago.
The first written mention of a settlement in this place dates back to the 11th century BC. Then in the south-west of the territory of modern Beijing was the settlement of Ji. Judging by the sources that have survived to our time, for some time it was an independent city - state, but then, approximately in the 9th-8th centuries BC. merged with the Yan kingdom and became its capital. In the 3rd century BC. this kingdom was destroyed and a new one appeared - Qin, the first centralized state in Chinese history. Ji has become an insignificant town on its northern outskirts of Qin. The empire did not last long, and it was replaced by State of Han, and Ji became the capital of Youzhou County. The Han Dynasty lasted for about four centuries. Relatively stable and calm, this era has largely become an example for subsequent ones. It is believed that it was then that the characteristic customs and culture of China, which exist to this day, developed.
The period from 220 to 280, when the Han Empire split into three parts, is known as era of the Three Kingdoms. Then Yuzhou County and its center, the city of Ji, became part of one of the three warring states. The most famous monument of that time, which has survived to this day, is buddhist temple complex Tanzhe located near Beijing.
Very soon, China again became a single country - Jin empire, and the county seat of Youzhou is another city. But this empire did not last long, and at the beginning of the 3rd century, sixteen barbarian states formed by nomadic tribes appeared in its place. For several decades, the city of Ji passed from one kingdom to another, until finally it became part of the unified Northern China. Then he received the name Yuzhou - after the name of the district, the center of which again became.
Until the 7th century, the status of the city of Yuzhou changed little. From 618 to 907 in China rules tang dynasty, and during this period, China becomes a strong and stable country. The most powerful emperor of the Tang Dynasty, Tai Zong, built Fayuan temple, which is now a landmark in Beijing.
At the beginning of the 8th century, on the borders of the empire, to protect against raids by nomadic tribes, defensive points were created with military leaders who had quite a lot of power, one might say, governors general. In the Yuzhou district, such a headquarters was also created, headed by the military leader An Lushan.
An Lushan's rebellion in Youzhou became one of the bloodiest armed conflicts in human history. The number of victims of the uprising, which lasted ten years, was estimated in the millions. It is believed that this rebellion was one of the factors that weakened the Tang empire and led to its collapse in the early 10th century. Perhaps this is where the rise of the future of Beijing began. When, after several decades of turmoil, arose Liao state, the city of Eugene became its southern capital and received a new name - Nanjing Yudufu. During this period were built tianning buddhist temple and niujie mosque, also preserved in modern Beijing. After the defeat of the Liao state, the city was renamed Zhongdu Dasindu - the Central Capital - and for the first time it became the main city of a large state - Jin.
In 1215, the Mongols led by Genghis Khan ravaged the Jin kingdom and burned Zhongdu to the ground. However, after a few decades, in 1264, Khan Kublai decided to build his capital next to the ruins. It was named Khanbalik ("City of Khan" in Mongolian) or Dadu ("Great Capital" in Chinese).
In the middle of the 14th century, after a long struggle, China freed itself from Mongol rule and Ming dynasty. After the city of Nanjing was the capital for several years, the son of the first emperor returned the capital to Dadu and gave the city the name Beijing. It is this name in Russian that is read as Beijing.
From 1425 to 1650 Beijing was the largest city in the world. During that period, the famous architectural monuments of the Forbidden City and the Temple of Heaven were built, as well as part of the Great Wall, which runs near the capital.
The city grew and developed rapidly, which gave rise to problems typical of the Middle Ages - by the middle of the 15th century, the forests around the city were mostly reduced, and the crampedness and unsanitary conditions of the city quarters caused several epidemics.
In 1616, the Manchus invaded China. They founded Qing dynasty, which remained in power for several centuries - until the revolution of 1911. All this time, Beijing was the capital of the state. 
After the revolution, China broke up into separate regions controlled by military rulers. This period lasted until 1928. But even after, for about twenty years, the country was torn apart by civil, Japanese-Chinese, World War II and internal political conflicts. During this time, Beijing changed hands more than once, renamed from Beiping to Beijing and back, and then became the capital, then ceded this role to the city of Nanjing, until, finally, on October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong announced the creation of People's Republic of China with its capital in Beijing.
