The first major buildings in Rome were made according to the Etruscan example, perhaps even by Etruscan craftsmen; therefore, Roman architecture, at its very inception, adopted the most important form of Etruscan architecture - a circular arch, that is, a semicircular stone covering, thrown from one abutment to another. The use of this architectural form and the vault, cross vault and dome derived from it, unknown to the Greeks, enabled the Romans to give great variety to their structures, to erect huge buildings, to impart large size and spaciousness to interior spaces, and to boldly build a floor over a floor.
However, in general, Roman architecture was strongly influenced by Greek architecture. In their constructions, the Romans sought to emphasize the strength, power, greatness that suppressed a person. The structures are characterized by monumentality, magnificent decoration of buildings, a lot of decorations, a desire for strict symmetry, an interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation of buildings for practical needs, rather than temple complexes.
The history of Roman architecture can be divided into four periods. The first one covers time from the founding of Rome to the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. This time is still poor in buildings, and even those that arose then had a purely Etruscan character. Most of the buildings in the early days of the existence of the Roman state were undertaken for public benefit. Such were the canals for the sewage of the city, with the main tunnel - the Great Cloaca, which carried water and sewage from the low parts of Rome to the Tiber, excellent roads, among other things, the Appian Way, magnificently paved with large, tightly fitting stones, aqueducts, the Mamertine prison and the first basilicas.
from the middle of the 2nd century before the fall of republican rule (that is, before 31 BC)
The Greek influence, which even before that had begun to penetrate into her, was already very strongly reflected in her. In addition, the first marble temples appeared in Rome, while earlier temples were built from local volcanic rocks, piperine and travertine; at the same time, similar buildings, both in plan and in design, began to look more like Greek ones, although they constantly retained some differences from them.
The Roman temple of this and subsequent eras usually consisted of one cella of an oblong, quadrangular shape, standing on a high foundation, and to which a staircase led only from one, short, front side. Climbing this staircase, one finds oneself in a portico with columns, at the back of which there is a door leading to a cella, which receives light only through this door when it is open.
Along with similar sanctuaries of the Greek type, the Romans built, in honor of certain deities, round temples, constituting their own invention, introducing into them, however, many Greek elements.
Of the temples belonging to the period under consideration, one can point to those preserved to a certain extent Temple of the Portun
Pseudoperipter with heavy Ionic style portico and Round Temple of Vesta
,
furnished with 20 columns of the not yet fully developed Roman-Corinthian style, with a low cone-shaped roof of marble tiles.
The third, most brilliant period in the history of Roman architecture begins with the capture of sovereignty over the republic by Augustus and continues until the death of Emperor Hadrian, that is, until 138 AD.
At this time, the Romans began to widely use concrete. New types of buildings appear, for example, basilicas, where trade transactions were made and courts were decided, circuses, where chariot competitions took place, libraries, places for games, for walks, surrounded by a park. A new type of monumental structure arises - the triumphal arch. Improving the technique of arch construction contributes to the active construction of aqueducts and bridges.
Typically Roman, however, are the triumphal arches and columns abounding in sculpture, erected in honor of imperial victories and conquests. Even more impressive is the Roman engineering prowess in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, sewers and fortifications.
Roman art was inferior to Greek art in the elegance of proportions, but not in technical skill. The construction of two of the most famous Roman monuments belongs to this period: the Colosseum (the largest amphitheater of the ancient world) - one of the many grandiose structures erected by the Romans throughout the empire, as well as the Pantheon
, temple in the name of all gods. The walls, ceilings and floors of public buildings, as well as the palaces of emperors and wealthy private houses, were decorated with paintings or mosaics. In architecture, the Romans also lacked the Greek sense of style and taste, but they were more technically skilled in the construction of arches, vaults, and domes. The Romans admired and imitated Greek art, expanding its influence to the west and north of Europe. Many Greek architects are known to us thanks to the Romans, who ordered copies for themselves that eventually outlived their originals.
But they had their own deeply realistic sculptural tradition, probably coming from the manner in which the portrait busts of ancestors, which the Romans kept in their homes, not as works of art, but as information about what their forefathers looked like. The simplicity and at the same time the bright individuality of Roman portrait art make it very attractive.
Augustus completed many of the architectural undertakings of the previous time, and with splendor restored 82 temples in Rome, neglected and dilapidated. Fulfilling his vow at the battle of Actium, he built a vast forum of his name with a magnificent temple in honor of Mars the Avenger. The surviving remains of the buildings of this forum - three Corinthian columns, part of the wall of the temple cella and several plafond cassettes - can be considered the finest remains of Roman architecture.
Roman architecture was even more animated in the reign of Hadrian, who not only was an ardent lover of art, but also practiced it himself in his leisure hours. He enriched Rome with so many new buildings that he earned the title of his Restitutor. The most important among them are Temple of Venus and Roma, which stood just opposite the Colosseum.
Of the buildings of Hadrian in the provinces, those made in Athens were especially numerous, to which he, being a fan of Greek education, wanted to restore their former splendor. There, with his care, the temple of Olympian Zeus, begun back in the time of Pisistratus, was completed, the temple of Zeus and Hera, several other temples, gymnasiums, porticos, a basilica, a theater at the foot of the acropolis were erected, channels were drawn, roads, in a word, a new city arose, connected with the old gate, preserved to this day. Regarding the architectural style of the era of Hadrian, it should be noted that it is devoid of originality, limited to a more or less successful combination of different elements developed in the flowering time of ancient art - a cold-eclectic style, so to speak, academic, but, with its strong desire for monumentality and splendor, still distinguished by harmony and grace.
until the final victory of Christianity over paganism (from 138 to 300)
And at this time, each emperor is trying to leave a memory of some significant building. Antoninus the Pious builds the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in Rome 
; Marcus Aurelius - a column of his name on the model of Trayanova; Septimius Severus - heavy triumphal gates burdened with architectural and sculptural decorations in imitation of the arch of Titus, as well as a small, but harmonious in proportions and noble and beautiful in detail, the Temple of Vesta in Tivoli.
The further, the more oriental influences penetrated into the latter, the desire for pomposity and sophistication, drowning out the traditions of the classical era. Particularly eloquent evidence of this is the constructions that appeared under the last emperors in such remote lands of their possessions as Syria and Arabia: sunken or swollen surfaces, capriciously curving or breaking lines, an abundance of decorations, often pretentious, fantastical forms - these are the main features of this Roman-Eastern architecture.
8 The image of man in the culture of Ancient Rome
In the VI century. BC, when Greece became the leading force in the eastern and western Mediterranean, an active new force emerged on the Apennine Peninsula - a young Roman state that was formed in the process of struggle. There is an opinion that Roman culture is secondary to Greek, that the Romans did not create anything significant, since they followed Greek models in various areas of cultural practice.
Indeed, the Greeks had a strong influence on Rome in various areas of culture. But, firstly, the Romans selected what corresponded to their values, embodied, among other things, in the "Roman myth", which puts Rome, Roman cultural traditions above other peoples. Secondly, they processed foreign cultural elements in their own way, in accordance with Roman traditions, introducing a lot of specifics. Thirdly, the culture of Ancient Rome is a complex and diverse phenomenon, characterized by a diversity of forms and directions, which has historical and cultural roots. Various peoples of Indo-European origin lived on the territory of modern Italy: Latins, Osci, Umbers, Sabines, as well as Etruscans (with unclear linguistic affiliation). All of them also, especially the Etruscans, contributed to the formation of the culture of Rome.
Sculpture of Rome It was also formed by the influence of the traditions of different peoples, especially the Greeks, the Etruscans, remelting them in their own way. (For example, the Etruscan custom of preserving casts of the faces of deceased ancestors may have influenced the development of sculptural portraits). Values and statues were imported from conquered countries, primarily from Greece. But the Roman sculptors made their own, original contribution to sculpture. In Rome, the most widespread sculpture and sculptural relief, mostly historical. In Roman plastic there is no setting for the embodiment of the ideal of man, beautiful and morally perfect, as in Greece. The main distinguishing feature of Roman sculpture is her portraiture, which is distinguished by vivid realism (for example, a portrait of an unknown Roman, sculptural portraits of the emperors Nero, Augustus, etc.). The sculptor sought to convey the appearance of a person as he is. Sculptural images are sometimes not only truthful, but revealing. These are historical documents of the era. They seem to reproduce the whole history of Rome with its aggressive policy, arbitrariness, idleness and extravagance of the Roman nobility. The Romans surpassed the Greeks in a number of civilizational and technological achievements. In sculpture, the majestic style of Phidias and the athletic beauty of the statues of Polykleitos, Greek sculptors, which Roman sculptors began to focus on, were most suitable for this. But they surpassed the Greeks in the subtleties of detail and decoration of marble statues. And besides the general idealization, in the statues, in particular portrait ones, a feature of Roman artistic culture was reflected - the focus on revealing a portrait resemblance with sharp pictorial characteristics. This feature is apparently related to the Roman tradition of making "imaginas", accurate sculptural images of deceased elders. The Romans created their own genre of portraiture in sculpture - portrait statues (traditions of the Etruscans). This is a type of statue "togatus", depicting a speaker in a toga, and busts, distinguished by the simplicity and truthfulness of the image. Sculptural portraits convey the individuality of a person with amazing impartiality, exposing even the unattractive features of the depicted face. Here are the rulers and the common people. For example, the rapacity of the banker Yukunda, the ferocity and suspicion of the emperor Caracalla are clearly revealed. The greatest example of Roman sculpture was the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, the head of the young Augustus. He was called the philosopher on the throne. In the look, in the facial expression, the sculptor tries to convey the inner life of Augustus. The portrait sculpture merges with the relief sculpture. A number of triumphal reliefs adorn the Altar of Peace, the Arch of Titus. The images on Trajan's Column show the emperor's victorious wars with the Dacians.
