Abstract on ecology
Ecology is a complex of sciences with a complex classification structure.
At present, several sections of the "big" ecology can be distinguished. These are general ecology, bioecology, geoecology, human ecology and social ecology, applied ecology. Each section has its own subsections and links with other parts of ecology and related sciences.
General ecology is dedicated to combining diverse environmental knowledge on a single scientific foundation. Its core is theoretical ecology, which establishes the general patterns of functioning of ecological systems. Many natural ecological processes occur very slowly and are caused by many factors. To study their mechanisms, field observations alone are not enough; an experiment is needed. experimental ecology provides important factual material and provides various branches of science with methodological tools. But the possibilities of experiment in ecology are limited. Therefore, modeling, in particular mathematical modeling, is widely used. Together with the processing of information and a quantitative analysis of the actual material, it is included in the section of theoretical ecology, which is called mathematical ecology.
Bioecology - "classical" ecology, formed within the framework of biology. It is a rather integral area of natural science and is devoted to interactions with the environment of supraorganismal biological systems of all levels. It highlights:
- autoecology - ecology of individual individuals as representatives of a certain type of organisms;
- population ecology- ecology of genetically homogeneous groups of organisms of the same species that have a common habitat;
- synecology- ecology of multispecies communities, biocenoses;
- biogeocenology- the doctrine of ecological systems .
Geoecology studies the relationship between organisms and the environment in terms of their geographical affiliation and the influence of geographical factors. It includes: the ecology of the inhabitants of different environments (terrestrial, soil, freshwater, marine, transformed by man); natural and climatic zones (tundra, taiga, steppes, deserts, mountains, tropical forests); landscapes (river valleys, seashores, swamps, islands, coral reefs, etc.). Geoecology also includes an ecological description of various geographical areas, regions, countries, continents.
At the intersection of bioecology and geochemistry of the Earth, based on the study of the role of living organisms in the planetary transformation of solar energy and in the cycle of chemical elements, arose the doctrine of the biosphere - the global ecological system. The modern doctrine of global processes has significantly expanded the horizons of ecology and strengthened its problematic orientation.
human ecology – a complex of disciplines that study the interaction of a person as an individual (biological individual) and personality (social subject) with the natural and social environment surrounding him. Human ecology differs from animal ecology in the diversity of living conditions and activities, the wealth of technological means of adaptation to the environment, the presence of civilization, culture, and the possibility of inheriting acquired knowledge and skills. An important feature of human ecology is the sociobiological approach - the right combination of biological and social aspects.
social ecology as part of human ecology, it is an association of scientific branches that study the relationship of social structures (starting with the family and other small social groups) with the natural and social environment of their environment. This association includes environmental demographics and ecology of human populations. At the same time, both the influence of the environment on society and the impact of society on the environment are considered.
Applied Ecology - a large complex of disciplines related to various areas of human activity and the relationship between human society and nature. All major aspects of environmental science are implemented in applied ecology. It forms the ecological criteria of the economy, investigates the mechanisms of anthropogenic impacts on nature and the human environment, monitors the quality of this environment, substantiates the standards for the sustainable use of natural resources, carries out environmental regulation of economic activity, controls the environmental compliance of various plans and projects, develops technical means of environmental protection. and restoration of natural systems disturbed by man. The concept of ecological here most often means compliance with the requirements for the normal environment of human existence and natural systems.
The following sections of applied ecology are distinguished:
Engineering ecology – study and development of engineering standards and means that meet the environmental requirements of production. This is the study of the interaction between technology and nature, the patterns of formation of regional and local natural and technical systems and ways to manage them in order to protect the natural environment and ensure environmental safety. Engineering ecology is designed to ensure that the equipment and technology of industrial facilities comply with environmental requirements. Engineering ecology also has to deal with the influence of environmental factors and various living organisms on engineering objects.
agricultural ecology in its significant part merges with the biological foundations of agriculture (agroecology) and animal husbandry (ecology of farm animals). The ecosystem approach enriches agrobiology with the principles and means of rational exploitation of land resources, increasing productivity and obtaining environmentally friendly products.
Bioresource and commercial ecology studies the conditions under which the exploitation of biological resources of natural ecosystems (forests, continental water bodies, seas, oceans) does not lead to their depletion and disturbance, loss of species, and reduction of biological diversity.
