Types of higher nervous activity (HNA).
GNI type is a combination of congenital and acquired properties nervous system, thanks to which the type of behavior is formulated.
There are several classifications of types of GNI.
The concept of genotype and phenotype.
IClassification of I. P. Pavlov. He laid the basis for the classification of the properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition:
a) strength of nervous processes, i.e., the performance of cortical cells. It is determined by the duration of nervous tension associated with excitation or inhibition.
b) balance of nervous processes- i.e., the ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition.
in) mobility of nervous processes- the ability of cortical cells, at the request of circumstances, to give an advantage to one process over another, or the ability to quickly change one process to another.
strong weak
balanced unbalanced ↓
mobile inert ↓ ↓
psychological alive calm unrestrained weak
characteristic
That is, according to Pavlov, 4 types are distinguished:
1) strong, balanced, mobile (live type);
2) strong, balanced, inert (calm type);
3) strong, unbalanced (unrestrained);
4) weak type.
IIClassification of types according to excitability and impressionability.
This classification was given by Hippocrates (460 - 377 BC). The classification of temperaments was based on the predominance of various body fluids.
According to Hippocrates, there are 4 temperaments:
Sanguine (hot blood);
choleric (bile);
Phlegmatic (mucus);
Melancholic (black bile).
The classification according to Pavlov correlates well with the classification of temperaments according to Hippocrates:
Sanguine is a living type;
Choleric - unrestrained;
Phlegmatic - calm;
Melancholic is weak.
Characteristics of personality by excitability and impressionability.
1) sanguine- dominated by the "pleasure center". It is characterized by high excitability, a lively reaction to changes in circumstances. Maintains balance in difficult situations.
2) Choleric- the center of impatience dominates. It is characterized by increased excitability, even nervousness, is very emotional, reacts violently to influences.
3) Phlegmatic person- the center of patience dominates. It is characterized by high excitability, but a person hardly changes activities, emotions are extinguished.
4) melancholic- the center of despondency dominates. Excitability is weak. Rapid exhaustion of the processes of excitation and inhibition is characteristic. Impressionability is increased, emotional, negative emotions predominate.
Characteristics of behavioral reactions.
1) sanguine- sociable, contact, purposeful.
2) Choleric- high need for activity, purposefulness, but interests often change.
3) Phlegmatic person- slow formation of behavior programs, high purposefulness and efficiency.
4) melancholic- difficult to establish contacts, indecisive, fear, high fatigue. With the novelty of the situation, he chooses passive - defensive behavior.
Genotype- hereditarily transmitted qualities of nervous processes.
Phenotype- their change as a result of lifestyle, life experience, education.
Features of human GNI.
Classification of temperaments of Hippocrates and classification of types of GNI and I.P. Pavlova are common to both animals and humans.
A feature of human GNI is the presence of the II signal system.
First signal system- a system of the body that provides the formation of a direct idea of the surrounding reality. Signals for the I-signal system are objects and their specific properties (color, smell, shape), phenomena of the surrounding world,
Second signal system is a system of the body that provides the formation of a generalized idea of the surrounding reality with the help of speech.
In humans, 4 types of GNI have been identified based on the ratio of signaling systems.
Itype - artistic, the second signaling system dominates, the right hemisphere prevails.
IItype - thinking- the II signal system prevails over the I, the left hemisphere dominates.
IIItype - medium– equality of signaling systems.
IVartistic - mental- with the predominance of II and II signaling systems over the average level of their activity (genius type). For other signs of classification, see Lecture Volume II, p. 295.
Neuroses and neurotic components.
Neurosis is understood as functional disorders or disruptions of nervous activity.
The basics of neurosis are:
1) in the overvoltage of the processes of excitation and inhibition;
2) in overvoltage mobility of excitation and inhibition.
Neuroses manifest themselves in the form of various components or their combinations.
Classification of neurotic components.
1) Mental components:
a) change in emotional status and well-being;
b) decrease in working capacity.
1) Psychosomatic components:
a) there are pains;
b) a feeling of discomfort associated with the activity of internal organs;
c) violations in the sexual sphere.
3) Vegetative components:
a) vegetative reactions are paradoxical in nature, change in waves;
b) there is a discrepancy between the reactions of various physiological systems.
Having appeared once, neurotic components or their combinations can be fixed for a long time. Therefore, it is believed that neurosis is the process of formation and consolidation of neurotic components in the central nervous system. In this case, the mental component may disappear, while the psychosomatic and vegetative components may remain for a long time.
Neurotic components are the content of complaints of patients.
Conditions for the occurrence of neurosis:
1) excess or lack of information;
2) lack of time to make a decision;
3) a high level of motivation, and the solution of the problem is impossible.
Factors contributing to the development of neurosis:
1) the strength of the acting stimulus;
2) individual properties of the CNS;
3) the state of stability of the central nervous system at the moment.
Experimental neuroses.
They developed during the development of conditioned reflexes under the following conditions:
1) if strong conditioned and unconditioned stimuli were used;
2) in the development of complex and subtle differentiations;
3) with prolonged use of brake signals (prohibitions).
Neurosis occurs in life-threatening conditions. For the first time they were observed in Pavlov's laboratory, when, after the flood, in some dogs the already developed reflexes either disappeared or manifested themselves differently than before this event. Those. a change in conditioned reflex activity was observed in dogs subjected to flooding.
With neurosis, the law of power relations is often violated. Depending on the degree of the neurotic state, various phases of the change in the law of power relations are observed:
1) leveling;
2) paradoxical;
3) ultraparadoxical;
The idea of the typological features of the human and animal nervous system is one of the defining ones in the doctrine of higher nervous activity. GND type- this is a complex of individual characteristics of GNI, due to hereditary factors and the influence of the environment, characterized by the strength, mobility and balance of nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) and a certain ratio of the first and second signal systems.
The most important property of GNI is the strength of nervous processes. The strength of nervous processes is understood as the ability of neurons to withstand prolonged excitation without going into transcendental inhibition under the action of a strong stimulus. According to the strength of the nervous processes, all people can be divided into two types: strong and weak.
The second property underlying the classification of HNI types is the balance between the processes of excitation and inhibition. They can be balanced, but they can also prevail one over the other. In persons with a weak nervous system, protective transboundary inhibition easily develops. Therefore, it is impossible to consider the property of the balance of processes in them. The strong type on this basis can be divided into balanced and unbalanced.
The third property of the nervous system is mobility, which is characterized by the speed of mutual transitions of the processes of excitation and inhibition. In accordance with this, I.P. Pavlov identified four types of GNI of animals and humans (Fig. 13.4), which made it possible to give scientific explanation the existence of four types of Hippocratic temperament - sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic.
1. Strong balanced mobile (live) type- the processes of excitation and inhibition are well expressed, balanced and easily pass one into another. People easily overcome difficulties (strength), are able to quickly navigate in a new environment (mobility), with great self-control (poise).
2. Strong balanced inert (calm) type- a person is endowed with good strength of nervous processes and balance, but low mobility, inertia of nervous processes. People are efficient (strength), but slow, do not like to change their habits (inertia).
3. Strong unbalanced (unrestrained) type- characterized by a strong process of excitation, which prevails over inhibition. People who are very addicted, who can do a lot (strength), but are very quick-tempered and unpredictable (unbalanced).
4. Weak type- characterized by weak excitation processes and easily occurring inhibitory reactions. People are weak-willed, afraid of difficulties, easily subject to other people's influence, prone to a melancholy mood.
