The chapters of the subsection “Architecture of the Roman Empire” of the section “Architecture of Ancient Rome” from the book “The General History of Architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome)”, edited by B.P. Mikhailov. Authors: G.A. Koshelenko, I.S. Nikolaev, M.B. Mikhailova, B.P. Mikhailov (Moscow, Stroyizdat, 1973)
The period of civil wars in the 1st century. BC, generated by grandiose social clashes, ended under Augustus (30 BC - 14 AD) with the creation in 27 BC. a new social and state system - an empire that lasted about five centuries. It was the time of the highest flowering of the slave-owning formation and the beginning of the transition to feudalism.
The Roman Empire covered vast territories inhabited by various peoples who were at different levels of socio-economic and cultural development. With all the diversity of the provinces, the Roman Empire created the necessary state and, to a certain extent, socio-economic, ideological and cultural unity.
The early period of the empire (from Augustus to the middle of the 3rd century AD), or the period of the principate, was characterized by the strengthening of absolute imperial power, which at first was disguised, by the emphasized preservation of some external republican forms and customs. Opposition from the senatorial nobility repeatedly led to terror (under Tiberius and Nero), and in 68-69. took the form of a civil war, which ended with the coming to power of the Flavians. Gradually there is a consolidation of the ruling stratum of slave owners, the involvement of Italians in its composition, and then heterogeneous provincials through the wide distribution of the rights of Roman citizenship among the free population of the empire. Successes in the Romanization of the provinces, which rallied them to Rome, a generally successful foreign policy and the suppression of slave movements and uprisings in Judea, Illyria and Africa - all this led to a temporary stabilization of the social system of the Roman Empire. The rapid economic prosperity of the provinces led, on the one hand, to the prosperity of Italy, and especially Rome, who lived off their exploitation. On the other hand, it caused the promotion of representatives of the provincial slave owners to the forefront of the political life of the empire. Many of them were members of the Senate, and at the end of the 1st century. For the first time, a provincial - an Iberian Trajan (98-117) becomes emperor. Under him and his successor Hadrian (117-138), the empire reaches its greatest prosperity. The slave-owning nobility of Italy and the provinces finally renounces their claims to republican liberties; her ideal becomes a "good emperor". Prepared by the development of the imperial cult, the monarchical principle is affirmed. The bureaucratic apparatus created by the emperors is becoming increasingly important. The provincial towns, retaining the old forms of urban self-government, were under the strict control of the imperial governors.
| Map 7. Roman Empire |
At the same time, the contradictions of the slaveholding system were by no means removed during the principate period. They were only driven inside and took on new, peculiar forms. Among the ordinary population, including slaves and the free poor, messianic beliefs were widespread. In them, the lower classes, who had lost hope for real deliverance, gave vent to their despair and their hatred for the entire existing system. The most extreme of these teachings was Christianity, which initially completely rejected both the social system and the ideology of the empire. A clear symptom of the approaching crisis was the general increase in religiosity, the spread of mysticism, which was so alien to the ancient worldview. Among the nobility that had lost its political significance, stoic philosophy became popular with its doctrine of the inner freedom of a person, independent of his social position.
The struggle of the oppressed masses continued constantly. Its centers were the recently conquered provinces - Judea, Illyria, Pannonia, Africa, the uprisings in which were brutally suppressed. In the II century. Trajan carried out the last great conquests of the empire. But already under Hadrian, the task of defending the borders, on which the onslaught of the “barbarian” tribes intensified, became very important. The symptoms of an impending crisis were becoming clearer. The Italian economy began to decline, despite all the measures of the imperial authorities. The peasantry is ruined, the huge estates of the slave-owning nobility - the latifundia - are playing an increasingly important role, in the sphere of influence of which the peasants fall. There are signs of urban decline.
The principate period ends with the Sever dynasty (193-235). The empire turns into a military monarchy, relying only on brute force. The third century in the history of the Roman Empire was a time of the most severe social and political crisis, which manifested itself both in the uprisings of the oppressed masses, and in the continuous struggle of contenders for the imperial throne, the growth of provincial separatism, and the most severe external defeats.
The last period of well-known stabilization of the empire was the period of dominance, which began with the reign of Diocletian (284-305 AD), when the late slave-owning statehood was fully formed with the unlimited absolute power of the deified monarch and a rigid bureaucratic system, put at the service of a new layer of feudalizing nobility. In the reign of Constantine (306-337 AD), this social system is supplemented by a new ideology - Christianity; it is first recognized as an equal, and then the only permissible religion within the empire. Christianity is turning from an opposition force into a force that sanctifies the existing system.
At this time, the process of gradual disintegration of the empire begins. The provinces are becoming more and more isolated, in connection with which local features and local originality begin to manifest themselves more strongly in culture and art. At the same time, the provinces, especially the eastern and African ones, continue to maintain a certain level of prosperity, and extensive construction is still being carried out in them.
The period of stabilization of the empire could not be long. The decomposition of the slave-owning formation led to a sharp weakening of the state, which was destroyed in the west in the 5th century. n. e. barbarian campaigns. In the east, the feudalization of the social order turned the Eastern Roman slave empire into a feudal Byzantine empire.
The architecture of the era of the empire is characterized by monumentality and a large spatial scope of buildings and their complexes, corresponding to the increased importance of the state. The development of vaulted structures and the use of concrete as the main building material determined the grandiose scale of buildings in comparison with the buildings of the republic.