Ecology of settlements, communal ecology - sections of applied ecology devoted to the features and influences of various factors of the artificially transformed human environment in dwellings, settlements, cities ( urbanecology).
Medical ecology - the field of study of environmental conditions for the emergence, spread and development of human diseases, including chronic diseases caused by natural factors and adverse man-made environmental impacts.
This list shows that many sciences and areas of practical activity have undergone greening. New disciplines are emerging in their frontier zones. All this does not at all indicate the "erosion" of the subject of ecology. On the contrary, in the border areas there is a mutual enrichment of sciences. And the scope of greening only indicates that ecology occupies an increasingly leading position in modern science and contributes to the synthesis of fundamental knowledge about nature and society.
Ecology is a science that studies the basic natural patterns, the interactions of living and non-living organisms. People are increasingly forgetting that they need to take care of their home, they are creating weapons that can destroy all life on earth. At the same time, solving environmental problems is important for the survival of not only animals, but also humans.
What is ecology and what does it study
Ecological doctrine is a separate science that studies the laws of nature. The doctrine originated in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel. Since ancient times, people have been interested in natural patterns, they wanted to study and deify them. The term ecology is translated from Greek as the doctrine of the house..
Ecology studies absolutely all human impacts on the living environment; it touches on many topical issues of interest to mankind.
Technological progress is constantly developing, people paid little attention to the environment, in connection with which the air was polluted, many species of animals and plants are dying out. Now millions of activists are trying to solve environmental problems, gradually improving the current state of affairs.
Types of ecology
Ecology, as well as other teachings, tells about many sections of the life of the planet. It will not be possible to fit all the main factors influencing the environment in one direction. It will turn out to either get completely confused, or completely go astray in order to solve the problems that have arisen.
It is worth remembering that ecology originated no more than 200 years ago, but it has received a high degree of significance along with physical, mathematical and chemical teachings. Many scientific fields are not just affected by ecology - it takes them as its foundations.
Introduction
The term "ecology" (from the Greek word oikos - dwelling, habitat and logos - science) was proposed by E. Haeckel in 1986 to refer to the biological science that studies the relationship of animals with organic and inorganic environments. Since that time, the idea of the content of ecology has undergone a number of clarifications, concretizations, at the present stage of development of ecological ideas, ecology is a science that studies the patterns of life of organisms (in any of its manifestations, at all levels of integration) in their natural habitat, taking into account the changes introduced in the environment of human activity. From this formulation, we can conclude that all studies that study the life of animals and plants in natural conditions, discover the laws by which organisms are combined into biological systems, and establish the role of individual species in the life of the biosphere, are ecological. Ecologists have come to a fundamentally important generalization, showing that environmental conditions are mastered by organisms at the popular biocenotic level, and not by individual individuals of a species. This led to the intensive development of the doctrine of biological macrosystems (populations, biocenoses, biogeocenoses), which had a huge impact on the development of biology in general and all its sections in particular.
So, the main content of modern ecology is the study of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment at the population-biocenotic level and the study of the life of biological macrosystems of a higher rank: biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and the biosphere, their productivity and energy. Hence, the subject of ecology research is the biological macrosystems of the population, biocenoses, ecosystems) and their dynamics in time and space. From the content and subject of research in ecology, its main tasks follow, which can be reduced to the study of population dynamics, to the study of biogeocenoses and their systems. The main theoretical and practical task of ecology is to reveal the laws of these processes and learn how to manage them in the conditions of the inevitable industrialization and urbanization of our planet.
What is the structure of modern ecology as a science?
At the moment, ecology should be considered as a complex scientific direction that generalizes, synthesizes data from the natural and social sciences about the natural environment and its interaction with man and human society. It has really become the science of "home", where "home" is our entire planet Earth. From a scientific point of view, the division of ecology into theoretical and applied is quite justified: theoretical ecology reveals the general patterns of the organization of life; applied ecology studies the mechanisms of destruction of the biosphere by man, ways to prevent this process and develops principles for the rational use of natural resources.
A variety of environmental knowledge forms a complex of sciences that consider various aspects of the interaction of all components of nature and human society (Fig. 1).