Rice. 13.4. Scheme of types of higher nervous activity (according to I.P. Pavlov)
Belonging to one or another type of GNI does not at all mean an assessment of the biological fitness of an animal or the social usefulness of a person. This is evidenced by the fact that all four general type Animal nervous systems have withstood the merciless test of time in evolution. There is no reason to count people different type nervous system by people of "different sorts". Everyone is needed and can find their place in life.
Observing various forms of behavior, the peculiarities of thinking and emotional activity of people, I.P. Pavlov proposed another classification of GNI types, based on the interaction of I and II signaling systems. According to Pavlov, there are three types of people: thinking, artistic and mixed.
1. For people artistic type the predominance of concrete-figurative thinking, based on the activity of the more developed first signal system of reality, is characteristic. These people are most prone to synthesis. Representatives of people with a pronounced artistic type I.P. Pavlov considered L.N. Tolstoy and I.E. Repin.
2. For people thinking type characteristic is the predominance of the second signal system of reality. They are more prone to analytical, abstract, abstract thinking. To this type of GNI I.P. Pavlov attributed the famous German philosopher Hegel, the creator of the theory of the origin of species to the English scientist C. Darwin.
3. There are categories of people who have the first and second signaling systems equally developed. People with this type are prone to both abstract and sensory-figurative thinking. Their I.P. Pavlov referred to mixed type. To this category from among eminent figures science and art Pavlov attributed the versatile gifted Leonardo da Vinci - a brilliant artist and mathematician, anatomist and physiologist. The mixed type of GNI, according to the scientist, was possessed by the German poet and philosopher Goethe, the creator of the periodic system of elements D.I. Mendeleev, an outstanding chemist, talented Russian composer A.P. Borodin.
brain asymmetry
In the vast majority of people, the motor activity of the arms, legs, left and right halves of the body, faces are not the same. The perception of objects located to the left or to the right of the median plane of the body is also ambiguous. In other words, man has motor and sensory asymmetry. To perform labor operations at home most of people use their right hand, i.e. are right-handed. At the same time, the right hand is superior to the left in dexterity, strength, speed of reaction, in the ability to clearly perform complexly coordinated actions. A much smaller part of humanity (left-handers) uses the left hand for the same purposes. In addition, there are people who equally use both hands - the so-called ambidexters. A stable preference for one of the hands is inherent only in a person who stands out on this basis from other groups of living beings. The proportion of left-handers, according to various authors, ranges from 1 to 30%. Motor and sensory asymmetries, i.e. the dominant of the hands (legs) and the sense organs (vision, hearing, touch) in each individual may not coincide.
In newborns, both hands are equal. If in the first years of life there are preferences in their use, then they are not long and can change many times. Only in the fifth year of life, the right hand of future right-handed people gradually begins to take over all the complex activities. It is assumed that the opposite process occurs in old age, and the unevenness of the hands is gradually smoothed out.
In girls and women, the asymmetry of the hands is less pronounced, and left-handers among them are 1.5-2 times less than among the representatives of the "strong" sex. Improving the functions of the brain of girls is stretched over a longer period and is done slowly. In boys, already at the age of six, many functions are performed separately by the right and left hemispheres of the brain, and in girls 2 times older, specialization of the brain is often just beginning.
It is especially interesting that left-handed twins are significantly more common than single-born twins, and both twins are rarely left-handed. Usually one of the twins always becomes right-handed. If the twins are of different sexes, then the boy becomes left-handed more often. Among Siamese twins, as a rule, one is right-handed, the other is left-handed.
In right-handed people, Broca's speech center is in the left hemisphere of the brain. In the right part of the cerebral hemisphere there is a structurally identical area of the brain, the defeat of which, however, does not lead to any consequences for them. On the contrary, in case of failure of the left motor area of speech, motor aphasia occurs in right-handed people. In any case, in about 3% of the population, the speech area exhibits full functional ability in both hemispheres of the brain. It is noteworthy that the right region is not always the dominant speech center in left-handed people - in most cases, the dominant speech center is also located in the left temporal lobe of the brain. With a prolonged violation of Broca's speech center, the right hemisphere can gradually take over its functions. If in a child the process of redistribution of the functions of the cerebral hemispheres proceeds relatively quickly (about a year), then with age, the reserve function more and more remains with the right hemisphere. The localization of Broca's speech area in the left hemisphere of the brain is, apparently, the most characteristic example of the specialization of both hemispheres. All other functions of the brain do not have such a pronounced dominant.
As you know, between the two hemispheres of the brain is the corpus callosum, in which millions of nerve endings create an intense transverse connection. A more pronounced corpus callosum in women is one of the reasons for the less asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres in them. If this corpus callosum is dissected, then each hemisphere of the brain will be isolated, left to itself. The right hemisphere can still control the movements of the left arm and left leg (there is a crossing of nerve fibers in the spinal cord so that the neurons of the right hemisphere enter the nerve pathways to the left side of the body). For example, when palpating a nail with the left hand, the impressions received freely reach the brain and consciousness, but the patient is not able to name this object, since the verbal designation is responsible for Broca's speech center located in the left hemisphere, the connection with which is interrupted as a result of the dismemberment of the corpus callosum. When feeling objects with the right hand, such problems do not arise. The speech center receives the necessary information. The same happens if the object is viewed only with the left field of vision or the sound is perceived only with the left ear.
The above examples show that the left hemisphere of the brain plays a leading role in the implementation of the speech function. But this does not mean that the right hemisphere is unnecessary or secondary. For example, in areas such as orientation in space, recognition of shapes and understanding of music, voice intonation, it surpasses the left hemisphere.
The specialization of both hemispheres of the brain allows us to conclude that the human brain to a certain extent has the ability to " self repair» in violation of the functions of one or another hemisphere. When one hemisphere fails, the second can turn on without reaching the full efficiency of the dominant hemisphere. This fact is of fundamental importance, for example, in the case of damage (death) of brain tissue after a stroke; intensive long-term exercises can lead to a significant restoration of the functions of the hemisphere and, to a certain extent, restore lost skills. Of course, this process is slow and does not always lead to full functional recovery, but in most cases it is possible.
It has been established that the right hemisphere is responsible for homeostasis, therefore, it provides biological adaptation, and the left hemisphere provides social adaptation. It is no coincidence that women in whom interhemispheric asymmetry is less pronounced have, as a rule, a more perfect strategy for adapting to various conditions.
Differences between the functions of the right and left hemispheres are shown in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1.
Interhemispheric asymmetry
| Left hemisphere | Right hemisphere |
| BETTER RECOGNIZING INCENTIVES | |
| verbal | Not verbal |
| Easily distinguishable | hard to see |
| iconic | Unsigned |
| BETTER TASKS PERFORMED | |
| For a temporary relationship | on spatial relationships |
| Establishing similarities | Difference setting |
| Identity of stimuli by name | Identity of stimuli by physical properties |
| Creative, where fantasy is needed | Dislike creative tasks |
| FEATURES OF PERCEPTION | |
| Analytical Perception | Holistic perception |
| Consistent Perception | Simultaneous perception |
| Generalized recognition | concrete recognition |
| FEATURES OF BEHAVIOR AND PSYCHE | |
| Abstract logical thinking | Concrete-figurative thinking |
| Based on reality | Based on fantasy |
| Perception of the native language | Perception foreign languages |
| Have a good underline | Have bad handwriting |
| Work is completed on time, there is a sense of time | Don't finish work on time, no sense of time |
| Leading voluntary attention | Long-lasting involuntary attention |
| good concentration | Greater distractibility |
Our educational system, as well as our science, generally tends to ignore the non-verbal form of intelligence. In this way, modern society discriminates the right hemisphere. In 1981, the American neurologist R. Sperry received Nobel Prize for the discovery of functional asymmetry of the brain.