By the end of the empire, however, both the majesty of buildings and the realism of sculptural portraits seem to be blurred. Crisis phenomena in life cause in the visual arts a tendency to pomposity, eclecticism and increased, sometimes tasteless, decorativeness.
In the I-II centuries. AD in Rome, a new prose form appears, the so-called " antique romance", with satirical, comic content, lowly everyday actions of heroes and jokes ("Satyricon" by Petronius and "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius). This indicates that Roman literature is groping for its own development paths, acquiring independence, originality. Satura (satura) means a dish consisting of different fruits. In Lucilius, satura is a mixed literary form that combines different elements, didactic and literary-polemical motives .
Satire, and sometimes very evil, received significant development in Rome. Popular-ethical reasoning with criticism of modern morals, condemnation of the vices of contemporary society (perjury, greed, the desire for luxury, etc.) in order to correct morals contributed to the emergence of a new genre - classical poetic satire ( Horace, Persius, Juvenal). Satire reveals the darkest sides of life "Oh, the worries of people, oh, how many empty things are in their affairs."
Roman poetry reached its height in the so-called "age of Augustus", the "golden age" of Roman literature. The works of the best lyric poets: Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Tibullus are permeated with the praise of antiquity and Augustus. The coming to the fore of the lyrics is not accidental. In the era of the crisis of republican ideals and standards, the values of the civil community, the personality, freed from ties with the team, its individual characteristics, ideals acquires the greatest significance.  Cicero |
The best heritage of Roman sculpture was the portrait. As an independent type of creativity, it can be traced from the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. The Romans were the authors of a new understanding of this genre. They, unlike the Greek sculptors, closely and vigilantly studied the face of a particular person with his unique features. In the portrait genre, the original realism of Roman sculptors, observation and the ability to generalize observations in a certain artistic form were most clearly manifested. Roman portraits historically recorded changes in the appearance of people, their customs and ideals.
The ideal of the era was the wise and strong-willed Roman Cato - a man of a practical mindset, the guardian of strict morals. An example of such an image is a sharply individual portrait of a Roman with a thin, asymmetrical face, with an intense gaze and a skeptical smile. The civic ideals of the republican era are embodied in monumental full-length portraits - statues of Togatus ("Worn in a toga"), usually depicted standing straight, in the pose of an orator. The famous statue "Orator" (beginning of the 1st century BC) depicts a Roman or Etruscan master at the moment of addressing his fellow citizens with a speech.
The Hermitage has collected about 120 Roman portraits - this is one of the most remarkable collections in the world. The golden mask of the 3rd century AD is close to Roman portraits in terms of expressiveness. e. found in a royal burial near Kerch in the 1830s. She, apparently, is a portrait image of the Bosporus king Riskuporides.
After getting acquainted with the collections of the department of the ancient world, it is advisable to visit the Special Storeroom, which houses the famous collection of ancient Greek products, mainly originating from the ancient cities of the Northern Black Sea region.
Along with portrait busts and statues, portraits on coins, cameos, etc., partly pictorial portraits, became widespread. The art of coinage was so developed that, from the profiles on the coins (accompanied by inscriptions), modern researchers recognize unmarked marble heads. Early examples of easel portraiture are Fayum portraits (the territory of Hellenistic Egypt, I-IV centuries AD), which served as funerary masks. Largely associated with the traditions of the ancient oriental portrait and with religious and magical ideas, at the same time they were created under the influence of ancient art, directly from nature, they carried a pronounced resemblance to a specific person, and in later samples - a specific spirituality.
The originality of regional variants of Western European medieval art. Christian temple. Artistic styles in the art of the Middle Ages.
The history of the Middle Ages of Europe covers the period from the 5th to the middle of the 17th centuries. within the period, the following stages can be distinguished: a) the early Middle Ages: V - XI centuries; b) developed Middle Ages: XI - XV centuries; c) Late Middle Ages: XVI - mid-XVII centuries. The term "Middle Ages" (Latin medium aevum - hence the name of the science that studies the Middle Ages, medieval studies) arose in Italy during the Renaissance among humanists who believed that this time was a period of cultural decline, as opposed to the high rise of culture in the ancient world and in the new time.
Religious ideology and the church played a huge role in society.
The main features of medieval culture are: 1) the dominance of religion, God-centered worldview; 2 ) rejection of the ancient cultural tradition; 3 ) denial of hedonism ; 4 ) asceticism; 5 ) increased attention to the inner world of a person, his spirituality; 6 ) conservatism, adherence to antiquity, a tendency to stereotypes in material and spiritual life; 7 ) elements of dual faith (Christianity and paganism) in the public consciousness; 8 ) fetishization of works of art; 9 ) the internal inconsistency of culture: the conflict between paganism and Christianity, the opposite of scientific and folk culture, the relationship of secular and spiritual, church authorities, the duality of value orientations (spirituality and corporality, good and evil, fear of sin and sin); 10 ) the hierarchy of culture, in which one can single out the culture of the clergy, knightly culture, urban culture, folk, mainly rural culture; 11 ) corporatism: the dissolution of the personal beginning of a person in a social group, for example, an estate.
The art of the early Middle Ages lost many of the achievements of antiquity: sculpture and the image of a person in general disappeared almost completely; the skills of stone processing were forgotten, in architecture, wooden architecture prevailed. The art of this period is characterized by: barbarization of taste and attitude; cult of physical strength; ostentatious wealth; at the same time, he has a lively, direct sense of the material, which was especially evident in the jewelry and book business, where complex ornament and "animal" style dominated.
In general, medieval art is characterized by: sincere reverence for the Divine, typification, the absolute opposite of good and evil, deep symbolism, subordination of art to non-aesthetic, religious ideals, hierarchy, traditionalism, underdevelopment of the personal principle, - at the same time, medieval culture expresses an unfrozen forever the state of man and his world, but a living movement. The dynamics of cultural development is largely determined by the interaction and rivalry between official and folk cultures.
Romanesque art (XI-XII centuries) arose during the reign of Charlemagne. The Romanesque style is the artistic style of the early European Middle Ages, which is characterized by clarity of form, severe masculine beauty, impressiveness and solemn power. This style of art is characterized by a semicircular vaulted arch, which came from Rome. Instead of wooden coverings, stone ones begin to predominate, usually having a vaulted shape. Painting and sculpture were subordinated to architecture and were mainly used in temples and monasteries. The sculptural images were brightly painted, and the monumental and decorative painting, on the other hand, seemed to be temple paintings of restrained color. An example of this style is the Church of Mary on the island of Laak in Germany.
The main function of Romanesque architecture is defense. Exact mathematical calculations were not used in the architecture of the Romanesque era, however, thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers, being stylistic features of architectural structures, simultaneously carried a defensive function, allowing the civilian population to take refuge in the monastery during feudal strife and wars.
In addition to religious architecture, secular architecture also actively developed, an example of this is a feudal castle - a house - a tower of a rectangular or multifaceted shape.
In Romanesque painting and sculpture, the central place was occupied by themes associated with the idea of the limitless and formidable power of God (Christ in glory, the Last Judgment, etc.). In strictly symmetrical compositions, the figure of Christ dominated, significantly exceeding the rest of the figures in size. Narrative cycles of images (based on biblical and gospel, hagiographic, and occasionally historical plots) assumed a freer and more dynamic character. For R. s. numerous deviations from real proportions are characteristic (heads are disproportionately large, clothes are treated ornamentally, bodies are subject to abstract schemes).
Gothic art (XII-XV centuries) It arose as a result of the development of cities and the emerging urban culture. The symbol of medieval cities is the cathedral, gradually losing its defensive functions. Style changes in the architecture of this era were explained not only by the change in the functions of buildings, but by the rapid development of construction technology, which by that time was already based on precise calculation and verified design. Abundant convex details - statues, bas-reliefs, hanging arches were the main decorations of buildings, both from the inside and from the outside. World masterpieces of Gothic architecture are Notre Dame Cathedral, Milan Cathedral in Italy.
