Feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus. Formation of independent state centers in the XII-XIII centuries

In the era of feudal fragmentation, three centers rose, which began the process of collecting land. In the southwest, Vladimir-Volynsky became such a center, in the northwest - Veliky Novgorod, and in the northeast - Vladimir-on-Klyazma. The rise of Veliky Novgorod was associated with its special position during the time of united Russia: many great dukes before accession to Kiev were the governors of their fathers in Novgorod.

The rise of Vladimir-Volynsky and Vladimir-on-Klyazma was associated with the activities of the appanage princes who ruled in these cities: Mstislav Galitsky and Andrey Bogolyubsky. These powerful rulers subjugated neighboring appanage reigns and took part in the struggle for the right to rule in Kiev. However, their power no longer depended much on who was titled the Grand Duke.

Three new centers of Russia began to gather land around them at the beginning of the 12th century, but this process was stopped in the middle of the century by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Over time, the old centers fell into decay. The centralization of the Russian lands was completed by the middle of the sixteenth century.

Reasons for feudal fragmentation. Many Russian pre-revolutionary historians explained the reasons for the feudal fragmentation by the large number of Russian princes who divided their lands into separate principalities between their sons. Modern historical science believes that feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society.

Economic factors of feudal fragmentation:

Subsistence economy and economic independence of estates, isolation of estates and communities, growth and strengthening of cities;

Political factors:

Tribal and territorial conflicts, strengthening of the political power of local princes and boyars;

External economic factors:

Temporary elimination of the Polovtsian danger (in 1111 Vladimir Monomakh defeated the Polovtsian khans. Some of the Polovtsian tribes migrated to the Caucasus).

The largest lands of Russia in the era of feudal fragmentation were: the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the Galicia-Volyn principality, the Novgorod feudal republic.

Vladimir-Suzdal land. In the north-east of Russia there were fertile lands, "opolye". The most important occupation of the population is agriculture. Crafts and trade play a significant role (Volga trade route). The oldest cities of the principality: Rostov (formerly the capital), Suzdal, Murom. The principality gained independence during the reign of Vladimir Monomakh's son Yuri Dolgoruky (1154-1157). He managed to subjugate Kiev. On the eve of 1147, the first mention of Moscow is found in the annals (on the site of the manor of the boyar Kuchka, confiscated by Yuri Dolgoruky).

Galicia-Volyn principality. It occupied the territory from the Carpathians to Polesie, located on fertile black earth fields, interspersed with forests and mountains. Rock salt was mined on the territory of the principality. The principality actively traded with other countries. The main cities are Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Przemysl. The rise of the principality took place in the second half of the 12th century during the reign of Prince Yaroslav Osmomysl (reign 1152-1187). Volyn lands were annexed to Galician lands in 1199 under Prince Roman Mstislavich (reign - 1170-1205).

This prince captured Kiev in 1203 and took the title of Grand Duke. Under his leadership, successful wars were fought with the Poles, Polovtsy, an active struggle for supremacy over the Russian lands. The eldest son of Roman Mstislavich, who inherited the principality, Daniil Romanovich (reigned 1221-1264) went down in history as a warlike claimant to the Russian throne with Russian, Polish and Hungarian princes. He strengthened his position in 1238, and in 1240 he occupied Kiev and subsequently united South-Western Russia and the Kiev land. After the conquest of Rus by the Mongol-Tatars, Daniil Romanovich found himself in vassal dependence on the Golden Horde, but together with Andrei Yaroslavich he persistently opposed it.

Novgorod feudal republic. The possessions of Veliky Novgorod stretched from the White Sea to the Northern Urals. The city was located at the crossroads of trade routes. Commercial activities of the population - hunting, fishing, salt production, iron production, bee-keeping. Novgorod began the struggle for independence from Kiev earlier than other lands, having rebelled in 1136. The boyars, possessing significant economic power, managed to defeat the prince in the struggle for power, as a result of which a special political system was formed in Novgorod - feudal democracy (boyar republic), under which Veche was the supreme governing body.