The period of the empire was a time of full development of the types of structures formed during the republic (camp, forum, basilica, thermae, theater, amphitheater, circus, bridge and aqueduct) and their widest distribution throughout the vast Roman world. This was facilitated by the complete correspondence of the design and architectural form of the main types of structures to their function, which was achieved by the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. AD The standardization of elements and decor and the perfectly developed techniques of construction equipment made it possible to erect buildings in the shortest possible time. Hence the extraordinary rapidity of the spread of Roman culture. Having hardly gained a foothold in the conquered country, the Romans immediately led excellent roads there and built in strong points all the structures characteristic of the Roman way of life: from the forum to the baths and the amphitheater. These buildings were active conductors of Roman culture, customs and ideology, especially in the western part of the empire, where there was no other cultural tradition. Roman architecture flexibly adapted to local features. In turn, certain features of the architecture of the provinces were perceived by Roman architecture. The process of interpenetration of cultures took place throughout the entire period of the empire. At first, local elements in the buildings of the provinces almost do not appear (therefore, it is difficult to draw a line between Roman architecture in Italy and in the provinces. Gradually, they intensify, exerting a significant influence on the architecture of the metropolis by the end of the era.
Greece has always had the strongest influence on Roman architecture. Hellenic culture was assimilated by Rome constantly, but to varying degrees: along with periods of deep assimilation and processing of types of Greek buildings, orders and decor, there were periods of superficial passion for Greek art and eclectic borrowing of its individual forms. The so-called Augustan classicism, which was established in the art of the beginning of the empire, was an officially imposed style, called upon in calm idealized forms of classics to glorify the existing regime, the firm power of the emperor, who ensured peace for the Roman society, tired of civil wars. The slogan "Roman peace", proclaimed by Augustus, determined the official ideology of the early empire. It contained the idea of order, a return to the simplicity of the early republic, to the traditional forms of religion and morality. The construction activity of Augustus was entirely subordinated to his propaganda policy, which was supposed to inspire the people with the idea of the emperor as the stronghold of the Roman statehood and the guardian of national foundations and shrines. He not only restored 82 temples, but also built a number of structures - the monumental altar of Peace on the Field of Mars, the triumphal arch of Augustus in the Roman Forum, the majestic Forum of Augustus and the grandiose mausoleum, the classical reliefs and inscriptions of which represent him as a peacemaker, the most powerful among the Roman state figures and the direct successor of the Julius family, leading the origin from Venus and Mars.
The treatise of the Roman military engineer and architect Vitruvius, who worked in the 2nd half of the 1st century B.C. BC. Vitruvius compiled a generalizing treatise "", which, after centuries of oblivion, was found by the Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini in the library of the Saint Gallen monastery. Published for the first time in the Renaissance, the treatise of Vitruvius has not ceased to be published and studied since then. In modern times, a whole scientific literature has been created on the treatise of Vitruvius, but various parts of the treatise have been studied unevenly. The ancient theory of the order was most fully developed back in the Renaissance in the treatises of Alberti and other theorists of the Renaissance. Less attention has been shown in the past to the theoretical provisions of Vitruvius's treatise, which he extracted from the writings of prominent ancient Greek architects, whose names Vitruvius himself gives in the preface to the seventh book of his treatise. Among them are Iktin - the architect of the Parthenon, and the builder of the Piraeus Arsenal Philo, and the famous builder of Ionic temples Hermogenes, and many other architects who left outstanding architectural structures, and books outlining the theoretical foundations of architecture and describing the structures they created. However, Vitruvius pays very little attention to the architectural achievements of his time. So, the vaults in his work appear only as the ceiling of the cellars and as suspended light vaults in the interior decoration. Vitruvius is silent about such outstanding buildings of his time as the temple of Hercules in Tibur, the theater of Marcellus, the Pantheon, the baths of Agrippa. This is due to the great importance that was attached to the study and use of the Greek architectural heritage in his time. Therefore, when describing various types of architectural structures, he primarily refers to the Greek experience, cites historical data and the names of Greek authors, which he almost does not do for works of Roman architecture.
The "Ten Books on Architecture" deals with the following main issues: the scope of knowledge necessary for an architect, the main categories of the ancient theory of architecture, the classification of the most important types of structures, as well as the main issues of urban planning and defensive structures (book I), building materials (book II), construction Ionic temples (Book III); Doric and Corinthian, as well as Etruscan and round temples (book IV); public buildings - squares (forums), basilicas, curia, theaters (and in connection with them - questions of acoustics), baths, palestras, construction of harbors (book V); private houses and villas (Book VI); finishing works - flooring, plastering and stucco work, murals, artificial marble, types of paints (book VII); drinking water and its properties, aqueducts (aqueducts, book VIII); applied astronomy, timekeeping, and the construction of sun and water clocks (book IX); fundamentals of mechanics, lifting mechanisms used in construction, water lifts, devices for measuring the distance traveled, military siege machines, etc. (Book X).
The order of presentation basically coincides with the division of architecture into architecture proper established in the first book - books I-VIII, gnomonics, i.e. sundial theory (book IX) and mechanics (book X). However, there is no strict sequence of presentation in Vitruvius' treatise, and upon in-depth study it turns out that it is composed of many, often heterogeneous fragments.
The wide coverage of all the problems of architecture in the treatise makes it, as it were, an encyclopedia of construction. The remarkable work of Vitruvius testifies to the broad realistic and scientific thinking of the architect and remains a valuable contribution to the theoretical heritage of world architecture.