Sleep physiology
Sleep is a periodic functional state of a person, characterized by the absence of purposeful activity and active connections with the environment. During sleep, brain activity does not decrease, but is rebuilt. A third of a person's life is spent sleeping: he sleeps for 25 out of 75 years.
An analysis of a number of facts was given by I.P. Pavlov to the conclusion that sleep and conditioned inhibition are by their nature a single process. The only difference between them is that conditioned inhibition during wakefulness covers only individual groups of neurons, while during the development of sleep, inhibition radiates through the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres, spreading to the underlying parts of the brain.
Sleep developing in humans and animals under the influence of conditioned inhibitory stimuli, I.P. Pavlov called active sleep, contrasting it with passive sleep, which occurs in cases of cessation or sharp restriction of the influx of afferent signals to the cerebral cortex.
The importance of afferent signaling in maintaining the state of wakefulness was shown by I.M. Sechenov, who cites cases of the onset of prolonged sleep in patients suffering from common disorders of the sense organs known from clinical practice.
In the clinic, a patient was observed who, of all the sense organs, retained the functions of only one eye and one ear. As long as the eye could see and the ear could hear, the person was awake, but as soon as the doctors closed these only ways for the patient to communicate with the outside world, the patient immediately fell asleep. HELL. Speransky and V.S. Galkin cut the dog's optic and olfactory nerves and destroyed both cochleas of the inner ear. After such an operation, the dog fell into a sleepy state, which lasted over 23 hours a day. She only woke up a short time from hunger, or from fullness of the rectum and bladder.
All these facts received a new explanation after the functional significance of the reticular formation was established and the interaction between it and the cerebral cortex was elucidated.
Afferent signals passing through the reticular formation of the midbrain and nonspecific nuclei of the thalamus to the cerebral cortex have an activating effect on it and maintain an active state. The elimination of these influences (when several receptor systems are affected or as a result of the destruction of the reticular formation or the shutdown of its functions under the action of certain narcotic drugs, for example, barbiturates) leads to the onset of deep sleep. In turn, the reticular formation of the brain stem is under the continuous tonic influence of the cerebral cortex.
Rice. 13.6. Scheme of the interaction of "sleep centers" and "awakening" structures during wakefulness and the onset of sleep (according to P.K. Anokhin). A. Waking. Cortical influences (I) inhibit the "sleep centers" (II) and the ascending activating influences of the reticular structures (III) and excitations going along the lemniscal pathways (IV) freely reach the cortex. B. Dream. Inhibited sections of the cortex (I) cease to have a restraining effect on the "sleep centers" (II), they block ascending activating influences (III), without affecting excitations along the lemniscal pathways (IV).
The existence of a two-way connection between the cerebral cortex and the reticular formation plays an important role in the mechanism of sleep initiation. Indeed, the development of inhibition in areas of the cortex reduces the tone of the reticular formation, and this weakens its ascending activating effect, which entails a decrease in the activity of the entire cerebral cortex. Thus, inhibition that initially occurs in a limited area of the cortex can cause inhibition of neurons in the entire cortex of the cerebral hemispheres.
One of the attempts to create a unified theory of sleep was undertaken by P.K. Anokhin (Fig. 13.6). In his hypothesis, he proceeded from the fact that the hypothalamic "sleep centers" are under a tonic inhibitory influence from the cerebral cortex. With the weakening of this influence due to a decrease in the working tone of the cortical cells (“active sleep” according to I.P. Pavlov), the hypothalamic structures seem to be “released” and determine the whole complex picture of the redistribution of vegetative components that is characteristic of the state of sleep. At the same time, the hypothalamic centers have a depressing effect on the ascending activating system, stopping access to the cortex of the entire complex of activating influences (“passive sleep” according to I.P. Pavlov). These interactions appear to be cyclic, so the sleep state can be induced artificially (or as a result of a pathological process) by acting on any part of the cycle.
sleep stages
During a night's sleep, a person has 3-5 periodic shifts of slow and fast sleep.
| Slow-wave sleep (orthodox) | REM sleep (paradoxical) |
| The physiological state of the body | |
| Comes after falling asleep, lasts 60-90 minutes. The metabolism and activity of the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive and excretory systems decrease, muscle tone drops, muscles relax, the temperature drops. It is believed that a decrease in body temperature may be one of the reasons for the onset of sleep. Awakening is accompanied by an increase in body temperature. | Comes after slow sleep, lasts 10-15 minutes. The activity of the internal organs is activated: the pulse, respiration increases, the temperature rises, the oculomotor muscles contract (the eyes move quickly), facial muscles, there is no skeletal muscle tone. |
| Mental processes of the brain | |
| Dreams reflect the processes of thinking and retelling the events of the past day, they are abstract and cognitive. There may be a conversation in a dream, there are night terrors in children and sleepwalking (sleepwalking). | Excitation of neurons in the occipital lobes. The appearance of realistic emotional dreams with visual, sound and olfactory images. There is a classification and ordering of the information received during the day, memory consolidation. Depriving a person of this type of sleep leads to memory disorders and mental illness. |
| Dreams of I.M. Sechenov called unprecedented combinations of experienced impressions |
Based on the electroencephalographic picture, the phase of "slow sleep" is, in turn, divided into several stages.
Stage I - drowsiness, the process of falling asleep. The EEG is dominated by α- and θ-rhythms, at the end of the stage, K-complexes appear (series of high-amplitude slow potentials lasting 3-5 s).
Stage II - superficial sleep (sleep spindle stage). On the EEG, there are K-complexes and sleep spindles appear (frequency is about 15 Hz, a variant of the α-rhythm). Their appearance coincides with the turning off of consciousness; the stage occupies about 50% of the sleep time and increases in duration from the first to the last cycle.
Stage III - deep sleep (delta sleep), characterized by the presence of a ∆-rhythm with a frequency of 3.0-3.5 Hz, which occupies up to 30% of the EEG.
Stage IV - the stage of "REM" or "paradoxical sleep", is characterized by the presence of a δ-rhythm with a frequency of approximately 1 Hz, which occupies up to 30% of the EEG. Stages III and IV are present in the first sleep cycles and are absent in the last ones (before awakening).
Night sleep usually consists of 4-5 cycles, each of which begins with the first stages of "slow" sleep and ends with "REM" sleep. The duration of the cycle in a healthy adult is relatively stable and is 90-100 minutes. In the first two cycles, "slow" sleep prevails, in the last - "fast", and "delta" sleep is sharply reduced and may even be absent.
The duration of "slow" sleep is 75-85%, and "paradoxical" - 15-25% of the total duration of night sleep.
The physiological role of sleep.
· Restorative function- the predominance of anabolism processes.
· Antistress function- sleep is one of the mechanisms of mental protection of the individual.
· adaptive function- synchronization with the cycle of day and night ensures optimal interaction of the body with the environment, preparing the body for activities during wakefulness.
· Role in information processing- implementation of the process of memory consolidation: the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory.
Sleep types.
1. periodic daily sleep;
2. periodic seasonal sleep (winter or summer hibernation of animals);
3. narcotic sleep caused by various chemical or physical agents;
4. hypnotic sleep;
5. pathological sleep.
The first two types are varieties of physiological sleep, the last three types are the result of special non-physiological effects on the body.
Sleep disturbance. Sleep disorders are very common among the population of civilized countries. Insomnia is a chronic disease associated with impaired synchronization. biological clock with diurnal rhythms. Sleep disorders are noted in 45% of the urban population. Among rural residents, insomnia is much less common.