The highest official (head of government) in the Novgorod administration was the mayor (from the word "to put"). The court obeyed him. The head of the militia was appointed - tysyatsky; he was also in charge of the commercial court. Veche elected the head of the Novgorod church - the bishop (archbishop), who was in charge of the treasury and controlled the external relations of Novgorod.

Rice. 2. Diagram of the political structure of the Novgorod boyar republic

Veche invited the prince to control the militia during military campaigns; the prince with his retinue maintained order in the city. The prince was instructed: "You, prince, cannot judge the court without the mayor, you cannot keep the volosts, you must not give letters." It is symbolic that the residence of the prince was outside the Kremlin (on the Yaroslav's courtyard - the Torgovaya side, and later on the Gorodishche). The cities of the Novgorod land — Pskov, Torzhok, Lagoda, Izborsk, and others — had political self-government and were vassals of Novgorod.

6) Feudal fragmentation - the process of economic strengthening and political isolation of individual lands. All major Western European countries have gone through this process; in Russia - from the XII to the XV century. The reasons for the feudal fragmentation were: the weakening of the central government, the absence of strong economic ties between the lands, the predominance of natural economy; the growth of cities that have become centers of economic and political development; the emergence and strengthening of their own princely dynasties in the appanage principalities. The reasons for the fragmentation of Russia:

1. Economic:

Patrimonial property and princely domain developed.

Subsistence farming existed in every land

2. Political:

The emergence of feudal clans, the church hierarchy took shape

Kiev, as a center, has lost its former role

Russia did not need to be militarily united

Confusing order of succession

3. The disintegration of Russia was not complete:

There was a single Russian church

During enemy raids, the Russian princes united

Several regional centers have survived that pretended to be a union.

The beginning of this process is attributed to the time of the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054), when Kievan Rus was divided between his sons: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125) managed to maintain the unity of the Russian land only by the power of his authority, but after his death the disintegration of the state became unstoppable. At the beginning of the XII century, on the basis of Kievan Rus, about 15 principalities and lands were formed by the middle of the XII century, about 50 principalities by the beginning of the XIII century, about 250 in the XIV century. It is difficult to establish the exact number of principalities, since along with fragmentation there was another process: the formation of strong principalities, which attracted small neighboring lands into the orbit of their influence. Of course, the Russian princes understood the destructiveness of fragmentation and especially bloody strife. This was evidenced by three princely congresses: Lyubech 1097 (obligations to end civil strife with the condition that the princes inherit their estates); Vitichevsky 1100 (the conclusion of peace between the princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Oleg and Davyd Svyatoslavich, etc.); Dolobsky 1103 (organization of a campaign against the Polovtsians). However, it was impossible to stop the crushing process. Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality becomes independent of Kiev under Yuri (1125-1157). For his constant desire to expand his territory and subjugate Kiev, he received the nickname "Dolgoruky". The original center was Rostov, but already under Yuri, Suzdal, and then Vladimir, assumed the main importance. Yuri Dolgoruky did not consider the Vladimir-Suzdal principality as his main possession. Kiev remained his goal. He seized the city several times, was expelled, captured again and eventually became the Kiev prince. Under Yuri, a number of new cities were founded on the territory of the principality: Yuryev, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Zvenigorod. Moscow was first mentioned in the chronicle in 1147. The eldest son of Yuri, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), having received Vyshgorod (near Kiev) from his father, left it and, together with his entourage, went to Rostov. After the death of his father, Andrei did not occupy the Kiev throne, but began to strengthen his principality. The capital was moved from Rostov to Vladimir, not far from which a country residence was founded - Bogolyubovo (hence the nickname of the prince - "Bogolyubsky"). Andrei Yurievich pursued an energetic policy of strengthening the princely power and oppressing the boyars. His abrupt and often autocratic actions angered the major boyars and, as a result, led to the death of the prince. Andrey Bogolyubsky's policy was continued by his half-brother Vsevolod Big Nest (1176-1212). He cruelly dealt with the boyars who killed his brother. Power in the principality was finally established in the form of a monarchy. Under Vsevolod, the Vladimir-Suzdal land reaches its maximum expansion due to the fact that the Ryazan and Murom princes declare themselves dependent on Vsevolod. After the death of Vsevolod, the Vladimir-Suzdal land split into seven principalities, and then reunited under the leadership of the Vladimir prince.