The coldly formal and academic style of August classicism also dominated under his successors. But already in the 30s of the 1st century. AD as a reaction to the static balanced forms of classicism with their polished marble surface, a passion for heavy proportions and a contrasting juxtaposition of the rough raw texture of stone cladding and the smooth surfaces of pilasters and semi-columns is spreading in architecture. In the 2nd half of the century, under Flavius, the taste for dynamic architectural forms, for the alternation of protruding and receding planes, for the entablature, the introduction of a multifaceted high relief saturated with figures, and a strong play of chiaroscuro prevailed. In the future, this lively full-blooded style gradually acquired the features of dryness and coarsening. Hadrian's attempt to bring art out of stagnation by mechanically combining Roman forms with the architectural and decorative forms of Greece and the Hellenistic East only led to eclecticism.
The last centuries of the empire are characterized by the development of complex architectural complexes (terms, villas) and the further development of various vaulted and domed structures. At the same time, the architectural forms and too rich decor of buildings did not always correspond to the peculiarities of their construction, and the contradiction between the thoroughness of interior design and the inexpressive external volume of many buildings of the late empire was never overcome.
From the 2nd century AD the architecture of the provinces has an increasing influence on the nature of Roman architecture. Emperors - immigrants from the provinces - invested heavily in construction in their homeland, outside of Italy. Gradually, Italy ceased to be the center of the development of Roman architecture, and by the end of the empire, the volume of construction in the provinces was much greater than in Italy. The political disintegration of the Roman Empire into a number of economically and culturally diverse regions was accompanied by the strengthening of local traditions. In the future, this determined the peculiar ways of development of architecture in each area.
Over the nine centuries of its development, Roman architecture has reflected a number of gradually transforming features of the life of Roman society, which has undergone significant political, socio-economic and cultural evolution over time.
The monumental forms and majestic scale of the Roman structures scattered throughout the territory of the vast empire convincingly expressed the strength of the Roman state and the power of its weapons.
New types of public buildings created by Roman architecture, to the II century. AD so crystallized, their design and image so fully corresponded to the purpose that they predetermined the further development of this kind of buildings for a long time. The rationality of the typological solutions developed by Roman architecture was the reason for the rare stability of many architectural types. European theaters of modern times reproduced for a long time without significant changes the type of Roman indoor odeon; triumphal arches and columns, born of the victories of the Roman emperors, were successfully used in European and Russian architecture of the 18th-19th centuries, and modern stadiums are very close to their prototype - the Roman amphitheater.
The high engineering art of Roman architects and the achievements of Roman building technology determined the amazing durability of many of the structures they created. Until our time, not only the Pantheon, the greatest domed rotunda of the ancient world, not surpassed until modern times, has survived and continues to be used, but also a number of other religious and spectacular buildings of the Roman Empire, as well as some Roman bridges, roads and aqueducts.
Most of the most significant Roman structures were erected during the period of prosperity of the empire, when continuous wars of conquest gave a constant influx of slaves. The ability to send huge masses of slaves to the construction was the result of the rapid development of concrete technology. With a large expenditure of physical labor, this technique made it possible to erect gigantic vaulted structures in a short time. This was facilitated by exceptional clarity and rationality in the organization and production of construction work. Roman buildings made of concrete had not only the necessary, but often excessive margin of safety. The partial or complete destruction of many Roman buildings was caused not so much by the action of the all-destroying time and the seismic conditions of Italy, but by the barbaric efforts of people (the Colosseum, Hadrian's Villa and many other structures were used as quarries for the extraction of finished building material for a number of centuries).
Roman architecture brought purely engineering structures to the level of architectural works that played an important role in the ensemble of the city (bridges and aqueducts of Rome and other cities of the empire).
Roman architecture solved the problem of creating a large interior space with a central part covered with cross vaults, the expansion of which was perceived by a system of main and secondary cells. Prepared by the constructive solutions of the central part of the series of baths and Trajan's stock exchange, this problem was solved in the Basilica of Maxentius. The design of this basilica formed the basis of religious buildings of the early Christian, Byzantine and subsequent architectural eras. The development of the central-domed system, carried out in the buildings of thermae, nymphaeums, temples, mausoleums and tombs, was also of paramount importance for the further development of architecture.
The combination of an order with an arch and a vault, introduced by Roman architects, expanded the scope of the order and created new possibilities for architectural composition. In the best works of Roman architecture, with classical clarity and simplicity, the correspondence of the function of the building to its design and architectural image, monumentality and genuine grandeur, were expressed.
The role of the Roman heritage in world architecture is extremely great. For centuries, the monuments of Roman architecture, which are the living embodiment of the ancient tradition, influenced the architects of various historical eras. The measure of their influence was not the same in different periods, but on the soil of Italy, the ancient tradition remained uninterrupted. For the first time, a deep study of antiquity began in the Renaissance. Architects of the 15th - 1st third of the 16th century. they carefully measured, sketched and analyzed Roman monuments, trying to reveal the laws of beauty underlying them and to comprehend the principles of architectural composition and the techniques of lost mastery (primarily the methods of erecting buildings covered with a large diameter dome). The centric structures of the Romans (tombs, nymphaeums, rotunda temples), which served as the starting point for building “ideal” buildings in terms of their symmetry and balance, were subjected to especially close study. These closed harmonic architectural volumes not only most fully expressed the aesthetic aspirations of Renaissance architects, but, as studies have shown, at the same time they had maximum anti-seismicity.
The Roman order, as the main element of the architectural language, was in the center of attention of the masters of the Renaissance. A thorough study and rethinking of the ancient order system was the necessary basis that made it possible to create new order forms and develop other principles for their application that met the requirements of an era very different from antiquity.
The principles of axial composition, the terraced arrangement of buildings and ensembles, and the interaction of architecture and nature, developed by Roman architecture, as well as the peculiar architectural forms of a number of Roman tombs, were assimilated and brilliantly implemented in a new way by Baroque architecture.