Sleep disorders fall into three main forms:
1. Difficulty falling asleep. It occurs most frequently. A person suffering from this type of insomnia cannot fall asleep for a long time: disturbing memories and thoughts that constantly pile up on each other interfere with sleep. All efforts and painful attempts to fall asleep lead to nothing. The very anxiety for sleep, the tense expectation of it, the fear of the upcoming sleepless night, anxiety for a hard day after a sleepless night further exacerbate insomnia. A person suffering from insomnia cannot stay in one position for a long time, constantly turns in bed in search of the most comfortable position, and cannot fall asleep for a long time.
2. Superficial, restless sleep with frequent awakenings. Such people usually wake up 1-2 hours after falling asleep. The duration of falling asleep after waking up in the middle of the night ranges from several minutes to several hours. However, it also happens that after waking up once, a person does not fall asleep until the morning, and only then does superficial sleep begin. Usually people who wake up often complain of a superficial sleep that does not bring satisfaction and cheerfulness.
3. Early final awakening. This sleep disorder is less common. After it, there are no signs of drowsiness, and the person is awake. Early awakening is similar to awakening in the middle of the night, but differs only in that it is not followed by falling asleep and that it comes from a drowsy state and light sleep (the first awakening occurs after deep sleep). People who have an increased excitability of the nervous system wake up prematurely.
Reduced sleep duration - one of the constant signs of insomnia - is relatively rarely pronounced. With partial insomnia, there are periods of wakefulness at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the night. With total insomnia, wakefulness predominates, only occasionally interrupted by drowsiness. This type of insomnia is much less common.
Sleep disorders include increased drowsiness, the so-called hypersomnia. Drowsiness can be observed in people with a weak nervous system: in this case, it can be considered as a protective reaction that protects nerve cells from overexertion.
In contrast to insomnia, increased pathological sleepiness leads to prolonged sleep, which is often the result of inflammatory diseases of the brain, such as viral encephalitis. In these cases, sleep can last weeks and months, and even, in rare cases, years. Such a dream is called lethargic.
Pathological drowsiness most often occurs in people who have had serious infectious diseases - typhus, meningitis, influenza. Drowsiness occurs with anemia and functional disorders of the nervous system.
Unlike insomnia, excessive sleepiness is less common.
Recent studies to determine the duration of sleep required have shown that the average need for sleep in young people is 8.5 hours per night. The duration of a night's sleep of 7.2-7.4 hours is insufficient, and sleeping less than 6.5 hours for a long time can undermine health.
The effect of "accumulation of lack of sleep" completely disappears after the first 10 hours of the "recovery" sleep period. Therefore, chronic lack of sleep on weekdays and oversleeping in the mornings on weekends are interrelated phenomena.
Artificially depriving a person of sleep is an ordeal. Experiments with sleep deprivation have shown that volunteers experience emotional imbalance, increased fatigue, delusions, sleep disturbance, vestibular dysfunctions, hallucinations appear after 90 hours of sleep deprivation, depersonalization by 170 hours, and mental and psychomotor disorders by the 200th hour. . During these experiments, it was found that the body especially needs non-REM (delta) sleep and REM sleep. After prolonged sleep deprivation, the main effect is an increase in delta sleep. Thus, after 200 hours of continuous wakefulness, the percentage of delta sleep in the first 9 hours of registration of restorative sleep doubles compared to the norm, and the duration of REM sleep increases by 57%.
In order to study the role of individual sleep phases, methods have been developed to selectively prevent their occurrence. With the suppression of delta sleep, the subjects develop a feeling of weakness, fatigue, memory deteriorates and attention decreases. The feeling of weakness and increased fatigue, especially growing towards the second half of the day, in patients with neurosis is due to a chronic deficit of delta sleep (V.S. Rotenberg, 1984).
REM sleep deprivation changes mood, impairs performance, affects memory.
Sleep hygiene. Good sleep can be ensured by following certain rules. Before going to bed, it is necessary to exclude exciting games, mental work. The time after dinner should be spent in a calm atmosphere, excluding strong excitement. It is recommended to walk for 20-30 minutes before going to bed in calm weather. Dinner should be light 1.5-2 hours before bedtime. Chocolate, coffee and strong tea at night are not recommended.
– it is a set of innate and acquired properties of the nervous system that determine the nature of the interaction of the organism with the environment and are reflected in all the functions of the organism.
The type of higher nervous activity is based on individual characteristics flow in two: and braking. According to the views of I.P. Pavlov, there are three main properties of nervous processes:
1) The strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition (associated with the performance of nerve cells).
The strength of excitation processes characterized by: high performance; initiative; decisiveness; courage; courage; perseverance in overcoming life's difficulties; the ability to solve difficult situations without disruption of nervous activity.
The strength of the braking processes characterized by: self-control; patience; a high ability to concentrate, to differentiate the permissible, the possible from the unacceptable and impossible.
Weakness of nervous processes characterized by: low performance; increased fatigue; weak endurance; indecisiveness in difficult situations, and the rapid onset of neurogenic breakdowns; the desire to avoid difficulties, obstacles, active work and stress; little initiative; lack of perseverance.
2) (associated with the ratio of the processes of excitation and inhibition in terms of their strength).
Balance of nervous processes characterized by: smooth and attitude towards people; restraint; the ability to self-control, concentration, expectation; the ability to fall asleep easily and quickly; smooth speech, with correct and expressive intonation.
Unbalance with a predominance of excitation characterized by: increased impressionability; nervousness, and in a strong type this is expressed in a tendency to scream, in a weak type - in withdrawing into oneself, in tearfulness; restless with frequent nightmarish content; fast speech (patter).
3) Mobility of the processes of excitation and inhibition (associated with the ability of nervous processes to replace each other).
Mobility of nervous processes characterized by: a fairly easy and quick transition to a new business; rapid alteration of habits and skills; ease of falling asleep and waking up.
Inertia of nervous processes characterized by: the difficulty of transition to a new business and alteration of habits and skills; difficulty waking up; calm with dreams without nightmares; slow speech.
On the basis of all possible combinations of the three basic properties of nervous processes, a great variety is formed. According to the classification of I.P. Pavlov, there are four main types of GNI , differing in resistance to neurotic factors and adaptive properties.
1) Strong, unbalanced , ("unrestrained") type characterized by strong excitatory processes that prevail over inhibition. This is a person who is addicted; With high level activity; vigorous; hot-tempered; irritable; with strong, quickly emerging, clearly reflected in speech, gestures, facial expressions.
2) Strong, balanced, mobile (labile or live) type is different strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance and the ability to easily change from one process to another. This is a man with great self-control; decisive; overcoming difficulties; vigorous; able to quickly navigate in a new environment; mobile; impressionable; with a bright expression and their easy changeability.
3) Strong, balanced, inert (calm) type characterized strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance, but low mobility of nervous processes. This is a very efficient person; able to restrain; calm; slow; with a weak manifestation of feelings; difficult to switch from one activity to another; does not like to change his habits.
4) Weak type is different weak excitatory processes and easily occurring inhibitory reactions. This is a weak-willed person; sad; dreary; with high emotional vulnerability; suspicious; prone to gloomy thoughts; with a depressed mood; closed; shy; easily influenced by others.
These types of higher nervous activity correspond to the temperaments described by Hippocrates:
|
Properties of nervous processes |
Temperaments (according to Hippocrates) |
|||
|
sanguine |
Phlegmatic person |
melancholic |
||
| Equilibrium |
Unbalanced, with a predominance of the excitation process |
Balanced |
Balanced |
|
|
Mobility |
Mobile |
Inert |
||
However, such “pure” ones are rare in life, usually the combination of properties is more diverse. I.P. Pavlov also wrote that between these main types there are “intermediate, transitional types and you need to know them in order to navigate in human behavior.”