Since then, the city has grown and changed a lot. The ancient fortress wall was destroyed back in the 1960s in order to build a second ring road, and now the sixth one has already been built. Due to the rapid and uncontrolled growth, the capital faced many problems - air pollution, traffic jams, the destruction of architectural monuments, as well as the influx of migrants from the villages. In 2005, the government made several decisions to improve the situation, in particular the expansion of the city only to the west and east, as opposed to the previous plan, according to which development was supposed to go radially - in all directions.
In 2008, the Summer Olympic Games were held in Beijing. Preparation for them also gave some impetus to improve the environmental and social situation in the city. Additional metro lines, a third airport terminal, modern stadiums, new concert halls and much more were built.
Now Beijing is one of the largest cities in the world and the third most populous in China. This is a place with a thousand-year history, where the most ancient monuments of architecture and buildings, embodying the latest achievements of engineering, coexist peacefully.
History of Beijing
1 Prehistoric times
2 The times of the beginning of Chinese statehood
3 First Chinese empires
4 Liao and Jin dynasties
5 Yuan dynasty
6 Ming dynasty
8 Republic of China
9 People's Republic of China
bones of synanthropes were found - representatives of the species Homo erectus, who lived in these places in the interval from 77 to 230 thousand years ago.
In the caves, traces of representatives of the Homo sapiens species, who lived in these parts during the Paleolithic, in the interval from 27 to 10 thousand years ago, were also found. On the plains around Beijing, archaeologists have discovered the remains of Neolithic settlements, indicating that already 6-7 thousand years ago people were engaged in agriculture in these places.
2. Times of the beginning of Chinese statehood
Shao-gong Shi was from the same clan as the founder of the Zhou house and bore the family surname Ji. The Zhou Wu-wang, having defeated the Yin ruler Zhou, granted Shao-gun lands in the Northern Yan.
land from barbarian raids. Since these lands were limited from the north by the Yanshan mountains, the name of the mountains and the whole lot began to be called "Yan".
Ji薊), which was located in the southwestern part of modern Beijing, in the Xuanwu and Fengtai regions. Initially, it was a separate city-state (Confucius mentions that the rulers of Ji were descendants of Huangdi), but around the 9th-8th centuries BC. e. Yang was absorbed and became its capital; earlier, the capital of Yan was located in the area of the village of Dongjialin, which is in Liulihe on the territory of the modern Fangshan region (it was there that the remains of a walled settlement and the graves of about 200 noble people were found). For these reasons, Beijing is often figuratively referred to as Yanjing(Chinese 燕京, "capital of Yan"). Like the subsequent rulers of Beijing, the Yan kingdom was constantly under the threat of attack by nomads from the northern steppes, and therefore built defensive structures along its northern borders.
In the III century BC. e. The Yan kingdom was destroyed by the Qin kingdom, which formed the first centralized empire in the history of China.
3. The first Chinese empires
With the formation of the Qin Empire, Ji City became just a provincial town near its northern border. Qin was a highly centralized state, and as part of the unification of the administrative-territorial division, it was divided into 48 regions - jun(Chinese 郡), two of which were located on the territory of the modern city of Beijing: Ji became the capital of the Guangyang region (Chinese 广阳郡), and to the north, in the territory of modern Miyun County, the Yuyang region was created.
The Qin Empire proved to be short-lived and was soon replaced by the Han Empire. At first, the bonds of centralization were loosened, and Ji City became fief of Guangyang广阳国), but in 106 BC. e. Emperor Wudi divided the territory of the empire into 13 districts - zhou(Chinese 州), and Ji became the capital of Youzhou County (Chinese 幽州).
In the era of the Three Kingdoms, when instead of one state on the territory of China three were formed at once, 10 of the 13 Han districts (including Yuzhou) went to the kingdom of Wei. Subsequently, when China reunited together, forming the state of Jin, Ji lost its status as a district center (the administrative center of Yuzhou became the modern Zhoxian of Hebei Province). During this period, the Tanzhe Buddhist temple complex was built in the Xishan mountains.