The role of Roman architectural theory as a heritage is very great in world architecture. From the 15th century the treatise of Vitruvius was carefully studied and commented on. Many Italian architects of the XV-XVI centuries. gave their own interpretations of a number of essential provisions of the treatise, which had a significant impact on the formation of the architectural principles and aesthetic ideals of the Renaissance. Over time, as the heritage became more and more profound, the architecture of ancient Rome in the minds of theorists and practitioners of the Renaissance rose to the level of a perfect and eternal standard of beauty. This conviction, eloquently stated by Palladio, subsequently formed the basis of the theoretical concepts and creative practice of classicism, which has come a long and difficult path and has become a necessary stage in the architecture of most European countries.
The history of European architecture testifies to the versatility and inexhaustibility of the heritage of ancient architecture. The architecture of seemingly very distant stylistic trends and historical periods (from the Renaissance and the Baroque to the epigones of classicism of the 20th century) in its searches invariably turned to the same common primary source (or to its refractions by subsequent eras), from which it drew close principles and compositional techniques necessary for him as starting points for his own creativity.
B.P. Mikhailov, M.B. Mikhailova
At the end of the 1st century BC e. The Roman state from an aristocratic republic turned into the Roman Empire. The first ruler who opened the way to autocracy was Caesar's great-nephew Octavian, nicknamed Augustus (Blessed). Caesar adopted him shortly before his death. When Octavian was proclaimed emperor (27 BC), this meant that he was given the highest military authority. Officially, he was still considered one of the senators, although the "first among equals" - the princeps. The reign of Octavian is called the Principate of Augustus. Since then, Roman art began to focus on the ideals that the rulers implanted. Until the end of the 1st century n. e. two dynasties reign: Julio-Claudian and Flavian.
The so-called "Roman peace" - a time of calm in the class struggle that came at the beginning of the reign of Augustus - stimulated the high flowering of art, the growth of construction. Ancient historians characterize the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) as the "golden age" of the Roman state
The "August classicism" became the official trend in art, which had a huge impact on the subsequent development of Western European art. Roman artists were guided by the great masters of Greece 400 BC, but the naturalness of the Greek classics was replaced by rationality, restraint.
Rome acquired a completely new look, corresponding to the prestige of the world capital. The number of public buildings increased, forums, bridges, aqueducts were built, architectural decoration was enriched.
The city struck contemporaries with the immensity of the square - it did not have clear boundaries on any side. Its suburbs were lost in luxurious villas. Magnificent buildings, porticos, vaulted and pedimented roofs, ornate pools and fountains alternated with the greenery of groves and alleys.
Already with the first successors of Augustus, the imaginary ideality of the golden age begins to disappear. A new milestone in art was the reign of Nero, one of the most insane despots on the Roman throne.
The provinces flourished. The Roman Empire became the slave-owning empire of the Mediterranean. Rome itself acquired the appearance of a world power. End of I and beginning 2nd century n. e. (the reign of the Flavians and Trajan) - the time of the creation of grandiose architectural complexes, structures of large spatial scope.
It is not surprising that it was under Hadrian (about 125) that one of the most spiritual monuments of world architecture was created. True, Adrian believed that he only altered the structure that Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, began to build. The Pantheon - "the temple of all the gods" - still stands in the center of Rome. This is the only monument that was not rebuilt or destroyed in the Middle Ages. It contains something close not only to the Romans, people of the ancient era, but to humanity in general.
Urban heritage of Rome
The breadth of urban planning, which developed not only in Italy, but also in the provinces, distinguishes Roman architecture. Having adopted rationally organized, strict planning from the Etruscans and Greeks, the Romans improved it and embodied it in larger cities.
These layouts corresponded to the conditions of life: trade on a huge scale, the spirit of the military and severe discipline, the attraction to entertainment and splendor. In Roman cities, to a certain extent, the needs of the free population, sanitary needs were taken into account; front streets with colonnades, arches, and monuments were erected here.
Ancient Rome gave mankind a real cultural environment: beautifully planned, livable cities with paved roads, bridges, library buildings, archives, nymphaeums (sanctuaries, sacred to nymphs), palaces, villas and just good houses with good-quality beautiful furniture - everything that characteristic of a civilized society.
The Romans for the first time began to build "model" cities, the prototype of which were the Roman military camps. Two perpendicular streets were laid - cardo (street oriented from north to south) and decumanus (street oriented from east to west), at the crossroads of which the city center was erected. The urban planning was subject to a strictly thought-out scheme.
The practical warehouse of Roman culture was reflected in everything - in the sobriety of thinking, the normative idea of an expedient world order, in the scrupulousness of Roman law, which took into account all life situations, in the attraction to accurate historical facts, in the high flowering of literary prose, in the primitive concreteness of religion.
Architecture played a leading role in Roman art during its heyday, the monuments of which even now, even in ruins, conquer with their power. The Romans marked the beginning of a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings, which embodied the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people.
Throughout the ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in terms of the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses) as architectural objects into the urban, rural ensemble and landscape.
The development of Roman architecture was closely connected with the course of Roman history, the complication of social relations, and the growth of the city; it took place under Greek and Etruscan influence. The early city was built without a plan, randomly, had narrow and crooked streets, primitive dwellings made of wood and mud brick.
Only temples were large public buildings, for example, the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, built in the 6th century BC. to i. e., a small temple of Vesta in the forum. Inside the city, wastelands and undeveloped plots were preserved, the houses of the nobility were surrounded by gardens. The sewers were at first open, but then they were covered with a wooden deck, and later with a stone vault.