Figure 1 - System of basic environmental sciences
Global (universal) ecology considers the features of the interaction between nature and society throughout the globe, including global environmental problems (global warming, deforestation, desertification, pollution of living organisms, etc.).
Classical (biological) ecology explores the relationships between living systems (organisms, populations, communities) and their living conditions, both now and in the past (paleoecology). Different sections of biological ecology study different living systems: autecology - the ecology of organisms, population ecology - the ecology of populations, synecology - the ecology of communities.
Applied ecology determines the norms (limits) for the use of natural resources, calculates the permissible loads on the environment to maintain it in a state suitable for the life of natural systems.
Social ecology explains and predicts the main directions of development of interaction between society and the natural environment. Such a subdivision of ecology occurs on a subject basis (depending on the subject of study). In addition, regional ecology is also distinguished. It reveals the features of the mutual influence of the natural environment and human activities in the specific conditions of individual territories, within administrative or natural boundaries.
There is no single generally accepted classification of areas of ecology. Options for the structure of modern ecology are shown in the Appendix.
Ecology closely interacts with other sciences: both biological and other fields of knowledge. At the intersection of ecology and other biological sciences, there arose:
ecomorphology - finds out how environmental conditions shape the structure of organisms;
ecophysiology - studies the physiological adaptations of organisms to environmental factors;
ecoethology - explores the dependence of the behavior of organisms on the conditions of their life;
population genetics - studies the reactions of individuals with different genotypes to environmental conditions;
biogeography - studies the patterns of placement of organisms in space.
Ecology also interacts with geographical sciences: geology, physical and economic geography, climatology, soil science, hydrology; other natural sciences (chemistry, physics).
It is inseparable from morality, law, economics, etc.
Modern ecology has become the largest interdisciplinary field of knowledge covering natural, technical and social phenomena. But it also has its own specifics. As N.F. Reimers: “She always puts LIVING at the center of the studied phenomena, looks at the world through its eyes, whether it is an individual, a population of organisms, a biocenosis or a person, all of humanity; and if not living, then created by living - a biogeochemical cycle, for example, the cycle of carbon dioxide or oxygen in the biosphere, an industrial enterprise or an agricultural field.
Therefore, it must be borne in mind that all modern areas of ecology are based on fundamental ideas bioecology(or "classical ecology").
Bioecology is subdivided according to the study of the levels of biological systems into:
Autecology (ecology of individuals and organisms);
Demecology (population ecology);
Eidecology (species ecology);
Synecology (ecology of communities);
Biogeocenology (or the doctrine of ecosystems);
Global ecology (ecology of the biosphere).
In accordance with the largest systematic categories of the organic world, bioecology is divided into:
Ecology of microorganisms;
Ecology of mushrooms;
plant ecology;
Animal ecology.
Within these systematic categories, there is a more detailed division - for the study of certain taxonomic groups, for example: the ecology of birds, the ecology of insects, the ecology of cruciferous, the ecology of individual species, etc.
The application of the ecological method to any taxon of zoological, botanical or microbiological material complements and develops the overall ecology. For example, the study of the ecology of one species of oyster on the sandy banks of the North Sea allowed the German hydrobiologist K. Möbius to introduce an important general ecological concept of "biocenosis".
On the basis of general ecology, such new disciplines appeared as: ecological morphology, ecological physiology, ecological systematics, ecological genetics, as well as evolutionary ecology, biochemical ecology, paleoecology and others.
Such sciences arise at the intersection of ecology in one or another biological discipline, which is typical for every intensively developing fundamental science.
In the 90s, a new direction in ecology was formed - geoecology. Geoecology originated from geography and biology as an independent scientific direction, closely related to many areas of natural science, social science and technoscience.
Geoecology(from Greek geo - land) - the science of the interaction of systems - geographical (natural-territorial complexes, geosystems), biological (biocenoses, biogeocenoses, ecosystems) and socio-industrial (natural and economic complexes, neotech systems).
The first scientists to use the word "geoecology" were the German geographer Karl Troll, and in Russia, who wrote about this in 1970, V.B. Sochava. The latter associated the emergence of this term with the need to reflect the ecological orientation of landscape science.