Along with the indicated types of GNI common to humans and animals, I.P. Pavlov singled out specifically human types (private types) based on the different ratio of the first and second signal systems:
1. Art type of characterized by a slight predominance of the first signal system over the second. Representatives of this type are characterized by an objective, figurative perception of the surrounding world, operating in the process with sensual images.
2. thinking type differs in the predominance of the second signal system over the first. This type is characterized by a pronounced ability to abstract from reality, to a subtle analysis; operating in the process of thinking with abstract symbols.
3.Medium type characterized by the balance of signal systems. Most people belong to this type, they are characterized by both figurative and speculative conclusions.
This classification reflects the nature of the functional interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain, the features of their interaction.
The doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity is important for understanding the patterns of formation of such important psychological characteristics of a person as temperament and character. The type of GNI is the physiological basis of temperament. However, the type of GNI can be reduced to temperament, because the type of GNI is a physiological property of a person, and temperament is a psychological property of a person and is related to the dynamic side of a person’s mental activity. It should be remembered that temperament does not characterize the content side of the personality (a person's worldview, beliefs, views, interests, etc.). Features of the GNI type and the prevailing temperament form the natural basis of the individual uniqueness of the personality.
The ability to change behavior in accordance with changing living conditions. The measure of this property of the nervous system is the speed of transition from one action to another, from a passive state to an active one, and vice versa, the opposite of mobility is the inertness of nervous processes.
According to the teachings of IP Pavlov, the individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of the course of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of the two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.
Three properties of excitation and inhibition processes were established:
1) the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
2) the balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition,
3) mobility (changeability) of the processes of excitation and inhibition.
The strength of nervous processes is expressed in the ability of nerve cells to endure prolonged or short-term, but very concentrated excitation and inhibition. This determines the performance (endurance) of the nerve cell.
Weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.
An important property The highest nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while in others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates.
One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the rapidity of the processes of excitation and inhibition, the rapidity of their occurrence and termination (when life conditions require it), the speed of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the rapidity of the appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the rapidity of the formation of new conditioned connections, the development of and dynamic stereotype changes.
Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.
Weak type. Representatives of the weak type of the nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. Weak are the processes of inhibition and excitation. Under the action of strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.
Strong balanced type. Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance in the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.
Strong balanced mobile type. The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid change of nervous processes lead to a relative instability of the nervous connections.
Strong balanced inert type. Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.
The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On this physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditioned connections will form differently in different people: this will be the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity. Temperament is a manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.
Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person - determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior, or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.
Choleric- the personality is unbalanced, unrestrained, quick-tempered, even unbridled. Choleric temperament is characterized by great intensity and vivid expression of emotional experiences and the speed of their flow. The choleric is characterized by irascibility and quickness, which immediately follows violent outbursts of feelings. A choleric person is a hot, passionate person, characterized by a sharp change in feelings, which are always deep in him, capture him entirely. He deeply and strongly experiences both joys and sorrows, which finds its (sometimes violent) expression in his facial expressions and actions. With difficulty performs monotonous work, reactions are fast, strong. He gets down to business with ardor, but quickly cools down - a "disregard" mood appears.
In communication, impatient and harsh. Facial expressions and movements are energetic, the pace of work is fast. Often teenagers with such temperament disrupt lessons, get into fights, generally cause a lot of trouble to parents and teachers. These are fervent, fighting, active guys. They become ringleaders among their peers, involving them in various romantic ventures.
melancholic- unbalanced, deeply experiencing any event with a sluggish and weak external response. The reaction is slow. Features of the melancholic temperament are manifested externally: facial expressions and movements are slow, monotonous, restrained, poor, the voice is quiet, inexpressive.
Sensitive, vulnerable, afraid of difficulties, characterized by increased anxiety. Avoids unexpected situations. Prefers to perform actions that do not require mental stress.
The feelings and moods of the melancholic are monotonous and at the same time very stable.
Melancholic children cannot resist injustice, often fall under the influence of others, they are teased, offended. It is often difficult for these guys in a team. Melancholic teens are often timid and shy, and may burst into tears easily.
sanguine- the personality is balanced, his reactions differ in speed and moderate strength, however, he is distinguished by a relatively weak intensity of mental processes and a quick change of some mental processes by others. He quickly masters new professional knowledge, can work for a long time without getting tired, provided that the work is varied. The sanguine person is characterized by the ease and speed of the emergence of new emotional states, which, however, quickly replacing each other, do not leave a deep trace in his mind.
Usually a sanguine person is distinguished by rich facial expressions, his emotional experiences are accompanied by a variety of expressive movements. it cheerful person with great mobility. The speed of mental processes is associated with external mobility in a sanguine person: he is impressionable, quickly responds to external stimuli and is less focused and deepened in his personal experiences.
Sanguine easily copes with tasks that require quick wits, unless these tasks are particularly difficult and serious. He easily takes on different cases, but at the same time he easily forgets about them, becoming interested in new ones.
Phlegmatic
Outwardly, a person of a phlegmatic temperament is distinguished, first of all, by low mobility, his movements are very slow and even lethargic, not energetic, one cannot expect quick actions from him. Phlegmatic is also characterized by weak emotional excitability. His feelings and moods are distinguished by an even character and change slowly. This is a calm, measured person in his actions. He rarely comes out of an even, calm emotional state, he can rarely be seen very agitated, affective manifestations of personality are alien to him.
Facial expressions and gestures of the phlegmatic are monotonous, inexpressive, speech is slow, devoid of liveliness, not accompanied by expressive movements.
Scholars give different definitions to the terms "extrovert" and "introvert". For the classification of K. Leonhard, the priority was human attitude to information, to the reaction to the events of the external environment: extroverts are susceptible to such information, react to it; introverts can more external environment ignore, focusing on one's own inner world.
Due to differences in approach, K. Leonhard makes the main conclusion that introvert - personality is more strong-willed, strong, resistant to influence from outside.extroverts in this regard, they are less resistant - they easily influenced by others and, unlike introverts, they can change their internal attitudes depending on the external environment.
Circle of friends introverts rather narrow, they are prone to philosophizing, introspection. Some of them oppose themselves to the environment, and therefore do not follow the changing circumstances at all, lagging behind the pace of life. As a rule, introverts categorically do not tolerate interference in their lives, in their attitudes and in their inner world. Such individuals are used to following their principles and beliefs to the end. extroverts they adapt better to changing conditions, make acquaintances more easily and expand their social circle, are open to new things, including new information. They are ready to sacrifice their beliefs for the sake of a certain goal, easily yield to other people. Not prone to introspection, some extroverts can even be reproached for frivolity.
Mental self-regulation - this is control of one's psycho-emotional state, achieved by a person's influence on himself with the help of words, mental images, control of muscle tone and breathing.