The fire of Rome after the capture of it by the Gauls destroyed most of the city's buildings. After the fire, Rome was built up again spontaneously, retaining the main lines of the former streets and squares. The expanded city was surrounded by new, so-called Servian walls, representing a remarkable structure. They consisted of the main outer wall and a powerful earthen rampart resting on it, which was supported by another, less high wall from the side of the city. The outer shell was built from massive square blocks.
The growth of the population of Rome led to the development of wastelands, to the compaction of outbuildings. Some of the streets were paved with cobblestones. The old cesspool system (sewerage) was reconstructed. The growing population demanded good water, for which two water pipes were built, dug underground, several tens of kilometers long.
A new stage of urban construction began in the 1st century. BC: not only wastelands, but also landfills are built up, city land rises in price. Instead of primitive dwellings made of mud and wood, they appeared in the 1st century. n. e. high-rise, houses, villas of the nobility, built of baked bricks and concrete, and even marble. Several new aqueducts supply good drinking water for many kilometers.
The center of the city - the Roman forum - is being improved, it is expanding, new public buildings and temples are being built around it, its porticoes are being paved with tiles. New types of public buildings appear. Very dense building of the urban area, overcrowding and tightness could not but cause the need for special green areas - parks located on the outskirts of the city. The city was divided into quarters, the quarters were grouped into districts.
As a result of the Roman conquests, various kinds of wealth flowed into Rome and the Italian cities. This caused the rise of Roman architecture. The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of \u200b\u200bstrength, power and greatness that suppresses a person. Hence the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their structures was born.
Another feature Roman architecture is the desire for lush decoration of buildings, rich decorative decoration, a lot of decorations, a greater (than the Greeks) interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation of predominantly not temple complexes, but buildings and structures for practical needs (bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, terms). Roman architects developed new design principles, in particular, arches, vaults and domes were widely used, along with columns, pillars and pilasters (semi-columns) were used.
Unlike the Greek architects, who drew up the plan of buildings without following the strict symmetry of its different parts, the Romans proceeded from strict symmetry. They widely used Greek orders - Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, and the magnificent Corinthian order was their favorite.
Unlike Greek classical architecture, in which the orders were an organic combination of decorative decoration with the structure of the building, the Romans used Greek orders only as a decorative, decorative element.
However, the Romans developed the order system and created their own orders, different from the Greek ones. Such orders were composite, i.e., representing the combination of elements of all Greek orders in one, an order and the so-called order arcade, i.e., a set of arches resting on pillars or columns.
In ancient Rome, other interesting architectural structures for public non-residential purposes were also erected. First of all, of course, these are temple complexes, basilicas, amphitheaters, circuses, theaters, baths, triumphal arches and columns.
Temple complexes. If we talk about Roman temple architecture, then temples were often erected in the cities of the Roman state, either in the form of built-in temple complexes in the forums, or as separate buildings. Initially, the Romans borrowed a typical temple from the Etruscans and introduced the Tuscan order with an entablature consisting of a single architrave into its composition, later they began to use the Ionic, Corinthian orders, and during the period of the empire, the composite order. In addition, the Romans borrowed strongly protruding roofs from the Etruscans. If we compare the general silhouette of the Roman and Greek temples, then the Roman temples are more dynamic and slender than the Greek temple buildings. In addition, the Roman temple differs from the Greek one in steeper roof slopes. In terms of plan, Roman temples differ little from Greek ones, they mainly had an elongated rectangular plan and were designed as a peripter or prostyle, but sometimes there were also round temples - monoptera. In Rome, this type includes the temple of the goddess Vesta in the Forum, the round temple of the two-faced Janus in the Forum, and the temple of Venerum Barbarum (bearded Venus) in the same place in the Forum. Unlike Greek temples, placed on a high stylobate, Roman temples stand on a podium with ordinary-sized stairs located only from the side of the main entrance, on the western side. It was also adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans. A striking example of such a temple is the famous temple in the city of Nimes, built in 27-24 years. BC, already during the reign of Octavian Augustus (Fig. IV.9).
basilicas. A basilica is a huge building that served as a place for public meetings (trade conventions, political meetings, court hearings). In plan, it is an elongated rectangle, divided into longitudinal halls - naves - by rows of columns. Moreover, the middle nave is higher than the rest and is filled with a semicircular niche-apse. Depending on the size of the basilica, it can be three- or five-aisled. The entire building was covered with a wooden roof. The most interesting Roman basilica was the Basilica of Maxentius in the Roman Forum, in which the space of the main nave was covered with cross vaults. Of the most interesting Roman basilicas from the period of the empire, one can note the palace of Empress Helena and Emperor Constantine the Great rebuilt from a basilica in the city of Trier (now in this basilica since 350 AD there is the Catholic Cathedral of the Assumption of Our Lady). There is also an earlier basilica from the era of Emperor Constantine in Trier (Fig. IV.10). In addition, one can give an example of perfectly preserved basilicas in the city of Maastricht (Holland), where in a Roman basilica of the 4th century. AD the cathedral city cathedral of St. Servasius, Bishop of Maastricht, as well as the Roman basilica on the Lateran Hill in Rome, was consecrated, which, after 313, was rebuilt into the first palace of the popes and into the cathedral church of the Lateran, consecrated in honor of St. John the Baptist (Fig. IV .eleven).
amphitheaters served for mass spectacles. Usually in the center of the amphitheater there was an oval-type arena for gladiatorial battles. There were exits from the arena from two sides, from both ends of the arena.