Gothic is also used in sculpture. A three-dimensional plastic of various forms appears, a portrait individuality, a real anatomy of figures.
Monumental Gothic painting is mainly represented by stained glass. Window openings are greatly enlarged. Which now serve not only for lighting, but more for decoration. Thanks to the duplication of glass, the finest nuances of color are transmitted. Stained glass windows begin to acquire more and more realistic elements. Especially famous were the French stained-glass windows of Chartres, Rouen.
In the book miniature, the Gothic style also begins to dominate, there is a significant expansion of its scope, there is a mutual influence of stained glass and miniature. The art of book miniature was one of the greatest achievements of Gothic.
Generally Romanesque period in France was the heyday of feudal artistic culture, the birth of monumental sculpture and painting, and the creation of the first complete and consistent style of medieval European architecture. The French churches of the Romanesque style, severe and strict, have a special artistic expressiveness. The monumental simplicity of the mighty architectural forms of temples, castles, city and monastic fortress walls, combined with either gloomy fantastic or modest and simple sculptural and pictorial decoration, clearly expressed the originality of the medieval worldview: abstract, mystical and at the same time extremely concrete and material in their ideas and images. .
Church of Saint Philibert in Tournus. Early 11th century
Starting from the end of the 12th century. culture and art of medieval France entered their heyday. The transition of French art to the Gothic stage was associated with the general growth of productive forces, the improvement of agriculture, and especially with the growth of cities, that is, with the development of crafts and trade exchange within the framework of a feudal society.
The main customers were the cities and partly the king, the main type of buildings was the city cathedral instead of the previously dominant monastery church. In the 12th and 13th centuries in France, such a lively ecclesiastical and secular construction unfolded as the country had never experienced. Initially, however, construction innovations were applied in monastic buildings.
Notre Dame Cathedral (Notre Dame de Paris) is one of the most majestic buildings of early French Gothic. It was founded in 1163. The general rise of the economy of feudal France in the 12th and 13th centuries. and the growth of cities contributed to the flourishing of secular construction. Defensive architecture reached high perfection. An excellent example of it is the fortress walls of the city of Egmort (13th century) that have survived to this day.
In Gothic sculpture, an interest in the human character, in the inner world of a person, even though still spiritualistically understood, arose. The desire for a bright, even sharp transmission of a person's character is a typical feature of Gothic sculpture at the time of its highest heyday.
Meeting Mary with Elizabeth. Sculptural group of the cathedral in Reims. Central portal of the western facade. 1225-1240
The main centers of stained glass art were in the 13th century. Chartres and Paris.
Starting from the 14th century. the desire for precision and elegance of the drawing, the pursuit of a special subtlety of shades led to the fact that the pure, sonorous tones of glass completely gave way to painting on glass in mixed tones and with additional etching. By the middle of the 13th century. took shape actually Gothic - on the principle of decoration - a miniature. Elements of Gothic architecture - pinnacles, fleurons, phials, lancet arches, roses, etc. - became common ornamental motifs in illustrations. But the multitude of details did not lead to fragmentation - the artist designed the entire page of the manuscript as a single compositional whole. The best works of this type include the Saint Louis Psalter (1270), which belongs to the Paris National Library.
By the 14th century includes the merging of the principles of English and French miniatures, the creation of a single Anglo-French style, although it retained some features typical of each of the countries. Narrative and sometimes social interpretation of plots in English miniatures changed in France in the direction of a greater breadth of coverage of historical problems, the creation of illustrations for works of fiction. The works of the Anglo-French type include the moralizing treatise Sommleroi (beginning of the 14th century) kept in the British Museum.
From the 14th century in France, they began to appreciate more and more the creative individuality - the personality of the artist: not only the numerous names of French poets and prose writers have come down to us, but also the names of the largest miniaturists.
English art Romanesque and Gothic period, its evolution, the nature of its monuments, compared with the art of other European countries, were distinguished by many specific features. Firstly, it is more difficult to establish a clear boundary between the Romanesque and Gothic art systems in it. So, for example, the first structural elements of Gothic appeared in England unusually early - at the beginning of the 12th century, when the foundations of Romanesque art were still being laid in many European countries. In the 13th century, Gothic in England, as well as in France, reached its peak. But the elements of Romanesque art turned out to be very tenacious at the same time - even after the transition to the Gothic system, they remained almost until the 14th century inclusive. The simultaneous combination of unusually bold ideas and discoveries with a commitment to bygone traditions, the contrast of the advanced and progressive with the inert and archaic are very characteristic of the monuments of medieval English architecture and fine arts.
Another important feature of the Romanesque and Gothic art of England is the uneven development of its individual types. Sculpture did not receive such a wide development in England as in the countries of the continent. If in English cathedrals sculpture was rarely used on a large scale, then it served mainly as a decorative enrichment of the architectural image.
From the third quarter of the 12th c. in England, the period of Gothic art begins. The growing rise of the economy led to the fact that from the 14th century. England already occupied an important place in the world market. But, unlike other European countries, the industry and trade of England were connected not so much with the city as with the countryside, where raw materials were produced and processed, exported to other countries.
The period in which the development of Gothic art falls was in many ways a turning point for English culture. It was the time of the formation of the English language, which supplanted French speech even from parliamentary debate, the time when John Wyclef proclaimed the need for church reform and contributed to the translation of the Bible into English. This is a period of gradual growth in the literature of secular tendencies.
If the Romanesque architecture of England, due to the small number of large buildings, was inferior in its significance to the Romanesque architecture of Germany and even more so France, then during the Gothic period, English architecture occupied one of the most honorable places in Western Europe. True, English Gothic, unlike the French, did not leave monuments that can be ranked among the examples of the most classical embodiment of the principles of this style. The sphere of English Gothic was limited mainly to architecture and decorative arts. In no other state of Europe, Gothic has taken such a significant place for many centuries in culture and in national artistic traditions, as in England.
The construction of Gothic cathedrals in England turned out to be associated, as in the Romanesque period, with monasteries. The constructive scheme of the temple and its entire appearance still depended on practical needs and on the artistic traditions that had developed among the builders of the previous centuries.
A characteristic difference between the English Gothic cathedrals was also that, since they were built mainly by monasteries, their plans, already complex, were supplemented, as in Romanesque churches, with many outbuildings. So, to Salisbury Cathedral 
the cloister, sacristy and chapter hall adjoin - a room that has the shape of a regular polyhedron in plan with a supporting pillar in the middle, covered with an ogival vault. Additional chapels were added to many other cathedrals.
The fine arts of medieval England achieved the greatest success in the field of book miniatures. Monumental sculpture and painting did not receive that wide application here, which was characteristic of the French and German medieval culture. In the decoration of English cathedrals, remarkable architectural decor played a greater role than plot ensembles.
The search for greater expressiveness and vitality is characteristic of English miniaturists. This problem was also solved by the largest master of the St. Albensky monastery Matteo Paris (1236-1259). Rewriting the "History of England" (1250-1259, British Museum) and the lives of the saints, the artist dresses his characters in contemporary clothes of knights, warriors, monks, creates scenes full of observation and plausibility.
In the 14th century The development of the miniature went along two lines. In one direction, rich decorative and ornamental decorations prevailed, in the second - the creation of illustrations for a literary text, with finely developed character characteristics. Since that time, the creation of miniatures from monasteries has passed to individual professional scribes and artists, many of whom were laymen. Numerous secular monuments arose at the same time. In the 14th century purely secular books were illustrated relatively widely. Already at the end of the 13th century. in England illustrated the legends of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
10. Medieval culture of China has a strong personality.
Chinese wooden architecture attracts with its lightness, clarity of proportions, elegance of patterned carvings and smooth rhythms of curved roofs. Chinese painting is marked by lyricism, the tonal harmony of soft transparent colors. Buddhist statues are distinguished by the calm importance of poses, the dignity of faces and gestures, the softness of lines, devoid of increased dynamics. In China, a different artistic system was created, a different stock of expressive means was accumulated.
The feudal social system took shape in the country very early, at the turn of the 3rd and 4th centuries, and artistic life reached a high peak even when medieval civilization was just emerging in a number of countries of the East. The Middle Ages is not only a period of Chinese history that stretched out in time, it is also a period of great spiritual upsurge of the country, the heyday of large cities, the construction of luxurious palaces, parks and temples.