In 304, the Jin state was destroyed by the steppes, who formed sixteen barbarian states in its place. During this period, the territory of modern Beijing was in turn part of the states of Early Qin, Later Zhao, Early Yan and Later Yan. Finally, in 386, northern China was unified under the Northern Wei dynasty, and Ji regained the status of a district center. However, due to the fact that back in 370, Jizhou County was created on the territory of modern Tianjin (there is still Ji County), the city of Ji, located on the site of modern Beijing, began to be called Youzhou
plain. These wars were continued by the Tang dynasty that replaced the Sui dynasty; In memory of the victims of these wars, Emperor Taizong erected the Fayuan Temple 3 km southeast of Yuzhou.
renamed to area fanyang(Chinese 范阳郡), but already in 758 he regained the old name of Yuzhou. Starting from 710, in the border regions, to protect against nomadic raids, governor-generals began to be established, headed by jiedushi; Youzhou became the headquarters of Fanyang jiedushi who was supposed to protect the Tang Empire from si and Khitans. In 755, Youzhou rebelled to northern China, which eventually led to the rise of Beijing.
After the collapse of the Tang Empire at the beginning of the 10th century, the era of five dynasties and ten kingdoms began in China. In the north of China, at that time, dynasties succeeded each other, ruling for only a few years. In 923, the Shato Turks founded the Later Tang dynasty, which at the height of its power controlled almost all of northern China. In 936, the commander Shi Jingtang decided to rebel, and at the same time turned to the Khitans for help. For help, the Khitans demanded territorial concessions. When Shi Jingtang proclaimed the founding of the Later Jin Dynasty, he was forced to hand over sixteen counties (including Youzhou) to the Khitans for their support.
幽州) the southern capital of the Liao state, giving it its official name Nanjing Yudufu(Chinese 南京幽都府).
The Song Empire, which unified much of China in 960, attempted to retake the lost northern territories. The Sung Taizu personally led the troops that approached the Liao Nanjing in 979 and laid siege to the city. The city withstood a three-month siege, until, finally, in the battle on the Gaoliang River (to the northwest of modern Xizhimen), the Sung army was defeated by the Khitans. After that, the troops of the Song Empire never went so far to the north.
Nanjing Xijinfu. In 996, the Niujie Mosque, which still exists, was built, and in the years 1100-1119, the Tianning Temple.
In 1125, the Khitans were expelled by the Jurchens, who founded their own Jin state. After the Jin commander Wanyan Liang killed Emperor Xizong and took the throne himself, in the fourth month of the third year of his reign, under the motto "Tiande" (1151), he issued an edict on the transfer of the capital from Shangjing to Nanjing. At the same time, the city was renamed from "Nanjing" ("Southern Capital") to "Zhongdu" ("Central Capital"), and its full official name became Zhongdu Daxingfu中都大兴府). Thus, for the first time in its history, Beijing became the capital of a major empire.
Zhongdu was surrounded by a fortress wall with 13 gates (4 in the northern wall, and 3 in each of the others), the remains of which are still preserved in the Fengtai area. In 1198, the Lugouqiao stone bridge was built across the Yongdinghe River.
5. Yuan Dynasty
For half a century there were only ruins on the site of Zhongdu. In 1264, Khubilai decided to build his own capital next to this place. The construction was led by architects Liu Bingzhong and Amir ad-Din. After the founding of the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, the city became the new capital of the empire (Khubilai's former headquarters - Shangdu - received the status of "summer capital"). In Mongolian, the city was called Khanbalik("City of Khan"), in Chinese - Daidu("Great Capital").
The new city was built northeast of the ruined Zhongdu, around the Gaoliang River, turned into six "seas" (lakes): Houhai, Qianhai, Xihai (collectively known as Shichahai), Beihai, Zhonghai and Nanhai (collectively known as Zhongnanhai). To further improve the city's water supply, engineer Guo Shoujing built a network of canals, through which water from springs from Mount Yuquan, located in the northwest, began to flow through the Kunminghu reservoir to Khanbaliq. The lengthening of the Grand Canal allowed grain barges from the southern provinces to be unloaded right in the center of the city, which also contributed to population growth.
6. Ming Dynasty
In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang, shortly after proclaiming himself the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty in Nanjing, went on a campaign against Dadu. The last Yuan emperor, Togon Temur, fled to Shangdu, and General Xu Da, having occupied the city, razed the Yuan palaces to the ground. The city itself was renamed beiping(Chinese 北平, "Northern appeasement"); Nanjing became the capital of the new state.
the task was to protect Chinese lands from a possible attack by the Mongols from the north. Since the eldest son of Zhu Yuanzhang died during his lifetime, after the death of the emperor in 1402, a 16-year-old grandson inherited the throne, which did not please the living sons of Zhu Yuanzhang. During the fleeting civil war, Zhu Di won, and in 1403 he became the new emperor. In 1421, he moved the imperial capital from Nanjing to Beiping, and renamed the city 北京, "Northern Capital", in Russian tradition read as Beijing that part of the Great Wall that passes through the territory of the city of central subordination of Beijing was mainly built during the Ming Dynasty.