Character- this is the framework of the personality, which includes only the most pronounced and closely interconnected personality traits that are clearly manifested in various types of activity. All character traits are personality traits, but not all personality traits are character traits. Character– an individual combination of the most stable, essential features personality, manifested in human behavior, in a certain respect: 1) to yourself(degree of exactingness, criticality, self-assessment); 2) to other people(individualism or collectivism, selfishness or altruism, cruelty or kindness, indifference or sensitivity, rudeness or politeness, deceit or truthfulness, etc.); 3) to assigned work(laziness or hard work, accuracy or carelessness, initiative or passivity, perseverance or impatience, responsibility or irresponsibility, organization, etc.); 4) are reflected in the character volitional qualities: willingness to overcome obstacles, mental and physical pain, the degree of perseverance, independence, determination, discipline. Character of a person is an alloy of innate properties of higher nervous activity with individual traits acquired during life. Separate properties of character depend on each other, are connected with each other and form an integral organization, which is called character structure. There are two groups of traits in the character structure. Under character trait understand certain features of a person’s personality that systematically manifest themselves in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions under certain conditions. To first group include features that express the orientation of the individual (sustainable needs, attitudes, interests, inclinations, ideals, goals), a system of relations to the surrounding reality and are individually peculiar ways of implementing these relations. To the second group include intellectual, volitional and emotional character traits.
Accentuation of character and personality- this is an excessive expression of individual character traits, this is an extreme version of the norm bordering on psychopathy.
Character accents: 1. Hyperthymic type. He is distinguished by an elevated mood, optimistic, extremely contactable, quickly switches from one thing to another. Does not complete the work begun, not disciplined, prone to immoral acts, optional, self-esteem is overestimated. Conflict, often acts as the initiator of conflicts. 2.Disty type - opposite to the hyperthymic type. He is distinguished by a pessimistic mood, non-contact, prefers loneliness, leads a secluded life, is prone to low self-esteem. Rarely comes into conflict with others. Highly appreciates friendship, justice. 3.Cycloid type . It is characterized by fairly frequent periodic mood swings. During the period of mood rise, the behavior is hyperthymic, and during the recession, it is distimic. Self-esteem is unstable. Conflict, especially during the period of raising the mood. In conflict, unpredictable. 4. excitable type . Differs in low contact in communication. Boring, gloomy, prone to rudeness and abuse. Unaccommodating in a team, domineering in a family. In an emotionally calm state, conscientious, accurate. In a state of emotional arousal, he is quick-tempered, has poor control over his behavior. Conflict, often acts as the initiator of conflicts, is active in the conflict. 5. stuck type . It is distinguished by moderate sociability, boring, prone to moralizing, often takes the position of a "parent". Strives for high performance in any business, makes high demands on himself, is sensitive to social justice. Touchy, vulnerable, suspicious, vengeful, jealous. Self-esteem is inadequate. Conflict, usually acts as the initiator of conflicts, is active in the conflict. 6. Pedantic type . Distinguished by conscientiousness, accuracy, seriousness in business. AT official relations- bureaucrat, formalist, easily yields leadership to others. Rarely enters into conflicts. However, its formalism can provoke conflict situations. In conflict, he behaves passively. 7. Alarm type. Differs in low contact, self-doubt, minor mood. Self-esteem is low. At the same time, he is characterized by such features as friendliness, self-criticism, diligence. Rarely enters into conflicts, playing a passive role in them, the prevailing strategies of behavior in a conflict are withdrawal and concession. 8. Emotive type. Differs in the desire to communicate in a narrow circle. Establishes good contacts only with a small select circle of people. Overly sensitive. Tearful. At the same time, he is characterized by kindness, compassion, a heightened sense of duty, diligence. Rarely comes into conflict. In conflicts, he plays a passive role, is prone to concessions. 9. Demonstrative type. It is distinguished by the ease of establishing contacts, the desire for leadership, the thirst for power and glory. Prone to intrigue. Attractive, artistic. However, people of this type selfish, hypocritical, boastful. Conflict. active in conflict. 10. Exalted type ( from lat. exaltatio - enthusiastic, excited state, painful animation). Differs in high contact. Loquacious, loving. Attached and attentive to friends and relatives, subject to momentary moods. Sincerely experience other people's problems.
Mechanisms of development and formation of character
Character usually means the totality of some outstanding mental properties of an individual. This refers to those mental properties that are formed after the birth of a person. Temperament, for example, has physiological and genetic roots, therefore it does not apply to character, because it was formed in many respects even before birth. He, in turn, can either promote or hinder the development of certain character traits.
Character is formed in the process of personality development, its social relations.
Character traits are formed at three levels:
physiological - based on temperament,
social - under the influence of society
at the level of consciousness - self-formation of character.
The main condition for the development and formation of a person's character is, of course, the social environment. In simple words, all those people who surround a person in the process of growing up and not only. There is no need to talk about the clear boundaries of this process, because the character is "filled" with various features throughout life.
It should be noted that the formation of a person's character is characterized by a number of certain conditions and features at different age stages.
Periods of character formation
Although the character begins to form from the first months, nevertheless, a special Sensitive period of life is distinguished. This period falls approximately at the age of 2-3 to 9-10 years, when children communicate a lot and actively both with surrounding adults and with peers, they are readily accepted, imitating everyone and everything. During this period, they are open to almost any outside influence. Children readily accept any new experience, imitating everything and everything. Adults at this time still enjoy the boundless trust of the child, so they have the opportunity to influence him with a word, deed and action.
For the formation of the character of the child, the style of communication of the surrounding people is important:
Adults with adults
Adults with children
Children with children.
The style of communication of adults with each other in front of the child, the way of communication with him himself are very important for the formation of character.
The child both adopts the style of communication and tries to adapt to it, which in turn also affects the formation of character. It is generally accepted that the way the mother and father act in relation to the child, after many years, becomes the way he treats his children, when the child becomes an adult and acquires his own family. However, this is both true and not true. The child does not just adopt communication styles, he criticizes them in his own way. The older the child and the more developed his intellect and the more willingly he uses the possibilities of his mind, the more critical he is. That is why the core of character always includes a person's attitude to the truth. The inquisitiveness of the child's mind cannot but leave an imprint on the formation of his character.
Some of the first traits in a person's character are:
kindness-selfishness,
sociability, isolation,
Responsiveness is indifference.
Studies show that these character traits begin to form long before the beginning of the school period of life, even as early as infancy.
Later, other character traits are formed:
industriousness, laziness
Neatness, inaccuracy
Good faith-malice,
Responsibility, irresponsibility
Persistence is cowardice.
These qualities, however, also begin to form in preschool childhood. They are formed and fixed in games and available types housework and other household activities.
Great importance the development of character traits is stimulated by adults. Both low demands and very high demands can adversely affect the formation of character.
In the preschool period, mainly those traits that constantly receive support are preserved and consolidated.
In the elementary grades of the school, character traits are formed that manifest themselves in relationships with people. This is facilitated by the expansion of the sphere of communication of the child with others due to the many new school friends, adult teachers. If what a child as a person has acquired at home receives support at school, then the corresponding character traits are fixed in him and most often remain throughout his entire life. If the newly gained experience of communicating with peers, teachers, other adults does not confirm as correct those characteristic forms of behavior that the child acquired at home, then a gradual breakdown of character begins, which is usually accompanied by pronounced internal and external conflicts. The resulting restructuring of character does not always lead to a positive result. Most often, there is a partial change in character traits and a compromise between what the child was taught at home and what the school requires of him.
At school, the child begins to live a full social life, communicate with large quantity people, including few he knew. The responsibility of the child for the result of the activity increases. They start comparing him to other kids. Therefore, it is in primary school such an important character trait as self-attitude is formed. School success can build confidence in one's own intellectual usefulness. Failures can form a kind of "loser complex": the child stops trying, because he is still a "loser".
In adolescence, strong-willed character traits actively develop. AT early youth the basic moral, ideological foundations of the personality are finally formed, which most people carry through the rest of their lives. By the end of school, the character finally develops. Further, the character is formed and transformed throughout life, but not so much that it becomes unrecognizable. Now a person becomes the creator of his character as a result of self-education.