The awakening of interest in the various aspects of human life and nature gave rise, on the one hand, to the development of narrative painting and portraiture, on the other hand, the world's first landscape compositions, as if penetrating into the very soul of nature, showing the life of forest and mountain thickets, animals and birds, their inhabiting. The era of feudalism was marked in China by a number of new discoveries that were important for their time. Among them are the invention of porcelain, the emergence of printing - first from engraved boards, and then with the help of collapsible type, which made it possible to publish books in many copies and widely acquaint Eastern countries with the works of Chinese philosophers, poets and art theorists. The disseminators of knowledge in those distant times were, as a rule, monks-pilgrims and scholars-travelers.
As in other feudal states, the art of China was closely connected with the religious ideas prevalent there. The main teachings were Confucianism and Taoism, which were rooted in antiquity, as well as Buddhism, which supplemented them in the first centuries of our era. However, the Chinese medieval ideology was much less subject to church dogmas than in European countries. China's religious tolerance was determined by the long-standing coexistence there of many sects and religious schools that absorbed folk beliefs. Over time, when Buddhism lost its leading role, merging with the ancient cults of nature, the image of the Buddha was identified with the entire universe, and painting took the main place in the art of China, which made it possible to reveal the patterns and beauty of nature in a more visual and poetic form. It was painting that determined the originality and significance of Chinese medieval art of a mature time.
Architecture and sculpture
Throughout the country, the construction of grandiose monasteries carved directly into the rocks, luxurious wooden temples and pagoda towers in honor of Buddhist saints and pilgrims began. Masters from India, Afghanistan, Central Asia were the builders of these structures. Built over the centuries, temples in the rocks several kilometers long have preserved, like original museums, numerous monuments of sculpture and painting of the Middle Ages and reflected its entire history.
The earliest of the Buddhist monasteries were Yungang ("Temple of transcendental heights", 4th-6th centuries), Longmen (6th century) 
and Dunhuang (or Qianfodong - "10 thousand Buddhas", founded in the 4th century, the construction of which was carried out until the 14th century).
Huge sculptures of the Buddha and his disciples, massive pillars in the form of pagodas still fill the half-gloomy halls of the Yungang caves. Around the huge sculptures of Yungang and Dunhuang, numerous reliefs depicting celestial musicians and Buddhist saints covered the walls and ceiling without any system, painted with delicate mineral paints.
In addition to cave temples, Buddhist memorial monuments - pagodas - are also becoming widespread. Early pagodas, with their soft curvature and roundness of lines, still resemble Indian tower-shaped temples. The oldest surviving pagoda of Sunyuesa (523) 
Taihedian - Pavilion of Supreme Harmony
- reflects the characteristic features of the medieval architecture of China: elegance and lightness. Tall lacquered round columns, mounted on a platform, are the basis of the whole structure. They support a two-tiered roof that seems to float in the air, which, in the words of the ancients, should have resembled the wings of a flying pheasant. Protruding outside the building, she protected him from the unbearable summer heat and moisture. The curved corners of the roofs give the entire building a sense of lightness and hide the dimensions of the roofs. Thin walls sometimes consist of openwork gratings that let in soft light. The interior space of the room is filled with two rows of columns and is characterized by great simplicity and rigor.
The temples of Beijing were also located in large complexes. The majestic Temple of Heaven (15th century) consists of several buildings spread out in strict order over a vast area among dense greenery.
Sculpture
Sculpture reached a high rise during the Tang period. Statues of Buddhist saints in cave monasteries acquired greater plasticity (statue of Buddha Vairocana in Longmyn, 672-676) 
Many everyday scenes appeared on the walls of temples, executed in the ancient technique of relief, but closely related to the realistic perception of the world.
The burials of the emperors, like the monasteries, were decorated with reliefs representing not only Buddhist deities, but also real life at court.
Painting
The highest achievement of the art of the Tang and Song periods was painting. It also reflected the admiration of people for the beauty of nature and the urban life of that time.
Artists created pictures on long silk and then paper scrolls of a vertical or horizontal shape, stored in special boxes and hung out only for a while. Tales, legends were usually depicted on horizontal scrolls, which were considered scene by scene as a picturesque book. Landscapes were mostly painted on vertical scrolls. Often the picture was supplemented with poetic texts written in beautiful calligraphic handwriting next to the image. In medieval China, the "genre of flowers and birds" was also widespread. Usually these are scenes written on fans, screens, scrolls and album sheets, reproducing with extraordinary accuracy the world of animals, plants, fish and insects. Chinese painters already in the 8th century, along with transparent water-based mineral paints, began to use black ink rich in shades. At the same time, different manners of writing developed: one is a thorough “gun-bi” (“diligent brush”), fixing all the details and showing the viewer the smallest details of the picture, the other is free and, as it were, unfinished “sho-i” (“painting of the idea” ), which allows the viewer, at the behest of his imagination, to think out what the artist has hidden from him. The combination of a light, unfilled background, a flexible, always very precise line and a spot hid the secret of the expressive techniques of Chinese painting. The surface of the paper or silk background of the picture, which easily absorbs wet paints and ink, was understood by painters either as an expanse of air, or as a calm expanse of a lake, or as a foggy distance. Chinese landscape paintings were never painted directly from life. They were created from memory and absorbed all the most characteristic features of nature.
In medieval Chinese landscapes, not linear, but the so-called diffuse perspective was used. The painter looked at the opening view as if from a high mountain, which is why the horizon rose in front of him to an unusual height.
applied arts
The applied art of medieval China is widely known - products made of porcelain, carved stone, wood and bone. Since ancient times, the secrets of craftsmanship in the manufacture of elegant household items have been passed down from generation to generation. Ceramics 11-13 centuries refined and varied. As in the painting of the Sung period, the brightness of colors is replaced by elegant simplicity, soft fluidity of color transitions, calm and soft. They often deviated from strict symmetry, achieving the most unexpected effects, either imitating precious jade, or using a grid of tiny cracks, as if a rich play of a shimmering surface accidentally created by nature itself. Snow-white vessels with an engraved delicate pattern of flowers, and yellowish vases, and amphoras with a black pattern were also made. Often there was no pattern at all. Delicate taste distinguishes inlaid furniture, embroideries and fabrics of this time. The soft and grainy fabrics of the kesa (cut silk) looked like real paintings and were created according to the samples of the best painters.
Chinese calligraphy- this is an amazing and unique phenomenon in the history of world civilization, a unique pearl of the culture of the East. As a figurative art, it is comparable to painting, because it is able to have an emotional impact on a person with a richness of forms and a variety of styles. As an abstract art, it is comparable to music because it is able to convey its inherent rhythm and harmony. At the same time, it also has a practical aspect - the recording of graphic characters that make up Chinese writing. Signs of writing are the visible embodiment of the concepts of language. According to the way they are formed, Chinese characters can be divided into six main categories (lushu): 1) pictorial category (xiangxing) - a direct image of an object; 2) phonetic category (zhishi) - a combination of figurative and phonetic elements; 3) ideographic category (huiyi) - a combination of a specific figurative element with an abstract symbol; 4) pictographic category (xingsheng) - a symbolic expression of an abstract idea; 5) borrowed category (jiajie) - the use of a sign to write a concept that is not related to it in meaning, but has the same sound; 6) modified category (zhuanzhu) - modification of individual parts of the hieroglyph in connection with the acquisition of a new meaning by it. The art of calligraphy is realized through the features performed with the help of traditional writing implements called the “four treasures of the study” (wenfang si bao) - brushes, ink, paper and ink pots.
The Romans valued those arts and sciences that had directly practical knowledge. The leading arts of Rome were architecture and engineering structures. The architecture was dominated civil buildings dominated cult. If the Greeks had the main building Temple, the Romans created many new types of architecture that emphasized the power of the Roman Empire.
The main building material in Rome was stone And brick. A durable and waterproof building material was created - concrete.
The main structural elements of the Romans were: arch, vault And dome, which allowed overlapping spaces without internal supports.
The pinnacle of the building activity of the Romans are impeccable engineering structures: roads and bridges (viaducts), water pipes and aquiducts.
The rationalism of the Romans was reflected in urban planning. The most common type of building was the city - the camp. It had a rectangular shape with two main mutually perpendicular streets - cardo (north - south) and decumanus (east - west). At the intersection of these streets there was a forum - the administrative center of the city, where public buildings were located:
Temple, for example, the temple of Vesta and the Pantheon - "the temple of all gods"
basilica(court, archive of the city), for example, the Basilica of Constantine.
terms(the complex includes a library, lecture and gymnastic halls, a games room, cold, warm and hot baths). For example, the baths of Diocletian and Caracalla, which accommodated 3 thousand people and occupied 11 hectares.
theatre based on Greek. It was built on retaining structures and had several floors. For example, the theater in Pompeii.
odeon- a small theater for musical and poetic performances.
amphitheater- for gladiator fights. It was oval in shape, and along the facade - tiers of arcades, decorated with a warrant. For example, the Colosseum.
Circuses- for equestrian competitions, had an elongated horseshoe shape. For example, the Circus Maximus in Rome.