Galicia-Volyn principality. An active role in the life of the principality was played by the strong local boyars, who were in constant struggle with the princely power. The policy of neighboring states, Poland and Hungary, also had a great influence, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups turned for help. Until the middle of the 12th century, the Galician land was divided into small principalities. In 1141, Prince Vladimir Volodarevich of Przemysl united

them, moving the capital to Galich. In the first years of separation from Kiev, Galicia and Volyn princedoms existed as two independent ones. The rise of the Galician principality began under Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galicia (1153-1187). The unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities took place in 1199 under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich (1170-1205). In 1203 he captured Kiev and assumed the title of Grand Duke. The eldest son of Roman Mstislavich, Daniel (1221-1264), was only four years old when his father died. Daniel had to endure a long struggle for the throne with both Hungarian, Polish and Russian princes. Only in 1238 Daniil Romanovich confirmed his rule over the Galicia-Volyn principality. In 1240, having occupied Kiev, Daniel managed to unite southwestern Russia and the Kiev land. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was devastated by the Mongol-Tatars, and after 100 years these lands became part of Lithuania and Poland.

Novgorod boyar republic... The territory of the Novgorod land was divided into five squares, which in turn were divided into hundreds and graveyards. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by an extremely favorable geographical position: the city was located at the intersection of trade routes. In 1136 Novgorod was separated from Kiev. Boyar agriculture developed early in the Novgorod land. All fertile lands were actually redistributed among the boyars, which did not lead to the creation of a large princely estate. The insurgent townspeople expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich for "neglecting" the city's interests. A republican system was established in Novgorod. The supreme body of power in Novgorod was a meeting of free citizens - owners of courtyards and estates in the city - veche. Veche discussed issues of domestic and foreign policy, invited the prince, concluded an agreement with him. The veche elected a mayor, a thousand, an archbishop. The posadnik was in charge of administration and court, supervised the activities of the prince. Tysyatsky led the people's militia and ruled over commercial affairs. The actual power in the republic was in the hands of the boyars and the top of the merchant class. Throughout its history, the positions of posadniki, tysyatsky and

Konchan elders were occupied only by representatives of the elite nobility, called "300 golden belts". The "lesser" or "black" people of Novgorod were subjected to arbitrary extortions from the "best" people, ie. the boyars and the elite of the privileged merchants. The response to this was the frequent uprisings of ordinary Novgorodians. Novgorod waged a constant struggle for its independence against neighboring principalities, primarily against Vladimir-Suzdal, which sought to subjugate the rich and free city. Novgorod was an outpost for the defense of the Russian lands from the crusading aggression of German and Swedish feudal lords.

Feudal fragmentation existed in Russia until the end of the 15th century, when most of the territory of Kievan Rus was united as part of the Russian centralized state with the capital in Moscow. The onset of feudal fragmentation made it possible to more firmly establish itself in Russia for the system of feudal relations. Each individual principality developed faster and more successfully than when it was in an alliance with other lands. Further economic development, the growth of cities, the flourishing of culture are characteristic of this era. However, the disintegration of a single power also had negative consequences, the main one of which was increased vulnerability to external threats. Despite the fragmentation process, the inhabitants of the Russian lands retained the consciousness of their religious and ethnic unity, which later became the basis of the centralization process. At the head of this process was northeastern Russia, which had the following features: extensive agriculture, the domination of the peasant community and collective values, and despotic power. It was this region that became the birthplace of the Russian civilization.