Usually, the ground floor was located under the arena, and service rooms were located in its galleries. Some amphitheatres could be filled with water with the help of aqueducts, and then gladiatorial battles on rafts or battles on mini-galleys were arranged. Around the arena there were rows of spectators. In fact, the layout and architecture of Roman amphitheatres resembles modern circuses. The most grandiose amphitheater of the Roman era is the oval Flavian amphitheater (Colosseum), built during the reign of the Flavian dynasty in the 2nd century BC. AD Also of interest are the famous Verona amphitheater in the city of Verona and the amphitheater of the city of Palmyra (Waalbek in modern Lebanon), which was built during the reign of the proconsul of the province of Syria Mark Lucius Septimius Odaenathus in Palmyra in 268-270. AD The last two amphitheaters continue to be used today for theater and opera festivals (Fig. IV. 12).
Circuses in the Roman state are special facilities for equestrian competitions, similar to Greek and later Byzantine hippodromes. The remains of a large Roman circus have survived to this day in Rome, which could accommodate up to 250,000 spectators. Circuses were built longitudinal and horseshoe-shaped in plan (Fig. 4.20).
Rice. 4.20.
Roman theater unlike the Greek one, it was located not on a natural slope, but on special vaults. This allowed the Romans not to depend on the conditions of the relief in the construction of theaters. Usually the Roman theater was erected as a building towering above the ground, having several floors. The layout of the Roman theater was different from that of the Greek one. So, the choirs of the Roman theater were moved to the podium, and the vacated area was used to accommodate spectators. The theatrical action took place not in the orchestra, as in the Greek theater, but on the skene. On the Field of Mars in Rome, a well-preserved Roman theater of the 1st century BC has come down to us. BC. - Theater of Marcellus (Fig. 4.21). It is interesting in that all three tiers of arcades have been preserved in this theater, each of which is decorated with three order styles: the lower arcades are Doric, the upper ones are Ionic, and the arcades of the third tier are composite.
Rice. 4.21. :
but – reconstruction; b – modern look
And finally, among the most interesting public buildings in Rome are the terms and triumphal memorial arches and columns.
Thermae- Roman baths, the most complex structures of Ancient Rome in terms of design and technology. They played the role of a place of social gatherings. The thermal complex included lounges, gyms, libraries. The baths consisted of three main complexes. Frigidariums - halls where there were pools of cold water, caldariums - halls where there were pools of hot water, and terpidariums - halls where pools of warm water were placed. Libraries and sports complexes were located around these halls. Thermae were heated with calorific heating. They had a symmetrical planning structure, which was designed for two parallel human flows (male and female). I must say that the giant baths were built by the state for people of small and medium incomes and were free. Therefore, one could see there a senator, and a freedman, and a slave, and a free artisan. But still, the bulk of the wealthy Roman patricians preferred their own home baths to the terms. The baths were open 24 hours a day. The baths of the emperor Caracalla (Fig. 4.22) and the baths of the emperor Diocletian have survived to this day in Rome. In the small Austrian town of Magdalenenberg, architectural fragments of a former Roman military settlement have been preserved, where you can also see both public baths and a home bath in the house of the head of the local military garrison.
Rice. 4.22.
triumphal arches And columns usually erected in Rome in memory of the victories of Roman weapons. The height of the arches usually reached 30–40 m, for example, Trajan's column was exactly 30 m high. The most grandiose structures were erected in Rome in the early period of the empire. In the period of the late empire, the decorative element was strongly felt in the columns and arches, for example, in the 21.5 m high arch of Constantine near the Colosseum, built in 315 AD. in memory of the victory over Maxentius (Fig. IV.13).
The pinnacle of the construction activities of the Romans are engineering structures. They built sewers, sewer systems, underground water pipes, aqueducts, warehouses, and public latrines in cities. In Rome, buildings such as the warehouses of the Aemilia, which stretch for 500 meters along the banks of the Tiber, have survived to this day. The territory of the empire was covered with a network of roads. Usually the Roman road was built in this way: from below there was a powerful pillow of sand and gravel, on which stone slabs of enormous thickness were laid on mortar (Fig. IV.14). The bridges were covered with flat stone slabs. Many bridges have survived to our time, for example, Ponte Fabrizio (whose arched span is 24.5 m), built in 62 BC. in Rome across the Tiber River, Trajan's bridge over the Danube, built by the engineer Appolodorus. The length of the bridge exceeds 1 km, and it rises on 20 stone pylons 44 m high. BC. the total length of water pipelines in the state was about 430 km.
In the era of the late empire, fortifications began to be erected in the state. Roman cities were based on the layout of the Roman military camp - castrum, where two "streets", cardo and decumanos, intersected at right angles. Early medieval Romanesque fortresses and castles were created under the strong influence of the fortress architecture of the late Roman period.
The architecture of Ancient Rome is based on two great civilizations - Greek and Etruscan. The Etruscans had excellent technologies for the construction of temples, houses, tombs. It was they who introduced the arch and vault. But, unlike the Greek ones, the Etruscan temples were built from short-lived materials, so little has survived to this day.
Etruscan arch in Perugia, Italy
However, there are objects by studying which you can get a lot of information about this culture. It is known that the supporting structure of the buildings was made of wood, bricks and terracotta coverings were used.
The Etruscan arch in Perugia is an intact example of a city gate.
Architecture of Ancient Rome: periods
Real Roman architecture, with original features that recycle Etruscan and Greek influences, is defined from the 2nd century BC.
Architecture of the Roman Monarchy
It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. At the beginning of its history, Rome was a monarchy. According to tradition, after the reign of Romulus, King Numa Pompilius ascended the throne, who improved the organization of the city. He was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius, an experienced Latin warrior who conquered the nearby cities. The fourth king was Anko Marzio, who built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber.