We are reminded of the glory and power of the great empire triumphal arches and columns. The most famous are arch of augustus in Rome and arch of Constantine, Troyan's column.
Funeral architecture was dominated by mausoleums And tombs(to know) sarcophagi And columbarium(for the middle strata of the population).
The residential buildings of the Romans were divided into city houses and rural dwellings (villas). For example, an urban type of dwelling is patrician domus. It had a closed rectangular building with a courtyard in the center. For the poor population of the city (plebeians) were built insulae- high-rise urban residential buildings. For knowing - palaces.
To the rural type - country villa (villa rustica) with a manor house, a household yard, a garden, a park, baths, a fountain and a swimming pool.
2. Ancient Greek theater. His design. Performance and actors.
Ancient Greek theater was considered " school for adults", a school of citizenship, courage, wisdom, and played a huge role in the life of a Greek. The theater takes its origin from religious holidays in honor of the god of spring, the sun and the fertile land, the patron saint of winemaking - Dionysus.
Twice a year (in autumn, after the harvest, and in spring, when the earth blossomed and the barrels of young wine were opened), the ancient Greeks arranged in honor of the god of winemaking " Passion of Dionysus"- festivities, in autumn - Rural Dionysia, spring - Great, or Urban, Dionysia. The holiday lasted 5 days - processions and sacrifices took place on the first day, and performances were shown during the remaining four days.
Organized a theater performance archon - city official. He appointed from wealthy citizens chorega -philanthropist who paid for the production of plays.
Back in the days of the Rural Dionysius, farmers dressed in goat skins and masks, imitating satyrs. They sang in honor of Dionysus hymns of praise- praises- and portrayed some feat. This group of singers called - chorus. In the first performances, only the choir sang, later choir director- luminary- and the actor depicting the god Dionysus began to talk with the choir and with each other - dialog.
So from the choral songs of the goat-footed companions of Dionysus, the main genres of Greek theatrical art arose:
tragedy- talked about gods and heroes from myths, raised eternal problems: about honor and valor.
comedy- the characters here were ordinary people, their shortcomings and vices were ridiculed.
"drama of satyrs"("tragedy that jokes"). Here, the tragic heroes were portrayed comically, and the choir was dressed as satyrs, who represented half-humans - half-beasts.
The theater consisted of three main parts:
Teatron- a place for spectators, on a hillside and accommodated thousands of people.
Orchestra- This is a round platform on which the actors and the choir performed.
Skena- a small building where actors changed clothes. It was located at the edge of the orchestra opposite the seats of the audience. . Initially, the performance consisted of songs and dances performed by the choir. Later, actors appeared who had a dialogue with the leader of the choir. Participants in performances in ancient Greece were only men. In order to better see what was happening on the stage, the actors played on - cothurns - special shoes with thick soles, elevating the growth of the actor. and in male and female masks, which were larger than the hero's face and had large, expressive features. The masks had a large mouth in the form of a mouthpiece, which amplified the voice of the actor. The masks depicted the state of the hero: joy, grief, pain, fear, cruelty, etc. A wig with a lush hairstyle was worn over the mask. Actors performed in costumes: happy characters - in bright costumes, and tragic ones - in dark ones.
World fame to the Greek theater brought Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and Aristophanes.
Aeschylus- he is considered the "father of tragedy", introduced a second actor and shifted attention from the chorus to the dialogue of the actors.
Sophocles - introduces a third actor and reduced the volume of the choir part.
Euripides- the third master of Greek tragedy. brought the tragedy closer to life, showing his heroes as they are.
Aristophanes- the "father of comedy", which ridiculed the ugly side of people's lives, touched on issues of war and peace, unfortunate politicians, inequality, etc.
There are cities in the world famous for their special atmosphere, you can just come and enjoy your vacation. But there are places similar to a philosophical book, which is not enough to read, but still needs to be understood. Rome is just such a city where every house or street has its own meaning. A thousand-year history has left a huge number of traces of different eras and styles here, therefore, when going to the capital of Italy, it is advisable to understand a little about the architectural features of various areas of urban planning. We will not repeat Wikipedia information, but will make a brief overview of the achievements of the culture of building, interior design and landscape design, which is presented in Rome like in no other city in the world.
At the origins
Rome arose on the basis of two civilizations: ancient Greek and Etruscan. The last people are considered the most mysterious on earth, whose language and culture have not yet been studied. But the Etruscans left to their descendants most of the technologies in the construction and planning of cities. From the Greeks, Rome took durable materials and elements of decoration. Thus, a unique architecture was born that amazes tourists and provides ground for the scientific works of scientists.
In the II century, a special style of Rome was formed, where Antiquity is intertwined with the Middle Ages, and luxurious finishes are combined with progressive engineering solutions for their time. Many buildings of that time have not lost their scale today. So, the famous Colosseum can compete with any modern stadium in terms of size and organization of entrances and exits.
Features of the architecture of ancient Rome
Studying the achievements of Roman builders and designers, we are surprised to recognize their authorship over many technologies familiar to us:
- The invention of concrete (at that time a mixture of water, lime and rubble) allowed many buildings of Early Rome to withstand the onslaught of time and natural disasters. It was the technology of pouring concrete that made it possible to build multi-storey buildings.
- The invention of aqueducts not only solved the problem of water supply, but also became the prototype of bridges and roads.
- Arches and piers became a characteristic feature of Roman buildings, which not only beautified their appearance, but also greatly strengthened the structures.
- The vault of the ceiling is another concept that was "invented" in ancient Rome. Without it, it is impossible to imagine any temple or palace, and all this thanks to the idea of an unknown Roman architect to connect several arches in the form of a closed circle. The most beautiful example of this innovation is the famous Pantheon.
- From the Greeks, Roman architecture acquired the concepts of symmetry and regularity of forms. Most of the buildings were decorated with typical orders (Doric, Tuscan, Ionic and Corinthian). This is a special form of columns that are found everywhere in famous Roman buildings. The columns themselves became more of a decorative element, while massive walls and pilasters became load-bearing.
During the reconstruction of the buildings of Old Rome, modern masters are amazed at the strength and thoughtfulness of the masonry: the use of bricks of various shapes, the filling of voids with concrete, the use of travertine blocks.
Examples of architectural masterpieces
From various architectural masterpieces in Rome, it is easy to trace the change of historical eras, each of which has its own symbol and style. Let us trace the course of time on typical examples of cult monuments.
Republican government (II century BC - 31 AD)
This period is characterized by the appearance of the first marble temples. They were very similar to the Greek ones, but had a simpler rectangular shape with one front entrance. Most of them are located in the Roman Forum and are only partially preserved.
Reign of Augustus
After the capture of the Republic, construction began to be dominated by grandiose structures designed to elevate the status of the emperor. Most of them have survived to this day:
- Pantheon.
- Palatine Hill.
- Mausoleum of August.
- Coliseum.
- Theater of Marcellus.
The latter is less well known, and due to its resemblance to the Colosseum, it often confuses tourists walking around Rome. This is one of the first theaters of the Roman Empire.
Under the emperor Domitian, the first triumphal arch appeared in Rome, after which the whole world adopted the idea of such a perpetuation of military victories. The Arch of Titus commemorates the victory over the Jews and the final annexation of Jerusalem to the Roman Empire.
Rise of an empire
Each emperor in Rome left his architectural mark. Walking around the Eternal City, you will definitely trace the stages of the rise and fall of the greatest state:
- Under Antoninus the Pious, the temple of Antoninus and Faustina was erected.
- Marcus Aurelius immortalized his name with the famous column.
- Emperor Septimius Severus built massive triumphal gates.
- Thanks to Caracalla, Rome learned the charms of public baths. Today, unfortunately, they are almost completely destroyed.
- Emperor Aurelian erected a majestic temple of the Sun.
- The Baths of Diocletian allow you to better imagine the life and customs of the ancient city.
All types of public and cultural buildings of that time are subject to the pagan idea of the world and the praise of the power of the Roman rulers.
Medieval period
In contrast to ancient luxury and wealth, the Catholic Middle Ages brought notes of asceticism and simplicity to the architectural style. Castel Sant'Angelo plunges us into the dark years of the Inquisition and general suspicion.
A visit to this place evokes anxiety, and the thick walls of the fortress show how turbulent that time was. On a tour of the castle, you will learn how the Papal States fought for independence, and impregnable walls reliably guarded the main prisoners of the state: Benvenuto Cellini, Galilee, Giordano Bruno and Giuseppe Balsamo (better known as Count Cagliostro).
To finally be convinced of the asceticism of medieval architecture, look into the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, which is immediately behind the Pantheon.
Behind the inconspicuous façade, the Gothic vaults of the temple are hidden, which have heard the loudest renunciations of their beliefs in the history of mankind. It was here that Galileo Galilei recognized the teachings of Copernicus as erroneous, and Giordano Bruno steadfastly listened to the death sentence.