6) Feudal fragmentation - the process of economic strengthening and political isolation of individual lands. All major Western European countries have gone through this process; in Russia - from the XII to the XV century. The reasons for the feudal fragmentation were: the weakening of the central government, the absence of strong economic ties between the lands, the predominance of natural economy; the growth of cities that have become centers of economic and political development; the emergence and strengthening of their own princely dynasties in the appanage principalities. The reasons for the fragmentation of Russia:

1. Economic:

Patrimonial property and princely domain developed.

Subsistence farming existed in every land

2. Political:

The emergence of feudal clans, the church hierarchy took shape

Kiev, as a center, has lost its former role

Russia did not need to be militarily united

Confusing order of succession

3. The disintegration of Russia was not complete:

There was a single Russian church

During enemy raids, the Russian princes united

Several regional centers have survived that pretended to be a union.

The beginning of this process dates back to the time of the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054), when Kievan Rus was divided between his sons: Izyaslav, Svyatoslav and Vsevolod. Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125) managed to maintain the unity of the Russian land only by the power of his authority, but after his death the disintegration of the state became unstoppable. At the beginning of the XII century, on the basis of Kievan Rus, about 15 principalities and lands were formed by the middle of the XII century, about 50 principalities by the beginning of the XIII century, about 250 in the XIV century. It is difficult to establish the exact number of principalities, since along with fragmentation there was another process: the formation of strong principalities, which attracted small neighboring lands into the orbit of their influence. Of course, the Russian princes understood the destructiveness of fragmentation and especially bloody strife. This was evidenced by three princely congresses: Lyubech 1097 (obligations to end civil strife with the condition that the princes inherit their estates); Vitichevsky 1100 (the conclusion of peace between the princes Svyatopolk Izyaslavich, Vladimir Monomakh, Oleg and Davyd Svyatoslavich, etc.); Dolobsky 1103 (organization of a campaign against the Polovtsians). However, it was impossible to stop the crushing process. Vladimir-Suzdal land occupied the territory between the Oka and Volga rivers. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality becomes independent of Kiev under Yuri (1125-1157). For his constant desire to expand his territory and subjugate Kiev, he received the nickname "Dolgoruky". The original center was Rostov, but already under Yuri, Suzdal, and then Vladimir, assumed the main importance. Yuri Dolgoruky did not consider the Vladimir-Suzdal principality as his main possession. Kiev remained his goal. He seized the city several times, was expelled, captured again and eventually became the Kiev prince. Under Yuri, a number of new cities were founded on the territory of the principality: Yuryev, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Zvenigorod. Moscow was first mentioned in the chronicle in 1147. The eldest son of Yuri, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174), having received Vyshgorod (near Kiev) from his father, left it and, together with his entourage, went to Rostov. After the death of his father, Andrei did not occupy the Kiev throne, but began to strengthen his principality. The capital was moved from Rostov to Vladimir, not far from which a country residence was founded - Bogolyubovo (hence the nickname of the prince - "Bogolyubsky"). Andrei Yurievich pursued an energetic policy of strengthening the princely power and oppressing the boyars. His abrupt and often autocratic actions angered the major boyars and, as a result, led to the death of the prince. Andrey Bogolyubsky's policy was continued by his half-brother Vsevolod Big Nest (1176-1212). He cruelly dealt with the boyars who killed his brother. Power in the principality was finally established in the form of a monarchy. Under Vsevolod, the Vladimir-Suzdal land reaches its maximum expansion due to the fact that the Ryazan and Murom princes declare themselves dependent on Vsevolod. After the death of Vsevolod, the Vladimir-Suzdal land split into seven principalities, and then reunited under the leadership of the Vladimir prince.