The term "geoecology" appeared in the scientific literature as a synonym for the term "landscape ecology" or "landscape ecology". Landscape- this is a certain area of the earth's surface, within which various components of nature (rocks, relief, climate, water, soil, plants, animals), interconnected and interdependent, form one whole and form a certain type of terrain.
The interests of geoecology are focused on the analysis of the structure and functioning of landscapes, the relationship of their components and human impact on natural components.
Geoecology is subdivided according to life environments, ecological components and regions into: land ecology, ocean (sea) ecology, continental water ecology, mountains, islands, sea coasts, estuaries, tundra ecology, arctic deserts, forests, steppes, deserts, etc. Further.
The most important areas of modern environmental science are human ecology and social ecology.
human ecology(anthropoecology) studies the interaction of a person as a biosocial being with a complex multi-component environment, with a gradually becoming more complex dynamic environment. Human ecology is a complex, integral science that studies the general laws of interaction and mutual influence of the biosphere and the anthroposystem. Anthroposystem is formed by all structural levels of humanity, all groups of people and individuals.
The term "human ecology" was introduced into science by American scientists R. Park and E. Burgers in 1921. In Russia, systematic research on human ecology began in the 1970s. The list of tasks solved by human ecology is extremely wide. In their totality, there are two directions. One is related to the influence of the natural (geographical) environment and its components on the anthropological system, the other stems from the need to study the consequences of anthropogenic activity.
Human ecology considers the biosphere as an ecological niche of mankind, studying natural, social and economic conditions as factors of the human environment that ensure its normal development and reproduction.
New directions are separated from human ecology: urban ecology, population ecology, historical ecology, and others.
social ecology(socioecology) - the science that studies relationships in the system society- nature, the impact of the environment on society.
The main goal of social ecology is to optimize the existence of man and the environment on a systematic basis. In this case, a person acts as a society, therefore the subject of social ecology is large contingents of people, breaking up into separate groups depending on their social status, occupation, age.
Social ecology considers the Earth's biosphere as an ecological niche of mankind, linking the environment and human activity into a single system "nature - society". It reveals the impact of man on the balance of natural ecosystems, studies the issues of rationalizing the relationship between man and nature. The task of social ecology as a science is also to offer such effective ways of influencing the environment that would not only prevent catastrophic consequences, but also make it possible to significantly improve the biological and social conditions for the development of man and all life on Earth.
Social ecology also develops the scientific foundations of rational nature management aimed at protecting nature.
Considering social ecology as the most important area of ecology, it should be noted that it is not only a relatively independent, but also a complex science, the philosophical, socio-economic, ethical and other aspects of which are being developed by new scientific directions. For example, such as: historical ecology, ecology of culture, ecology and economics, ecology and politics, ecology and morality, ecology and law, environmental informatics, etc.
A large place in social ecology belongs to the sphere of environmental education, upbringing and enlightenment.
One of the areas related to social ecology is applied Ecology, developing norms for the use of natural resources and the living environment, establishing permissible loads on them and determining the forms of ecosystem management. Applied ecology includes:
Industrial (engineering) ecology,
technological ecology,
agricultural ecology,
industrial ecology,
chemical ecology,
recreational ecology,
medical ecology,
Nature management and nature protection.
Until now, no science has tried to identify laws that reflect the unity of society and nature.
dy. For the first time, social ecology claims to establish such socio-natural laws. Law- it is a necessary, recurring relation between phenomena in nature and in society. Social ecology is called upon to formulate qualitatively new types of laws that reflect the relationship of society, technology and nature within a single system. The laws of social ecology should reflect the degree of consistency, synchronism of natural energy information flows caused by the transforming activity of man and the natural cycle of substances. Based on such laws, society will be able to address issues of interconnected environmental and socio-economic development.
In 1974 American biologist Barry Commoner, summarizing the provisions of bioecology and social ecology, formulated four basic laws of ecology, sometimes called "environmental sayings" and widely used at present in popular and educational environmental literature:
1. Everything is interconnected with everything.
2. Everything has to go somewhere.
3. Nature knows best.
4. Nothing is given for free.
These laws must be taken into account in the rational use of natural resources and, in general, in any human activity on Earth and in Space.
Famous English philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) wrote: "No human laws can have a real meaning if they are contrary to the laws of nature." Therefore, it is the synthesis of the natural and the social, if people manage to realize it, that will become a characteristic feature of the civilization of the coming XXI century.