Types of wrong upbringing and character types with pathologies
Social environment, of course, a very important condition for the formation of character. But equally important is education. The role of upbringing in the formation of character cannot be ruled out, since improper upbringing can cause certain pathologies in the character. Education can be classified as purposeful or spontaneous.
According to the goals of education can be divided into three types:
education for the educator
education for society
education for the student.
Parenting for the educator is aimed at developing traits that facilitate parenting, such as obedience.
The task of education for society is the formation of socially significant features (for example, law-abiding); education for the educated person sets the task of forming such character traits that are beneficial for the person himself, capable of harmonizing his existence.
Capabilities- individual psychological characteristics of a person, manifested in activity and are a condition for its success. From the level of development abilities the speed, ease and strength of the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities depend, but they themselves capabilities are not limited to knowledge, skills and abilities.
Abilities are called general a person, which in one way or another are manifested in all types of his activity. These are the ability to learn, the general mental abilities of a person, his ability to work. They are based on the general skills required in each field of activity, in particular, such as the ability to understand tasks, plan and organize their execution using the means available in human experience, reveal the connections of those things to which the activity relates, master new methods of work, overcome difficulties on the way to the goal.
Under special understand ability, which are clearly manifested in separate, special areas of activity (for example, stage, musical, sports, etc.).
The division of general and special abilities is conditional. Actually, we are talking about general and special aspects in human abilities that exist in interconnection. General abilities are manifested in special, that is, in abilities for some specific, specific activity. With the development of special abilities, their general aspects also develop.
giftedness- the presence in a person of favorable inclinations and abilities for any one or several types of activity. About giftedness a person can be judged by the nature of the development of abilities and the acquisition of knowledge, skills, abilities, by success and the level of achievements in professional work.
At the heart of any ability lies inclinations. The inclinations are understood as primary, natural (biological) features with which a person is born and which mature in the process of his development. These are mainly congenital anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the body, the motor apparatus, sensory organs, the neurodynamic properties of the brain, the features of the functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres, etc. It is the originality of individual characteristics that acts as natural inclinations. Inclinations do not contain abilities and do not guarantee their development. They may or may not turn into abilities, depending on the upbringing and activities of the person. In the absence of proper upbringing and activity, even great inclinations will not become abilities, and with appropriate upbringing and activity, even abilities of a sufficiently high level can develop from small inclinations.
BM Teplov points out some conditions for the formation of abilities. Abilities themselves cannot be innate. Only inclinations can be congenital. The makings of Teplov understood as some anatomical and physiological features. Inclinations underlie the development of abilities, and abilities are the result of development. If the ability itself is not innate, therefore, it is formed in postnatal ontogenesis (it is important to pay attention to the fact that Teplov separates the terms "innate" and "hereditary"; "innate" - manifested from the moment of birth and formed under the influence of both hereditary and and environmental factors, "hereditary" - formed under the influence of heredity factors and manifested both immediately after birth and at any other time in a person's life). Abilities are formed in activity. Teplov writes that "... the ability cannot arise outside the corresponding specific objective activity" . Thus, ability refers to that which arises in the activity corresponding to it. It also affects the success of this activity. Ability begins to exist only together with activity. It cannot appear before the implementation of the activities corresponding to it has begun. Moreover, abilities are not only manifested in activities. They are created in it.
In psychology, there are three concepts of ability:
A) the theory of heredity of abilities,
B) the theory of acquired abilities,
C) acquired and natural in abilities.
1. The theory of heredity of abilities dates back to Plato, who argued that abilities are of biological origin, i.e. their manifestation depends entirely on who was the parent of the child, on what traits are inherited. Training and education can only change the speed of their appearance, but they will always manifest themselves in one way or another. www.pclever.ru
The approach to the hereditary nature of abilities is reflected in views that link a person's abilities with the size of his brain. But these studies have not been confirmed.
2. The theory of acquired abilities connects abilities exclusively with the environment and upbringing. Back in the 18th century K.A. Helvetius said that with the help of special education, genius can be formed. Supporters of this direction refer to cases when children from the most backward and primitive tribes, having received appropriate training, did not differ in any way from educated Europeans.
Cases are also cited as examples when, for some reason, a child is deprived of the opportunity to communicate with adults and peers. As a result, a person in the full sense of the word does not come out of him.
The American scientist W. Ashby argues that abilities and even genius are determined by acquired properties, and in particular by what pre-program and program of intellectual activity were formed in a person in childhood and in later life, spontaneously and consciously in the learning process. For one, the program allows you to solve creative problems, while for the other, only reproductive ones. W. Ashby considers working capacity to be the second factor of abilities.
However, this conception has also met with objections. Life observations and special studies show that the natural prerequisites for abilities cannot be denied. In a number of professions, they are of particular importance.
3. Acquired and natural in abilities. This concept, which combines the above theories, is confirmed by practice and special studies.
Researchers divide abilities into natural and acquired. The division is very conditional. Heredity is included, of course, as one of the conditions in the development of man, but his abilities are not a direct function of his heredity. First of all, the hereditary and acquired in the specific characteristics of the personality form an inseparable unity; already because of this, it is impossible to attribute any specific mental properties of a person to the expense of heredity alone.
Feel - this is the simplest mental cognitive process of reflecting the individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, as well as the internal states of the body, arising from their direct impact on the senses.
Types and classification of sensations. According to the five sense organs known to the ancient Greeks, the following types of sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile (tactile). In addition, there are intermediate sensations between tactile and auditory - vibration. There are also complex sensations, consisting of several independent analytical systems: for example, touch is tactile and muscular-articular sensations; skin sensations include tactile, temperature and pain. There are organic sensations (hunger, thirst, nausea, etc.), static sensations, sensations of balance, reflecting the position of the body in space.
There are various bases for classifying sensations.
The oldest classification of sensations includes five points (according to the number of sense organs):
- smell,
- taste,
- touch,
- vision
- hearing.
B.G. Ananiev singled out eleven types of sensations.
The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a systematic classification of sensations. At the first level, sensations are divided into three main types:
- interoceptive,
- proprioceptive
- exteroceptive.
Interoceptive combine signals that reach us from the internal environment of the body. Proprioceptive transmit information about the position in space of the body in general and the musculoskeletal system in particular. Exteroceptive provide signals from the outside world.
Interoceptive sensations
They signal the state of the internal processes of the body. They arise due to receptors located:
- on the walls of the stomach, intestines, heart, blood vessels and other organs,
- inside the muscles and other organs.
As it turned out, this is the most ancient and most elementary group of sensations. Receptors that receive information about the state of internal organs are called internal receptors. Interoceptive sensations are among the least conscious and most diffuse forms of sensation. They, characteristically, always retain their closeness to emotional states in consciousness.
Also interoceptive sensations are often called organic.
proprioceptive sensations
They transmit signals about the position of the body in space, thus forming the afferent basis of human movements, playing a decisive role in their regulation. Proprioceptive sensations include:
- a sense of balance (static sensation),
- motor (kinesthetic) sensation.
Proprioceptive sensitivity receptors are found in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments). These receptors are called Paccini bodies.
The role of proprioceptors is well studied in physiology and psychophysiology. Their role as the afferent basis of movements in animals and humans was studied in detail in the works of A.A. Orbeli, P.K. Anokhin, N.A. Bernstein.
Peripheral balance receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.
Exteroceptive sensations
They bring information from the outside world to the consciousness of a person. Exteroceptive sensations are divided into:
- contact (taste and touch),
- distant (hearing, sight and smell).