The Etruscan rulers followed - Tarquinius Priscus ordered the market square, Foro, to be covered with stone, built numerous temples and ordered to dig the sewers of Cloaca Maximus to dump dirty water. Servius Tullius built a wall around the city.
The monarchy ended with the reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, who was expelled from the city in 509 BC, and Rome became a republic.
Architecture of the Roman Republic
During the Republic, which lasted almost five centuries, Rome was always at war. After the conquest of the Etruscans and other peoples living in the territory of today's Italy, the Roman Republic conquered the territories of Greece and other countries of the Mediterranean Sea. Construction was underway. To move the army, good roads were needed, a lot of them were built. road (lat. strata) was formed from several layers (ital. strato) and its surface was covered with stone slabs.
The architecture of the period of the Roman Republic pays great attention practical and functional aspects buildings.
Architecture of the Roman Empire
After the Roman Republic was replaced by the Roman Empire in 31 BC, there was a long period of prosperity for art and architecture. Under Emperor Augustus, then under Troyan and Hadrian, the architecture of the Roman Empire reached its magnificence and played an important role in propagating power.
Extensive evidence has been preserved relating to architecture, where the Romans demonstrate excellent skills in construction techniques, sculpture (portraits, reliefs that complement architecture), painting (frescoes, mosaics).
Christian era architecture
The period of barbarian invasions marks the decline of Roman architecture. A new era is coming - the Christian one.
Main characteristics of Roman architecture
Centinate. Wooden structure to support the vaults - In Roman architecture, of course, there is a great continuity with Greek art- symmetry, regularity of forms, the use of architectural orders (Doric, Tuscan, Ionic and Corinthian). In fact, instead of the Doric order, the Romans used the Tuscan order ( tuscanico/toscano), which is very similar to it, the only difference was that the column was smooth, without grooves ( flute).
- From the Etruscans the Romans adopted arches and vaults, becoming the chief specialists in their use. During the construction of the arch and vaults, a temporary wooden structure was used for support - centinature ( centinatura). From a large number of arches standing one behind the other, the Romans formed a cylindrical vault ( volta a botte), and the intersection of two barrel vaults formed a groin vault ( volta a crociera). The first builders of real domes were also the Romans. One of the most beautiful domed vaults is the Pantheon.
Dome vaults in the architecture of ancient Rome Materials and technologies
The Romans used bricks to build walls, arches, columns, floors. Marble, as an expensive material, was used much less frequently. A variety of brick shapes - elongated, square, triangular, pyramidal - helped to create strong structures and grips.
The production of bricks was also expensive, and a lot of labor was required for masonry.
That is why they were often replaced with blocks of tufa and travertine, or other materials. To speed up the construction of walls, the Romans began to use artificial conglomerate or Roman concrete ( calcestruzzo).
Concrete was poured into wooden formwork, compacted with a rammer and, after it hardened, the formwork was removed. This method of building walls was called opus caementicium.
When the same technology was used to fill the cavities of two load-bearing walls made of brick or stone, it was called muratura a sacco. Thus, the Romans got thick, strong walls, saving time and resources. The technique was not reflected in the aesthetics, because. the concrete part was inside.
Architecture of Ancient Rome: building walls External masonry walls can be characterized by the main building traditions −
- opus quadratum,
- opus reticulatum,
- opus incertum,
- opus latericium.
Opus quadratum
When working with such material as soft tuff, large stones in the form of a parallelepiped were cut and arranged in rows of the same height. (opus quadratum); if hard limestone such as traventino was used, each element took on its own polygonal shape (opus poligonalis).
Opus reticulatum
With this technique, cement was poured between walls formed by small pyramidal stone blocks, the bases of which formed a regular diamond-shaped grid.
Ancient Roman stonework: opus quadratum and opus reticulatum Opus incertum
IN opus incertum the stones are irregularly shaped and their arrangement seems almost random.
Opus latericium
Fired bricks of a rectangular shape (about 45 cm x 30 cm) were superimposed in an alternating order. Since the era of August, its use has become more frequent. Due to the fact that the thickness of the bricks and their color changed over time, it is easy to establish the chronological order of architectural structures.
Opus mixtum
Although brick was usually used uniformly (opus testaceum), there are examples of its use with other stones and rows of other masonry, creating an opus mixtum.
Stonework of Ancient Rome: opus latericium, opus inchertum, opus mixtum Architecture and urban planning (urban planning)
Here are two different examples -
- the city of Rome itself, which is unique in its development,
- and building new cities.
The layout of most ancient Roman cities was rectangular, based on the principle of temporary camps of legionnaires - castrum.
City planning of ancient Rome Namely, the settlements were broken up and built up along two main streets - cardo (oriented from north to south) and Decumanus (from east to west). The intersection of these streets was assigned to the main square of the city - Foro.
Reconstruction of the layout of the city of Rimini Roads, water pipes, sewerage, bridges were built in cities. Various buildings were built:
- houses for living (Domus, Insulae and Villas);
- for recreation (theaters, amphitheaters, circuses and baths);
- designed to worship the gods (temples);
- for political and administrative activities (Curia and Basilica)
- and festive monuments (triumphal arches and columns).
Brief video review-reconstruction of the architecture of Ancient Rome:
The architecture of Ancient Rome, as an original art, was formed by the time of the 4th-1st centuries. BC e. The architectural monuments of Ancient Rome now, even in ruins, conquer with their majesty. The Romans initiated a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings designed for huge numbers of people: basilicas, baths (public baths), theaters, amphitheaters, circuses, libraries, markets. The list of building structures of Rome should also include religious ones: temples, altars, tombs.