Among the many sculptures of the basilica, you will find the statue of the Resurrected Christ by the hand of Michelangelo himself.
Renaissance era
After dark centuries of religious wars, the Renaissance reigned in Rome, the revival of the classical harmony of lines and designs. The main masterpiece of this time is considered to be St. Peter's Basilica, which today is located on the territory of the Vatican.
Baroque
This is the pinnacle of the Renaissance, the opulent style of ornate bas-reliefs and marble Cupids. It is presented in Piazza Navona in all its glory. Three famous fountains (Four Rivers, Neptune and Moor), the temple of Sant'Agnese in Agone, Braschi's palace are included in all textbooks describing the baroque type of architecture.
Modern history is also reflected in the appearance of Rome. In the era of Mussolini, the Palace of Justice was erected on the western bank of the Tiber, which combined the scale of the buildings of the Roman Empire and the elegance of the Renaissance decoration.
The monumental buildings of the early 20th century, according to the plan of the dictator, were designed to revive the former greatness of the Empire. But the modern style looks more organic in the building of the main station Termini.
This is a typical Art Nouveau, which fully meets its purpose and fits perfectly into the panorama of the Eternal City. Modern Rome is just like that - light, dynamic and elegant.
strikes the imagination. Almost 3,000 years of the eventful history of the Roman lands more than adorned the city with masterpiece architecture of varying degrees of antiquity and importance, different styles and directions of architecture. From the ruins of ancient walls, arches and temples, to twentieth-century buildings such as the construction of Termini Station. In the capital of Italy, almost at any step, one can admire the harmonious and refined architecture of Rome in the implementation of artistic ideas.
It is not at all easy to find out in detail the dates of the construction of many buildings of the architecture of Rome - and is it necessary, in this case, to find out the encyclopedic authenticity; because when feelings often prevail over the mind. But even the most poorly prepared traveler in world history can distinguish an ancient Roman temple with a Christian basilica: there are pagan chic porticos, columns and passages, here - ascetic modesty of lines and an emphasis on the spiritual at the expense of the physical.
The architecture of Rome is a reflection of the main historical and cultural periods of the formation of the capital of Rome. In general, the historical architecture of Rome can be divided into a number of large temporary groups: ancient buildings, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance and the buildings of the New Age.
Architecture of Rome: Antiquity
The monuments of the ancient architecture of Rome are almost the main reason for the interest of international groups of travelers, every year almost an onslaught of exciting Roman sights.
Palatine Hill - the place where Rome appeared as a city - their greatest concentration per unit area. The Roman Forum and the Colosseum, the baths of Caracalla, circuses and amphitheatres, pagan altars of Saturn and Vulcan, the arches of Septimius Severus and Constantine, many temples and the ruins of residential areas with amazing mosaics - this is only a small part of ancient architecture.
Connoisseurs of Christian antiquity will be delighted with a visit to the churches of Santa Constanta and San Clemente. And also from the dungeons of the church of St. Agnes, in which the pioneers of the new religion hid from imperial persecution.
The symbol of Rome and Italy in general, acquired its current name because of the gigantic statue of the mad Nero ("colossus") placed in front of him, but initially he was famous as the Flavian Amphitheater. Built in the first century, the amphitheater became the largest building for mass entertainment in the entire Roman Empire. The diameters of the oval of the structure are 156 and 188 m, in height - almost 50! No wonder that such open spaces could accommodate more than 50,000 Romans who wanted spectacles.
Architecture of Rome: Colosseum The Colosseum survived, in fact, not flawlessly. The frantic history of the region predisposed to accelerated deterioration of the structure (by the way, the first preserved Roman amphitheater in the world is located in Tunisian El Jem; it often plays the role of the Colosseum in the cinema), but the former greatness has not disappeared: here, with their mouths open, travelers stand in front of suite of arches, the last of which disappears somewhere high in the sky.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to the Colosseum, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
The legendary architecture of Rome includes the Roman Forum - at one time the central market, and now the square that fills the center of the ancient part of the city. It is the epicenter of the social and political life of Roman citizens. It is from there that the current meaning of the word “forum” originates.
It must be borne in mind that the Forum is not the easiest example of Roman architecture in terms of perception. Many ruins here look ruined to such an extent that the imagination impotently subsides. Therefore, it is worth getting ready that only the most knowledgeable or stubborn will be able to admire the ancient architecture of Rome in full. As a result, you need to keep in mind that in the summer the sun is hot here mercilessly.
Near the forum at first there were pagan sanctuaries. With the collapse of the empire, it lost its social significance and was practically overgrown with weeds, until the Christians began to build their temples on it. In the 19-20 centuries, archaeological excavations began here, as a result of which the forum received modern cultural significance.
At present, the forum concentrates many ancient architectural artifacts near it, for example, the Sacred Road, the Capitol, the Temple of Saturn and so on. You can approach it from Foli Imperiali Street or from the Capitol, bypassing the Capitoline Descent from Foro Romano Street. Another road to the forum passes through the Temple of Concord, the Portico of the Blessing Gods, the Mamertine Prison, which also makes it possible to get acquainted with these monuments of ancient architecture in Rome.
Baths of Caracalla
The bathhouse, something not at all alien to a Russian person, was quite in demand in Ancient Rome. But the ancient Roman baths-saunas were called differently - terms. They went there to warm up, swim, and at the same time talk, sort out business issues, find suitable partners for their ancient Roman business.
The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD under the emperor who ruled under the name of Septimius Bassian, but the most famous, as is often the case with Roman emperors, by the nickname Caracalla preserved by historians.
It is amazing that the large-scale, grandiose and chic building of the Baths of Caracalla in terms of its functionality was “only” public baths, which promised the visitor, however, many hours of varied relaxation, both bathing and swimming, and sports, and also intellectual. It was a huge public building, stunning in its size and luxury of decoration. One can insist that the Baths of Caracalla are as majestic and monumental as the Colosseum or the Mausoleum of Hadrian.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to the Baths of Caracalla, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
Middle Ages
The not very prosperous Middle Ages tangibly worsened the appearance of the Eternal City during the vandal invasions, and gave a number of sights to the architecture of Rome. One of the most famous is the castle of Sant'Angelo on the western bank of the Tiber. Feudal turrets, loopholes and halls with high dark ceilings, combined with powerful battlements in the literal sense of impenetrable fortress walls, give a visual representation of the disturbing life in those days.
It makes sense to visit the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva: although its facade was restored in the 19th century, the original medieval style of Rome's architecture was carefully preserved. It makes sense to visit the temple of Santa Maria del Anima, built at the end of the 14th century for the needs of pilgrims in Rome.
Architecture of Rome: Castel Sant'Angelo
The unique architecture of Rome is the Castel Sant'Angelo. The construction of the Castel Sant'Angelo began in Rome as early as 135. During its almost 2000th history, it was remodeled more than once and used as a castle itself, and was also a tomb, the residence of popes, a storehouse and, of course, a dungeon. Now in the castle of the Holy Angel is the Military History Museum, where travelers can see the Secret Archive, the Treasure Hall, the papal apartments, the loggia of Paul III, the hall of Clement VII, the courtyard of Alexander VI and many other things - more than 50 rooms that form a real labyrinth!
The building acquired its name in 590, when during the plague, Pope Gregory the Great had a vision in which the Archangel Michael was on the roof, sheathing his sword. This meant that the raging disaster had come to an end. Just after that, the fortress began to be called the Castel Sant'Angelo.
Renaissance
Much of the architecture of Rome that can currently be seen has to do with the Renaissance period - the restoration of the classical canons of harmony after the gloomy Middle Ages. By the way, for the comfortable radial arrangement of the streets, Rome should be grateful just to the urban planners of the Renaissance. Among the buildings of this period, the most attention is focused on the architectural dominant of Rome - St. Peter's Cathedral and the Sistine Chapel, as well as many secondary churches and temples.
It is worth paying attention to the graceful domes of the Renaissance buildings going up: it is possible to climb on a number of them (for example, on the highest point of Rome - the dome of St. . Well, at the end of the Renaissance in the architecture of Rome, baroque blooms in a riotous color, with all its ornate bas-reliefs, rounded marble Cupids and tropical gypsum flora. For baroque sensations, you should go to its three chic fountains, and you should not miss the colonnade of St. Peter's Cathedral.
The heart of the Vatican and the whole Catholic community, St. Peter's Basilica is one of the main attractions of Rome's architecture. Here it is possible to take a bird's-eye view of ancient Rome, admire the interior of the cathedral from the top of the dome, attend the mass and even be blessed by the pontiff.
St. Peter's Basilica is, without embellishment, history itself, realized in stone.