In 1550, the Mongol Altan Khan raided Beijing. He sacked the northern suburbs, but did not attempt to attack the city itself. To protect the southern suburbs, where, in particular, the Temple of Heaven was located, additional city walls were built, forming the so-called. "Outer City".
From the 15th to the 19th century, Beijing was, if not the largest, then one of the largest cities in the world. To provide food for the rapidly growing urban population, as well as the army garrison, Jingtong warehouses were erected at the end of the Grand Canal. The grain from these warehouses was used to keep food prices down, but population growth and increased demand made this policy increasingly ineffective.
At first, Peking people used wood for cooking and heating. Due to the rapid growth of the population, by the middle of the 15th century, the forests around Beijing were mostly cut down, and the inhabitants of the city began to switch to the use of coal mined in the Xishan mountains. This transition worsened living conditions in the city and led to environmental problems.
During the Ming Dynasty, Beijing experienced 15 epidemics, including several outbreaks of plague. The healthcare system managed to cope with everything, except for the epidemic of 1643, which claimed about 200 thousand lives of citizens. These losses drastically reduced the city's defenses, and it was taken by the rebel peasants under the leadership of Li Zicheng, which led to the fall of the Ming Dynasty. The commander of the last combat-ready army of the country, Wu Sangui, in order to recapture the capital from the rebels, teamed up with the Manchus and opened passages for them in the Great Wall. In May 1644, Li Zicheng was defeated in the Battle of Shanhaiguan, and the combined troops of the Manchus and Wu Sangui moved towards Beijing.
7. Qing Dynasty
The Manchu troops under the command of Dorgon entered Beijing under the slogan of expelling Li Zicheng. The body of the last emperor of the Ming Dynasty was given a state funeral, and Ming Dynasty officials were reappointed. However, already in October, the young Manchu Emperor Fulin was transferred from Shenyang to the Forbidden City, and Beijing became the new capital of the Manchu Qing state. During the Qing Dynasty, the city was also referred to as 京师, "Capital City"), or in Manchu.
The Manchus generally retained the layout of Beijing within the city walls. Each of the eight Manchu "banners" was assigned to guard one of the gates of the Inner City, near which the members of this "banner" settled. Outside the city walls, land was distributed to high-ranking Manchus.
To the northwest of the city, the emperors of the Qing Dynasty set up palace and garden complexes. In 1684, Shangchun Park was built on the site of the former Tsinghua Park. At the beginning of the 17th century, the construction of the Yuanmingyuan garden and palace complex began, and in 1750 Yiheyuan was built; both of these palaces symbolized the peak of the power of the Qing Dynasty, and were destroyed by European forces during its decline.
In 1790, four theater companies from Anhui Province were invited to celebrate the 80th birthday of Emperor Qianlong. Since then, the Anhui troupes have become regular performers at the court. In 1827, Daoguang invited troupes from Hubei Province to perform in parallel with the Anhui. From the mixing of Anhui and Hubei theatrical styles by 1845, the famous Peking Opera was formed.
In 1813, a group of militants from the Buddhist sect "White Lotus" made a surprise attack on the Forbidden City. They were repulsed by the guards, but to control the population, the authorities then introduced a system of mutual responsibility ( ).
In 1860, during the Second Opium War, Anglo-French troops destroyed the Qing army during the battle at the Baliqiao Bridge, sacked the Yuanmingyuan Palace and occupied Beijing. As punishment for the murder of European parliamentarians, Yuanmingyuan was burned; The Forbidden City was spared for the sake of the peace treaty signing ceremony. The Qing authorities had to agree to the placement of diplomatic residences of Western states in the city. For this, an area was allocated to the southeast of the Forbidden City, which became known as the Embassy Quarter. In 1886, Empress Dowager Cixi rebuilt Yuanmingyuan with the funds earmarked for building a fleet.
After China's defeat in the war with Japan in 1895 and the signing of the humiliating Treaty of Shimonoseki, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao launched a movement to reform China. Influenced by their ideas, Emperor Guangxu launched the Hundred Days of Reform in 1898. Alarmed by these reforms, Cixi, with the help of her cousin Ronglu and General Yuan Shikai, staged a coup, imprisoning the emperor on an island in the middle of a lake in Beihai Park. One result of this brief period of reform was the founding of Peking University.