Galicia-Volyn principality. An active role in the life of the principality was played by the strong local boyars, who were in constant struggle with the princely power. The policy of neighboring states, Poland and Hungary, also had a great influence, where both princes and representatives of boyar groups turned for help. Until the middle of the 12th century, the Galician land was divided into small principalities. In 1141, Prince Vladimir Volodarevich of Przemysl united

them, moving the capital to Galich. In the first years of separation from Kiev, Galicia and Volyn princedoms existed as two independent ones. The rise of the Galician principality began under Yaroslav Osmomysl of Galicia (1153-1187). The unification of the Galician and Volyn principalities took place in 1199 under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich (1170-1205). In 1203 he captured Kiev and assumed the title of Grand Duke. The eldest son of Roman Mstislavich, Daniel (1221-1264), was only four years old when his father died. Daniel had to endure a long struggle for the throne with both Hungarian, Polish and Russian princes. Only in 1238 Daniil Romanovich confirmed his rule over the Galicia-Volyn principality. In 1240, having occupied Kiev, Daniel managed to unite southwestern Russia and the Kiev land. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was devastated by the Mongol-Tatars, and after 100 years these lands became part of Lithuania and Poland.

Novgorod boyar republic... The territory of the Novgorod land was divided into five squares, which in turn were divided into hundreds and graveyards. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by an extremely favorable geographical position: the city was located at the intersection of trade routes. In 1136 Novgorod was separated from Kiev. Boyar agriculture developed early in the Novgorod land. All fertile lands were actually redistributed among the boyars, which did not lead to the creation of a large princely estate. The insurgent townspeople expelled Prince Vsevolod Mstislavich for "neglecting" the city's interests. A republican system was established in Novgorod. The supreme body of power in Novgorod was a meeting of free citizens - owners of courtyards and estates in the city - veche. Veche discussed issues of domestic and foreign policy, invited the prince, concluded an agreement with him. The veche elected a mayor, a thousand, an archbishop. The posadnik was in charge of administration and court, supervised the activities of the prince. Tysyatsky led the people's militia and ruled over commercial affairs. The actual power in the republic was in the hands of the boyars and the top of the merchant class. Throughout its history, the positions of posadniki, tysyatsky and

Konchan elders were occupied only by representatives of the elite nobility, called "300 golden belts". The "lesser" or "black" people of Novgorod were subjected to arbitrary extortions from the "best" people, ie. the boyars and the elite of the privileged merchants. The response to this was the frequent uprisings of ordinary Novgorodians. Novgorod waged a constant struggle for its independence against neighboring principalities, primarily against Vladimir-Suzdal, which sought to subjugate the rich and free city. Novgorod was an outpost for the defense of the Russian lands from the crusading aggression of German and Swedish feudal lords.

Feudal fragmentation existed in Russia until the end of the 15th century, when most of the territory of Kievan Rus was united as part of the Russian centralized state with the capital in Moscow. The onset of feudal fragmentation made it possible to more firmly establish itself in Russia for the system of feudal relations. Each individual principality developed faster and more successfully than when it was in an alliance with other lands. Further economic development, the growth of cities, the flourishing of culture are characteristic of this era. However, the disintegration of a single power also had negative consequences, the main one of which was increased vulnerability to external threats. Despite the fragmentation process, the inhabitants of the Russian lands retained the consciousness of their religious and ethnic unity, which later became the basis of the centralization process. At the head of this process was northeastern Russia, which had the following features: extensive agriculture, the domination of the peasant community and collective values, and despotic power. It was this region that became the birthplace of the Russian civilization.

The period of feudal fragmentation, traditionally called the "specific period", lasted from the 12th to the end of the 15th centuries.

Feudal fragmentation weakened the defensive capabilities of the Russian lands. This became noticeable back in the second half of the 11th century, when a new strong enemy appeared in the south - the Polovtsians (Turkic nomadic tribes). According to the annals, it is calculated that from 1061 to the beginning of the XIII century. there were over 46 major incursions of the Polovtsians.