The list of famous people who in one way or another had a hand in its architecture and interior will fill more than one page, and within its walls the fate of the whole world, states and peoples was decided. The history of the cathedral dates back to the 4th century with the construction of a simple basilica over the alleged burial place of the Apostle Peter. Until the 15th century, the structure was no different. And in 1506, by papal decree, it was planned to remake the basilica into a monumental cathedral, the center of Catholicism and a symbol of the power of the pontiff.
In order to avoid long queues at the entrance to St. Peter's Basilica, we buy tickets in advance via the Internet.
Modern architecture of Rome
The architecture of Rome of the modern era in Rome is also represented in large numbers, in no small part due to construction during the time of Italian fascism and the rule of Mussolini. Within the revival of the idea of great Rome and the great Romans, the architecture of Rome of that time came out pompous, pretentious, cumbersome and harsh.
Most of it is concentrated on the western bank of the Tiber River and in the Prati region. One example of the architecture of Rome in the early 20th century is the Palace of Justice.
But among the ponderous new imperial buildings, there are also true masterpieces, for example, the modernist building of Termini Station, completed in 1950, with a travertine facade and metal panel inserts, a symbol of modern, vibrant Rome.
The Palace of Justice is one of the most famous landmarks of the architecture of Rome and Italy in general. Currently, the building is the seat of the Supreme Court of Cassation, it is located in the Prati district, near the Castel Sant'Angelo. One of its main strengths is its exterior: a lot of decorative elements in the form of statues and stucco are concentrated on the castle. When visiting Rome, be sure to look at this amazing structure.
The beginning of the construction of the castle fell on March 14, 1888. During its construction, Giuseppe Zanarrdelli, the keeper of the state seal, was present. It was he who defended the fact that the Palace was built in the Prati area. Then in that part of Rome there were already judicial institutions, but the Palace of Justice became the largest of them. For the construction, platforms were needed, which were created from concrete. During the construction, excavations were carried out and many sarcophagi were found.
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During the III-II centuries. BC Rome was occupied with continuous struggle, both internal and external. Rome was ruled by an oligarchy represented by the patricians, who ruled in the senate and the popular assembly. This period ended with civil wars and the rise to power of Emperor Augustus in 27 BC. During the Roman Republic, a new form of architecture arose, incorporating Etruscan-Italic traditions, borrowing Greek artistic techniques and Roman building methods. Very few structures of that time have survived, but even what exists speaks of the spirit of searching for new building materials, types of buildings and ways of decorative decoration. The Romans managed to create their own architectural style.
Corinthian capital
The early Roman Corinthian capital was wider than the later one, with fleshy acanthus leaves and large flowers on the abacus. This capital is from the Temple of Vesta in Rome, where there were twenty such capitals on fluted columns.
Concrete was already used in early buildings, which gradually became a building material in its own right, although small, irregularly shaped stones connected with concrete were used for facing the outer surfaces of the walls. This is the so-called wrong lining - incern.
Little remains of the Emilia Basilica other than fragments. From excavations and images on medals, it is known that she went to the forum with a longer side. During the reconstruction of the Forum of Caesar, it was obscured by a portico erected in front of it.
Great Circus (IV century BC)
The circus hosted horse races and gladiator competitions. It was located in the valley between the Palatine and the Aventine, its length is 1968 feet (600 m).
Over time, benches were arranged there and a low wall was installed - the back, around which the races took place. At the ends of the back were installed metas - conical obelisks.
The construction of Pompeii dates back to the 3rd century. BC. It is located in Southern Italy. In 63, it was damaged by an earthquake, and in 79, it was covered with a thick layer of ash after the eruption of Vesuvius. Excavations that began at the end of the 18th century uncovered an early Roman settlement of unusually rich architecture. Houses and monuments remained untouched. The surviving buildings are the few that survive from the earliest Roman structures, such as the basilica or the baths. The south of Italy was heavily influenced by Greek art, and Pompeii is no exception. Fashion for the Greek style can be traced in the decoration of the homes of wealthy people.
The atrium is a vast courtyard in the center of the building. It had ceilings with a square hole in the center through which rainwater flowed into the pool. Depending on the design of the ceilings, several types of atrium were distinguished. Corinthian was the lightest, as a large number of columns made it possible to expand the hole in the roof.
Domus (2nd century BC)
The Italian domus is of Etruscan origin.
It consisted of rooms grouped around an atrium - a courtyard. Behind the atrium was often a peristyle. In the house of Pansa, it consisted of sixteen Ionic columns with a pool in the center. The facade facing the street was rented out.
basilica
Perhaps the basilica comes from the Greek stand, which was blocked over time. Basilicas were business centers. The basilica in Pompeii was entered from the front side, inside there was a platform for public performances.
Republican buildings near Rome
Trends in the architecture of the times of the Republic outside of Rome in the III-I centuries. BC were the same as in the capital. The Romans lacked the large marble quarries that the Greeks had, so they used the local tuff, travertine and piperine.
At the same time they used brick. The development of unusually strong concrete influenced the design of the erected structures. Concrete was usually covered with a layer of brick, masonry or plaster. The temples of this period combine the Etruscan-Italian traditions with the Hellenistic order.
The round temple of Vesta, towering over the gorge in Tivoli, is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth. Temples from this period are often well placed in the landscape.
The elongated proportions of the temple, Corinthian columns with a frieze of bull heads - all this, of course, comes from Greek architecture. The design of the temple, built from local tufa and travertine, is typically Roman.
Buildings of Augustus
When, after the civil war, Augustus came to power in 27 BC, he ushered in an age of peace and prosperity that lasted two hundred years.
He set about building roads, bridges, and aqueducts. Unfortunately, few secular structures of that time have come down to us. Apparently, Augustus followed in many ways the example of his foster father, Julius Caesar, rebuilding the forum and completing the theater of Marcellus, the earliest and most obvious example of an arched design using a warrant. For cement, they began to use volcanic sand - pozzolan, and invented a process for its slow drying. The Augustan age remained extremely conservative in its tastes.
On the semicircular facade of the theater of Marcellus (13 BC, dedicated to the memory of the grandson of Augustus - Marcellus) there were three tiers of arched galleries framed by semi-columns: at the bottom - Doric, in the next tiers Ionic and Corinthian. The combination of arched structures and orders is typical for Rome.
Only two tiers of the theater of Marcellus have survived, on the arches of which the Ionic and Doric orders are superimposed. It is not known whether there was a third, Corinthian, or simple Attic. The columns of the Roman Doric order always had a base.
Roman theaters were different from Greek ones. Semi-circular in plan rather than round, they were built on substructures and not necessarily on a hillside. Theaters were usually three-tiered, and the audience got from one tier to another by stairs, and radial corridors led them to the auditorium. Inside, the theater usually consisted of three tiers of marble steps.
Augustus claimed to have found Rome made of stone and left marble. This is true mainly of temples, many of which he built and restored. In the life of Augustus, Res Gestae Divi Augusti, he claimed to have restored eighty-two temples in one year in Rome itself alone. The temples of this period are based on republican traditions, combining Greek and Etruscan influences. They are characterized by strict clarity and orderliness, elongated proportions. Temples were often placed on a high podium. Most of the Augustan temples are Corinthian, in keeping with the taste for intricate detail and the use of marble.
Until the quarries were discovered at Luna in 20 BC, marble remained an expensive building material. During the time of August Lunsky marble was already actively used, its whiteness was perfectly combined with the imported colored marble. In the Temple of Concordia (AD 10), marble is used everywhere.
Architecture was constantly used by the Romans for political purposes. During the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), Augustus vowed to avenge the death of Julius Caesar and build a temple in his memory. The Temple of Mars Ultor (Avenger) in the Forum of Augustus was donated to the city. In plan, the temple of Mars Ultor is an eight-column Italic-type picnostyle, supplemented by an apse located above the floor level and closing the main axis of the temple. The temple is almost square, on a high podium.
Forum Augustus is located perpendicular to the forum of Julius Caesar and retained the main features of his plan, but the temple was moved close to the back wall of the forum, the side walls formed two semicircles.
Flanking the temple, they gave the square a typically Italian character with a central-axial composition.
Flavius
Emperor Vespasian (reigned 69-79) founded the only imperial dynasty, the Flavian dynasty. Like his predecessors (the Julius-Claudians), they rejected the architectural asceticism of the Republican and Augustan eras. Their legacy is an intricate fad that could only come about in an age of peace and abundance. House and palace architecture created the forms of vaults. Perfect mastery of concrete and building technology made it possible to block large spans without supports, such as: an octagon covered with a closed vault in the Golden House of Nero. In 64 a fire destroyed much of the city and Nero passed a law forbidding the use of wood and recommended cement floors and arcade ceilings on the lower levels.
Reticulum - mesh masonry, in which the outer surface of the concrete wall was lined with small, carefully laid pyramidal stones. Their flat bases go out and form a mesh pattern, and the sharp ends are immersed in the concrete core of the wall.