The sense of smell, according to many authors, occupies an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations. Formally, olfactory sensations occur at a distance from the object, but the smell itself is a kind of object (we can say that this is a cloud of gas). And then it turns out that the nose is in direct contact with this object. You can also notice that the object itself has already ceased to exist, but the smell from it remains (for example, a tree burned down, but the smoke from it remained). The sense of smell also plays a huge role in the perception of the quality of the food being eaten.
Intermodal Feelings
There are sensations that cannot be associated with any particular modality. Such sensations are called intermodal. These include vibrational sensitivity, in which tactile-motor and auditory sensations are integrated. L.E. Komendantov believes that tactile-vibrational sensitivity is one of the forms of sound perception. Tactile perception of sound vibration is understood as diffuse sound sensitivity. Vibrational sensitivity plays a huge role in the life of the deaf and deaf-blind-mute. The deaf-blind, due to the high development of vibration sensitivity, learned about the approach of a truck and other modes of transport at a great distance.
At birth, all living organisms have innate responses that aid in survival. Unconditioned reflexes are constant, that is, one and the same response can be observed to the same stimulus. But the environment is constantly changing, so the body needs to have mechanisms to adapt to new conditions, and innate reflexes alone are not enough for this. There is a connection of the higher parts of the brain, ensuring a normal existence and adaptability to constantly changing external conditions. This article is about what types of higher nervous activity are and how they differ from each other.
What it is?
Higher nervous activity is due to the work of the subcortex of the brain and the cerebral cortex. This concept is broad and includes several major components. These are mental activity and behavioral features. Each person has their own distinct characteristics in behavior, attitudes and beliefs, habits that are formed throughout life. As the basis of these features is a system of conditioned reflexes that appear when exposed to the outside world, and are also determined by the hereditary features of the nervous system. For a long period of time, Academician Pavlov worked on the processes of GNI (this means higher nervous activity), who developed an objective method for studying the activity of the nervous system departments. Also, the results of his research help to study the mechanisms that underlie this and experimentally prove the presence of conditioned reflexes.
Not everyone knows the types of higher nervous activity.
Properties of the nervous system
Basically, the transfer of features of the nervous system occurs through the mechanism of inheritance. The main properties of higher nervous activity include the presence of the following factors: the strength of nervous processes, balance, mobility. The first property is considered to be the most significant, since it characterizes the ability of the nervous system to withstand prolonged exposure to stimuli. For example, it is very noisy on an airplane during a flight, for an adult this is not a very annoying factor, but for a small child with undeveloped nervous processes this can have a serious, mentally inhibiting effect.
The types of higher nervous activity according to Pavlov are presented below.
Strong and weak nervous system
All people are divided into two categories: the first has a strong nervous system, and the second has a weak one. With a strong type of nervous system, it can have a balanced and unbalanced characteristic. Balanced people are characterized by a high rate of development of conditioned reflexes. The mobility of the nervous system directly depends on how quickly the process of inhibition is replaced by the process of excitation and vice versa. For people who are easily given the transition from one activity to another, the presence of a mobile nervous system is characteristic.
Types of higher nervous activity
The course of mental processes and behavioral reactions for each person is individual and has its own characteristics. The typification of the processes of nervous activity is determined by a combination of three constituent factors. Namely, strength, mobility and balance in the aggregate constitute the type of GNI. In science, there are several types of them:
- strong, mobile and balanced;
- strong and unbalanced;
- strong, balanced, inert;
- weak type.
What are the features of the types of higher nervous activity?
Signal systems
The course of nervous processes is unthinkable without the functions associated with the speech apparatus, therefore, in people, types are distinguished that are characteristic only for humans and are associated with the functioning of signaling systems (there are two of them - the first and second). With the thinking type, the body uses the services of the second signaling system much more often. People of this kind have a well-developed ability for abstract thinking. The artistic type is characterized by the dominance of the first signal system. With an average type, the work of both systems is in a balanced state. The physiological characteristics of the nervous system are such that hereditary factors that affect the course of mental processes in the body can change over time and under the influence of educational processes. This is primarily due to the plasticity of the nervous system.
How are types of higher nervous activity classified?
Division into types according to temperament
Even Hippocrates put forward a typology of people depending on their temperament. Features of the nervous system and allow us to say what type a person belongs to.
The strongest type of higher nervous activity in a sanguine person.
Sanguine
The whole system of reflexes is formed in them very quickly, speech is distinguished by loudness and clarity. Such a person pronounces words with expression, using gestures, but without excessive facial expressions. The process of extinction and restoration of conditioned reflexes is easy and effortless. The presence of such a temperament in a child allows us to talk about good abilities, moreover, he easily obeys the educational process.
What other types of human higher nervous activity exist?
Cholerics
In people of choleric temperament, the process of excitation prevails over the process of inhibition. The development of conditioned reflexes occurs with ease, but the process of their inhibition, on the contrary, is difficult. Cholerics are characterized by a high degree of mobility and the inability to concentrate on one thing. The behavior of a person with a similar temperament in most cases requires correction, especially when it comes to a child. In childhood, choleric people demonstrate aggressive and defiant behavior, which is caused by a high degree of excitability and slow inhibition of all nervous processes.
Phlegmatic
The phlegmatic type is characterized by the presence of a strong and balanced nervous system, but with a slow transition from one mental process to another. The formation of reflexes occurs, but at a much slower pace. Such a person speaks slowly, while he has a very measured pace of speech with a lack of facial expressions and gestures. A child with such a temperament is assiduous and disciplined. The execution of tasks is very slow, but it is always conscientious work. Teachers and parents should take into account the peculiarities of the child's temperament during classes and daily communication. The type of higher nervous activity and temperament are interrelated.
Melancholy
Melancholics have a weak nervous system, they do not tolerate strong stimuli, and in response to their influence, they demonstrate the maximum possible inhibition. People with a melancholic temperament are difficult to adapt to a new team, especially children. The formation of all reflexes occurs slowly, only after repeated exposure to the stimulus. Motor activity and speech is slow, measured. They do not fuss and do not make unnecessary movements. From the outside, such a child seems timid, unable to fend for himself.
Distinctive features
The physiological features of higher nervous activity are such that for a person with any temperament it is possible to develop and educate those qualities and personality traits that are necessary for life. Representatives of each temperament have their pros and cons. Here, the process of education is very important, in which the main task is to prevent the development of negative personality traits.
A person has a second signaling system, which takes behavioral reactions and mental processes to another level of development. Higher nervous activity is a conditioned reflex activity acquired throughout life. In comparison with animals, human nervous activity is richer and more diverse. This is primarily due to the education a large number temporary connections and the emergence of complex relationships between them. At human body higher nervous activity also has social characteristics. Any irritation is refracted in a social perspective, in connection with this, all activities that are associated with adaptation to the environment will have complex forms.
The presence of such a tool as speech determines for a person the ability to think abstractly, which in turn leaves an imprint on different types human activity. The typicality of the nervous system in humans is of great practical importance. For example, diseases of the central nervous system in most cases are associated with the course of nervous processes. Diseases of a neurotic nature are more susceptible to people with a weak type of nervous system. The development of some pathologies is influenced by the course of nervous processes. Weak type of higher nervous activity is the most vulnerable.
With a strong nervous system, the risk of complications is minimal, the disease itself is much easier to tolerate, and the patient recovers faster. As for the behavioral reactions of people, in most cases they are determined not by the peculiarity of temperament, but by the presence of certain living conditions and relationships with others. The course of mental processes can influence behavior, but they cannot be called a determining factor. Temperament can be only a prerequisite for the development of the most important personality traits.