The internecine wars of the princes, the ruin of cities and villages associated with them, the withdrawal of the population into slavery became a disaster for the peasants and townspeople. From 1228 to 1462, filed by S.M. Solovyov, there were 90 wars between the Russian principalities, in which there are 35 cases of the capture of cities, and 106 external wars, of which: 45 - with the Tatars, 41 - with the Lithuanians, 30 - with The Livonian Order, the rest - with the Swedes and Bulgars. The population begins to leave Kiev and neighboring lands to the north-east to the Rostov-Suzdal land and partly to the south-west to Galicia. Occupying the southern Russian steppes, the Polovtsians cut off Russia from foreign markets, which led to a decline in trade. During the same period, European trade routes were replaced by Balkan-Asian directions as a result of the Crusades. In this regard, the Russian principalities experienced difficulties in international trade.

In addition to external reasons, the internal causes of the decline of Kievan Rus were also manifested. Klyuchevsky believed that this process was influenced by the degraded legal and economic position of the working population and the significant development of slavery. The courtyards and villages of the princes were full of "servants"; the position of "purchases" and "hirelings" (semi-free) was on the verge of a slave state. The Smerds, who preserved the communities, were crushed by the princely extortions and the growing appetites of the boyars. Feudal fragmentation, the growth of political contradictions between the independent principalities expanding their territories led to changes in their social system. The power of the princes became strictly hereditary, the boyars grew stronger, which received the right to freely choose a suzerain, the category of free servants (former ordinary warriors) multiplied. In the prince's economy, the number of unfree servants grew, engaged in the production and material support of the prince himself, his family, and persons of the prince's court.

Features of the divided Russian principalities

As a result of the fragmentation of the Old Russian state by the middle of the XII century. separated into ten independent states-principalities. Subsequently, by the middle of the XIII century, their number reached eighteen. They were named according to the capital cities: Kievskoe, Chernigovskoe, Pereyaslavskoe, Muromo-Ryazanskoe. Suzdalskoe (Vladimirskoe). Smolenskoye, Galitskoye, Vladimir-Volynskoye, Polotskoye, Novgorod Boyar Republic. In each of the principalities, one of the branches of the Rurikovich ruled, and the sons of princes and governors-boyars ruled separate estates and volosts. However, in all lands, the same writing, a single religion and church organization, the legal norms of Russian Truth, and, most importantly, the awareness of common roots and common historical destiny were preserved. At the same time, each of the established independent states had its own characteristics of development. The largest of them, which played a significant role in the subsequent history of Russia, were: Suzdal (later - Vladimir) principality - North-Eastern Russia; Galician (later - Galicia-Volyn) principality - South-Western Russia; Novgorod boyar republic - Novgorod land (North-West Russia).

Suzdal principality located between the Oka and Volga rivers. Its territory was well protected from external invasions by forests and rivers, had profitable trade routes along the Volga with the countries of the East, and across the upper reaches of the Volga to Novgorod and to the countries of Western Europe. The economic growth was also facilitated by the constant influx of the population. The Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky (1125 - 1157), in the struggle with his nephew Izyaslav Mstislavich for the Kiev throne, repeatedly captured Kiev. For the first time in the annals under 1147, mention is made of Moscow, where negotiations between Yuri and the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav took place. Yuri's son, Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157 - 1174) moved the capital of the principality from Suzdal to Vladimir, which he rebuilt with great pomp. The northeastern princes no longer claim to rule in Kiev, but they seek to maintain their influence here, first by organizing military campaigns, then with the help of diplomacy and dynastic marriages. In the fight against the boyars, Andrei was killed by conspirators. His policy was continued by his half-brother - Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176 - 1212). He had many sons, for which he received such a nickname.

The settlers, who made up a significant proportion of the population, did not preserve the state traditions of Kievan Rus - the role of the "veche" and the "worlds". In these conditions, the despotism of the power of the princes is growing, who intensify the struggle against the boyars. Under Vsevolod, it ended in favor of the princely power. Vsevolod managed to establish close ties with Novgorod, where his sons and relatives reigned; defeated the Ryazan principality, organizing the resettlement of some of its inhabitants to their possessions; successfully fought with the Volga Bulgaria, putting under his control a number of its lands, became related with the Kiev and Chernigov princes. He became one of the strongest princes in Russia. His son Yuri (1218 - 1238) founded Nizhny Novgorod and fortified himself in the Mordovian lands. Further development of the principality was interrupted by the Mongol invasion.