The Tuscan order was originally an Etruscan variant of the Doric, although the Romans perceived it as specifically Italic. Unlike the Doric order, the columns in the Tuscan order have a base and a high capital and a cornice without mutulus.
Or the Flavian Amphitheater, was founded by Vespasian in 70 as a gift to the city of Rome. It was discovered by his son Titus in 80 and completed by Domitian. The Colosseum was built on the site of an artificial lake in the gardens surrounding the Golden House of Nero. The clayey soil formed an ideal base for the enormous weight of the building. The nearby colossus, a huge statue of Nero, may have given the amphitheater its name. Unlike the selfishly prodigal Nero, Vespasian prudently gave the Romans an amphitheater where gladiatorial fights took place, creating the first permanent amphitheater in the city. The structure is very traditional in plan and decoration, but its dimensions: 616 x 512 feet (188 x 156 m) make it unique.
The materials have been deliberately chosen to meet these dimensions and weights. The bases are made of concrete, the walls are made of tuff, the upper part is made of concrete lined with bricks. The outer part is made of travertine. The support for the transitions was a rigid structural frame, consisting of pylons and barrel vaults. In addition, the concrete structure of the Colosseum contained many brick arches that acted as unloading arches and formed the frame of the vaults.
Wooden posts were inserted into the holes in the brackets of the attic eaves, to which the ends of the canopy stretchers were tied - velaria, which was stretched over the amphitheater to protect spectators from the sun. It was held by a system of blocks.
The Spanish soldier Trajan became emperor in 98. He is known as one of the great builders-emperors, but, unfortunately, little has come down to us from his time. Trajan's markets are a happy exception. These streets of stone and concrete shops rose on the Quirinal hill above Trajan's forum. He built baths on the site of the Golden House of Nero, which followed the plan of the baths of Titus. Trajan also reconstructed the port and shipyards in Rome. But his most ambitious project is the Romanum Forum (Roman Forum). In general, the architect of the forum used many techniques developed before him, in particular, the semicircles of the forum of Augustus.
Libraries. Rome
Two magnificent libraries for Latin and Greek manuscripts were built in Trajan's Forum. They were located one opposite the other and exited the entrances to the square, in the center of which stood Trajan's column. The podium in them was replaced by galleries on high columns.
The ashes of Emperor Trajan were immured in the base of the column. The column had an internal spiral staircase and was topped by a gilded bronze statue, which was later replaced by a statue of St. Peter.
A monumental column on marble (155 feet high or 47 m) was erected, and commemorates Trajan's victories in the war against the Dacians. The main feature of the column is a relief frieze, which stretches from the podium to the capital with a long spinal ribbon.
Adrian
The architecture of the era of Hadrian (117-138) sought to combine Roman forms with the architectural and decorative forms of Greece and the Hellenistic East. Its characteristic feature was the construction of concrete and brick, as well as the development of vaulted and domed structures, for example in the villa in Tivoli. The architecture of the Baroque era in its plasticity, the ratio of spaces, the play of light and shadow. Hadrian's deep admiration for Greece is evident in most of the buildings of his time. He himself lived for a long time in Athens and built a lot here. Sometimes Adrian also acts as an architect, among others designing buildings, for example, the temple of Venus and Roma in Rome.
Country villa: Hadrian's villa. Tivoli (c. 118-134)
The name "Hadrian's Villa" is misleading. It is more like a palace set in the countryside. It is characterized by a free picturesque layout, a delightful combination of the water surface with architecture, sculpture and green landscape. Concrete was used in the buildings, as well as technically complex structures.
Outwardly, it is a peripter with an elongated cella, but it consists of two identical temples touching by apses, one of which housed a statue of Venus, the other - Roma.
It is known that the temple was designed by Adrian himself. The architect Apollodorus dared to criticize the temple for being disproportionate, for which he paid with his life. Set on a high plinth, it was surrounded by a gray granite colonnade with white marble capitals.
The Pantheon has taken a special place in Roman and world architecture. It was built around 118-128. Adrian on the site of the old Pantheon, erected by the consul Marcus Agrippa, but surpassed it in size and appearance. The temple was dedicated to all the gods and repeated the round shape of the old Pantheon, which, apparently, can be explained by the desire to preserve the continuity of traditions. It is curious that an inscription from the temple of Agrippa was preserved on the portico. This is one of the greatest surviving buildings from antiquity. It was erected on the Field of Mars and was a kind of counterweight to the Colosseum. In 609 the Pantheon was turned into a church by Pope Boniface.
The temple consists of three parts: a domed rotunda, a rectangular portico adjacent to it, and a transitional part between the portico and the rotunda. The walls in the lower part, apparently, were covered with marble, and in the upper part they were plastered. The dome was covered with gilded tiles.
The interior is dominated by the hemisphere of a grandiose dome. At its highest point there was a hole - opion, through which light penetrated. In the decoration of the interior, the Pantheon reflects typical Roman expressiveness. This is the result of the use of concrete, barking more freedom in the organization of the internal space and allowing the creation of buildings of considerable proportions.
The dome of the Pantheon surpasses in size all such constructions, not only of antiquity, but also of the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance, up to the 19th century. Its diameter - 141 feet (43 m) - is equal to its height, which is half the height of the entire building, a ratio recommended by Vitruvius.
The era of the North in Rome
The emperors of the Sever dynasty came to power in 193 after civil wars. The diminishing power and influence of Rome, and the strengthening of the provinces, seemed only to encourage them to build still more grandiose structures.
Their main contribution to the architecture of Rome is the extensive bath complexes. The main features of late Roman baths have already been found in the baths of Trajan and Titus I c. - this is axial symmetry and the sequence of the location of the premises. The size of the buildings of the Severs was new: the Baths of Caracalla occupied 50 acres (20 ha) and accommodated 1,600 people at a time. The use of concrete vaults and arched structures made it possible to expand these vast spaces without external props.
A marble triumphal arch was erected at the foot of the Capitol and dedicated to the victories of the emperor in Mesopotamia.
A feature of the arch is the internal openings in the middle pylons. The arch of Septimius Severus was richly decorated with sculpture. Each barrel vault over the aisle is covered with caissons of flowers surrounded by acanthus leaves.
Septisonium (203)
A colossal decoration placed on the southern slope of the Palatine and obscuring the substructures of the imperial palace. It was destroyed in 1588. The wall was decorated with three-tiered porticos alternating with exedra. Colored marble columns, a statue of the emperor in the center, fountains and statues in exedras gave the building a solemn look.
Empire of the Severes
In the vast empire of the Severes (193-305), new architectural types and styles were being developed. The Romans brought their traditions to the province, but they changed according to local building practices. Outside of Rome, concrete was rarely used, which limited the possibilities.
The dome of the Mausoleum of Diocletian in Split, for example, was entirely made of brick, which limited its size. In the provinces, stone continued to be used long after it had ceased to be used in Rome. Freedom in the use of classical orders was also characteristic of the provinces, which made it possible to create new architectural forms.
This is one of the few well-preserved temples of the ensemble in Baalbek (now Lebanon). The temple is typically Roman, with a deep portico and a large cella on a high podium. But its height is rather Hellenistic.
The rich interior of the temple of Bacchus is one of the few well-preserved to our time. Its limestone walls are decorated with classical ornamentation and an order that rises to the full height of the building. Between the columns there are niches, some with pediment completion, others round.
A four-columned portico obscured the round cella, giving the centric temple the frontal axial orientation favored by the Romans. The loosening of the podium and entablature supported by the Corinthian columns created an almost Baroque plasticity.
Late empire
Under Emperor Constantine, two important events took place that changed the course of the further development of the architecture of Rome. In 313 the emperor recognized Christianity and became a Christian himself, and in 330 he made Constantinople his capital. The ever-increasing threat from the northern tribes, political instability led to a decrease in the building level. In technical terms, the structures became simpler, there were often cases of dismantling dilapidated buildings and reusing their stone, columns, details, and reliefs. Stone carving was no longer so refined and complex. But there were exceptions, such as the construction of the walls of Aurelius around Rome. Emperor Maxentius even built for himself a new villa and hippodrome next to the Appian Way. The Late Empire (30b-340s) became a transition from Rome to Byzantium.
The basilica was begun by Maxentius and completed by Constantine, in which the entrance was moved to the middle of the long side, which caused the addition of an apse opposite it.
Three side compartments on each side of the central nave serve as buttresses holding the strut of the heavy vault. The central nave of the basilica (80 x 25 m, 35 m high) was covered with three concrete cross vaults. It rested on massive pillars and vaults of the transverse aisles.
Used since the time of Augustus, brick has been used as a lining in concrete and as a cladding material. Concrete became the predominant building material in the late empire. The stone was hardly used except in triumphal arches.