Ecology as a science was formed only in the middle of the last century, but a long way led to the formation of the basic concepts and principles of modern ecology. The history of the development of ecology can be represented as a calendar of environmental events (table 1.3).
Table 1.3
Calendar of environmental events (according to G.S. Rozenberg, with changes and additions)
One of the main goals of modern ecology as a science is to study the basic laws and develop the theory of rational interaction in the "man - society - nature" system, in which human society is considered as an integral part of the biosphere.
The main goal modern ecology at this stage of the development of human society - to bring humanity out of the global ecological crisis on the path of sustainable development, in which the satisfaction of the vital needs of the present generation will be achieved without depriving future generations of such an opportunity.
To achieve these goals, environmental science has to solve a number of very diverse and complex tasks:
- development of the theory and methods for assessing the sustainability of ecological systems at all levels;
- study of the mechanisms of regulation of the number of populations and biotic diversity, the role of biota as a regulator of biosphere stability;
- study and forecasting of changes in the biosphere under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors;
- assessment of the state and dynamics of natural resources and the environmental consequences of their consumption;
- development of environmental quality management methods;
- formation of the biospheric level of thinking and ecological culture of the whole society.
The living environment around us is not a random and random combination of living beings, but a stable and organized system that has developed in the process of evolution of the organic world. Any systems are amenable to modeling, i.e. it is possible to predict how a particular system will react to external influences. Systems approach(see paragraph 17.1) is the basis for studying environmental problems.
The structure of modern ecology. Currently, ecology has been divided into a number of scientific branches and disciplines, sometimes far from the original understanding of ecology as a biological science about the relationship of living organisms with the environment. However, all modern areas of ecology are based on fundamental ideas bioecology.
In turn, bioecology today is also a combination of various scientific areas. For example, allocate autoecology, investigating the individual connections of an individual organism with the environment; population ecology, dealing with relationships between organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same territory; synecology, which comprehensively studies groups, communities of organisms and their relationships in natural systems (ecosystems). Modern ecology is a complex of scientific disciplines. General ecology- a basic discipline that studies the basic patterns of relationships between organisms and environmental conditions.
Theoretical ecology explores the general patterns of life organization, including in connection with the anthropogenic impact on natural systems.
Applied Ecology studies the mechanisms of destruction of the biosphere by man and ways to prevent this process, and also develops principles for the rational use of natural resources. Applied ecology is based on a system of laws, rules and principles of theoretical ecology. From Applied Ecology
The scientific areas are as follows:
- biospheric ecology, studying the global changes taking place on our planet as a result of the impact of human economic activity on natural phenomena;
- industrial ecology, studying the impact of emissions from enterprises on the environment and the possibility of reducing this impact by improving technologies and treatment facilities;
- agricultural Ecology, studying ways to obtain agricultural products without depleting soil resources, while preserving the environment;
- medical ecology, studying human diseases associated with environmental pollution;
- geoecology, studying the structure and mechanisms of the functioning of the biosphere, the connection and interconnection of biospheric and geological processes, the role of living matter in the energy and evolution of the biosphere, the participation of geological factors in the emergence and evolution of life on Earth;
- mathematical ecology models ecological processes, i.e. changes in nature that can occur when environmental conditions change;
- economic ecology develops economic mechanisms for rational nature management and environmental protection;
- legal ecology develops a system of laws aimed at protecting nature;
- engineering ecology- a relatively new area of environmental science that studies the interaction between technology and nature, the patterns of formation of regional and local natural and technical systems and ways to manage them in order to protect the natural environment and ensure environmental safety. It ensures that the equipment and technology of industrial facilities comply with environmental requirements;
- social ecology arose quite recently. Only in 1986 the first conference devoted to the problems of this science took place in Lvov. Literally deciphering social ecology as the science of the home or habitat of a society (man, society), we point out that social ecology studies the planet Earth, as well as space as the living environment of society;
- human ecology- part of social ecology, which considers the interaction of a person as a biosocial being with the outside world;
- valeology- one of the new independent branches of human ecology - the science of the quality of life and health.
Synthetic evolutionary ecology - a new scientific discipline, including private ecology - general, bio-, geo- and social.