Galicia-Volyn principality occupied the northeastern slopes of the Carpathians and the territory between the Dniester and Prut rivers. Favorable geographical position (proximity to European states) and climatic conditions contributed to economic development, and the second migration flow from the southern Russian principalities was also directed here (to safer areas). Poles and Germans also settled here.

The rise of the Galician principality began under Yaroslav I Osmomysl (1153 - 1187), and under the Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich in 1199 the Galician and Volyn principalities were united. In 1203 Roman captured Kiev. The Galicia-Volyn principality became one of the largest states in feudal-fragmented Europe, its close ties with European states were established, and Catholicism began to penetrate Russian land. His son Daniel (1221 - 1264) waged a long struggle for the Galician throne with the western neighbors (Hungarian and Polish princes) and the expansion of the state. In 1240, he united Southwestern Russia and the Kiev land, and established his power in the struggle against the boyars. But in 1241 the Galicia-Volyn principality was subjected to the Mongol ruin. In the ensuing struggle, Daniel strengthened the principality, and in 1254 he took over the royal title from the Pope. However, the Catholic West did not help Daniel in his struggle against the Tatars. Daniel was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Horde Khan. Having existed for about a hundred more years, the Galicia-Volyn state became part of Poland and Lithuania, which had a great influence on the formation of the Ukrainian people. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania included the western Russian principalities - Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Drutsk, Turovo-Pinsk, Novgorod-Seversk, etc. The Belarusian nationality was formed as part of this state.

Novgorod boyar republic... The Novgorod land is the most important component of the ancient Russian state. During the period of feudal fragmentation, it retained its political significance, economic and trade ties with the West and East, covering the territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga from north to south, from the Baltic and almost to the Urals from west to east. The huge land fund belonged to the local boyars. The latter, using the uprising of the Novgorodians in 1136, managed to defeat the princely power and establish a boyar republic. The supreme body was the veche, where the most important issues of life were decided and the Novgorod administration was elected. In fact, the owners of it were the largest boyars of Novgorod. The mayor became the chief official in the department. He was elected from the noble families of Novgorod. Veche also elected the head of the Novgorod church, who was in charge of the treasury, controlled external relations and even had his own army. Since the end of the XII century. the post of the head of the commercial and economic sphere of life of the Novgorod society was called "tysyatskiy". Usually it was occupied by large merchants. The princely power also retained certain positions in Novgorod. Veche invited the prince to wage war, but even the prince's residence was outside the Novgorod Kremlin. The wealth and military power of Novgorod made the Novgorod Republic an influential force in Russia. Novgorodians became a military support in the fight against German and Swedish aggression against the Russian lands. The Mongol invasion did not reach Novgorod. Wide trade ties with Europe determined the significant influence of the West in the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod has become one of the largest trade, craft and cultural centers not only in Russia, but also in Europe. The high level of culture of Novgorodians shows the degree of literacy of the population, which is evident from the "birch bark letters" discovered by archaeologists, the number of which exceeds a thousand.

Appearance in the second half of the 11th century. - the first third of the XIII century. new political centers contributed to the growth and development of culture. During the period of feudal fragmentation, one of the greatest creations of ancient Russian culture, The Lay of Igor's Campaign, arose. Its author, touching upon the circumstances of the defeat of the Novgorod-Seversk prince Igor Svyatoslavich in an everyday clash with the Polovtsy (1185), was able to turn it into a tragedy of a national scale. "The Word about Igor's Regiment" became a prophetic warning against the danger of princely strife, sounded four decades before the crushing Tatar-Mongol invasion.