In 1898, the Yihetuan uprising began in Shandong Province. In the spring of 1900, the Yihetuan entered Beijing and the 55-day Siege of the Legation Quarter in Beijing began. By the end of the summer, the Eight Power Alliance forces made their way to Beijing, took the city and occupied northeast China. Cixi fled to Xian, taking the emperor with her, and did not return until the signing of the Final Protocol, according to which, in particular, China had to pay a huge indemnity. With the money received as a result of paying this indemnity, the US government established a program to study Chinese students abroad. As part of this program, an American College was established in Tsinghua Gardens, northwest of what was then Beijing, and renamed Tsinghua University in 1912.
In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing Dynasty, and the Republic of China was proclaimed. Beijing remained the capital of the state, but political instability in the country led to a long civil war, during which Beijing became the site of the struggle of various military factions and more than once passed from hand to hand.
and zoning. From the west, through Japan, the idea of city parks came to China, where ordinary people could relax, and it appealed to both the Beijing authorities and ordinary residents. The territories of some of the former imperial gardens, as well as the lands of some temples, were transformed into parks. The city authorities have also begun serious work on the introduction of modern standards of sanitation and hygiene in the city.
When, at the end of the First World War, the Paris Peace Conference decided not to return to China the former German concessions seized by Japan in Shandong Province, then on May 4, 1919, a mass student protest demonstration took place in Tiananmen Square. With this demonstration, the May 4th Movement began, which had a huge impact on the political life of China.
In 1927, the Kuomintang Party declared Nanjing the alternative capital of China, and on June 8, 1928, the National Revolutionary Army took control of Beijing, which was renamed (Chinese 北平, "Pacified North").
On July 7, 1937, following the incident at the Marco Polo Bridge, the Japanese attacked Beiping, and by July 29 they had taken full control of the city (renaming it back to Beijing). Thus began the Sino-Japanese war. To control the occupied territories of Northern China, the Japanese created a puppet Provisional Government of the Republic of China, with Beijing as its capital. On March 30, 1940, the "Provisional Government" was merged with the "Reformed Government of the Republic of China" into a pro-Japanese puppet government of the Republic of China with Nanjing as its capital, although de facto Throughout the war, Beijing remained independent of Nanjing.
After Japan's surrender in August 1945, Beiping returned to Chinese control. During the war, the Kuomintang Party and the Communist Party of China were allies, but now a civil war has begun between them. At the end of 1948, the People's Liberation Army of China launched the Beiping-Tianjin operation, and on January 31, 1949, Fu Zuoyi, who commanded the defense of Beiping, went over to the Communists and surrendered Beiping without a fight; Fu Zuoyi's troops joined the ranks of the PLA.
9. People's Republic of China
On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic of China on Tiananmen Square. Peiping was again renamed Beijing, it again became the capital of China.
The new authorities took up the restructuring of the city. The old city walls were demolished, and streets were laid in their place, now forming the Second Ring Road. By 1959 (on the occasion of the 10th anniversary of the founding of the PRC), the Monument to the People's Heroes, the Great Hall of the People and the National Museum of China were erected on Tiananmen Square.
As the capital of China, Beijing was in the thick of the country's political life. During the years of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) it was the center of activity of the Red Guards, in 1976 the Tiananmen Incident took place here, when, despite the ban of the authorities, millions of people came to honor the memory of the deceased Premier Zhou Enlai, and in 1989 a series of demonstrations were held here, suppressed by the troops.
The policy of reform and opening up initiated by Deng Xiaoping led to Beijing's explosive growth in the 1990s; new neighborhoods sprang up in the countryside surrounding the city. However, rapid modernization and a sharp increase in the population led to numerous problems: heavy traffic, environmental pollution, destruction of historical buildings, a large number of migrants from the villages. Air pollution caused the city to fail to win the bid to host the 2000 Olympics in 1993. In 2005, the city government tried to bring the problems under control by allowing the city to develop only in east and west directions (the previous long-term plan called for the city to develop in radial directions from the center in all directions). The efforts of the city authorities have borne fruit, and the 2008 Summer Olympics were held in Beijing at the highest level.