Throughout the ancient world, the architecture of Rome has no equal in terms of the height of engineering art, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction. The Romans introduced engineering structures (aqueducts, bridges, roads, harbors, fortresses, canals) as architectural objects into the urban, rural ensemble and landscape, applied new building materials and structures. They reworked the principles of Greek architecture, and above all the order system: they combined the order with an arched structure.
Equally important in the development of Roman culture was the art of Hellenism, with its architecture gravitating towards grandiose scales and urban centers. But the humanistic beginning, the noble grandeur and harmony that form the basis of Greek art, in Rome gave way to tendencies to exalt the power of the emperors, the military power of the empire. Hence large-scale exaggerations, external effects, false pathos of huge structures.
The variety of buildings and the scale of construction in ancient Rome vary significantly compared to Greece: a colossal number of huge buildings are being erected. All this required a change in the technical foundations of construction. Performing the most complex tasks with the help of old technology has become impossible: in Rome, fundamentally new structures are being developed and widely used - brick-concrete, which allow solving the problems of covering large spans, speeding up construction many times over, and - which is especially important - limiting the use of qualified craftsmen by moving construction processes on the shoulders of low-skilled and unskilled slave workers.
Approximately in the IV century. BC e. mortar is used as a binder (first in rubble masonry), and by the II century. to p. e. a new technology for the construction of monolithic walls and vaults based on mortars and fine aggregate stone has developed. An artificial monolith was obtained by mixing mortar and sand with crushed stone called "Roman concrete". Hydraulic additions of volcanic sand - pozzolana (after the name of the area where it was taken from) made it waterproof and very durable. This caused a revolution in construction. Such laying was carried out quickly and allowed experimenting with the form. The Romans knew all the advantages of baked clay, made bricks of various shapes, used metal instead of wood to ensure the fire safety of buildings, rationally used stone when laying the foundation. Some of the secrets of Roman builders have not yet been unraveled, for example, the "Roman malt" solution is a mystery to chemists even now.
The squares of Rome and other cities were decorated with triumphal arches in honor of military victories, statues of emperors and prominent public people of the state. Triumphal arches are a permanent or temporary monumental framing of the passage (usually arched), a solemn structure in honor of military victories and other significant events. The construction of triumphal arches and columns was primarily of political importance. The 30-meter column of Trajan was decorated with a spiral frieze 200 meters long depicting the military exploits of Trajan, crowned with a statue of the emperor, at the base of which an urn with his ashes was immured.
The most significant domed structure of the ancient world is the Pantheon (from the Greek Pentheion - a place dedicated to all the gods). This is a temple in the name of all the gods, personifying the idea of unity of the numerous peoples of the empire. The main part of the Pantheon is a Greek round temple, completed by a dome with a diameter of 43.4 m, through the holes of which light penetrates into the interior of the temple, striking in its grandeur and simplicity of decoration.
The basilica served as an administrative building in which the Romans spent most of the day. The second part of the day was connected with rest and took place in the baths. Baths were a complex combination of buildings and facilities associated with recreation, sports and hygiene. They contained rooms for gymnastics and athletics, lounges for relaxation, conversations, performances, libraries, medical offices, baths, swimming pools, commercial premises, gardens and even a stadium. Baths accommodated about a thousand or more people.
The terms were associated with the consumption of a large amount of water, so a special branch of the water supply was connected to them - aqueducts (bridge-water supply). Heating was carried out by boiler installations in the cellars. Aqueducts brought water to Rome at a distance of several tens of kilometers. Thrown across the river beds, they presented an amazing picture of a continuous openwork arcade - single-tier, two- or even sometimes three-tier. Built of stone, with clear proportions and silhouette, these structures are wonderful examples of the unity of architectural forms and structures.
Among the public buildings of Ancient Rome, a large group is made up of spectacular buildings. Of these, the most famous to this day is the Colosseum - an amphitheater, a giant oval building in the form of a bowl. In the center there was an arena, and under the stands there were rooms for speakers. The Colosseum was built in the 70s - 90s. n. e. and accommodated 56 thousand spectators.
A large group of buildings consisted of residential buildings of various types, including palaces and country villas. One-story mansions (domuses) are especially characteristic of Rome. Apartment buildings were also built - insuls. The interiors of both public and residential buildings were decorated with sculpture, murals, and mosaics. The murals visually expanded the space of the premises, being a wonderful and varied decor. The floors were decorated with mosaics. An important difference between Roman decor is the great complexity and richness of forms and materials. Using various ornamental motifs, they created the most bizarre combinations, changing the construction systems, weaving additional and diverse details into the compositions.
Sculpture of Ancient Rome
In the field of monumental sculpture, the ancient Romans were far behind the Greeks and did not create monuments as significant as the Greek ones. But they enriched the plastic with the disclosure of new aspects of life, developed a new everyday and historical relief, which constituted the most important part of the architectural decor.
The best heritage of Roman sculpture was the portrait. As an independent type of creativity, it has developed since the beginning of the 1st century. BC e. The Romans understood this genre in a new way: unlike the Greek sculptors, they closely and vigilantly studied the face of a particular person with his unique features. In the portrait genre, the original realism of Roman sculptors, observation and the ability to generalize observations in a certain artistic form were most clearly manifested. Roman portraits historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their customs and ideals.
The Romans were the first to use monumental sculpture for propaganda purposes: they installed equestrian and foot statues in the forums (squares) - monuments to outstanding personalities. In honor of memorable events, triumphal structures were erected - arches and columns.