The habitat of the white stork. White stork: description of the bird, where it lives and what it eats

General characteristics and field signs

A large bird with long legs, neck and beak. Body length 100-115 cm, wingspan 155-165 cm, weight of an adult bird from 2.5 to 4.5 kg. Males are somewhat larger than females, but outwardly they are practically indistinguishable. The plumage is white, the flight feathers are black. The beak and legs are red. When observing a flying bird, attention is drawn to the elongated neck and legs, contrasting black and white plumage. He walks on the ground, shaking his head slightly to the beat of the movement. On nests or perches, it can stand on one leg for a long time, pulling its neck into the plumage of the body. Often uses soaring flight, practically without flapping wings, it is able to rise in ascending air currents. With a sharp descent and landing - slightly presses the wings to the body and puts the legs forward. Flocks are formed during the flight, they are also formed by non-nesting birds during their migrations in the late spring and summer periods. There is no strict order in the flying flocks. When descending from the updraft, the birds slide down one after the other. It differs from the black stork in white plumage, from cranes and herons - in the red color of its beak and legs. Unlike herons, it stretches rather than folds the neck in flight.

Voice. The basis of the sound communication of white storks is the popping of its beak. A hiss can be heard occasionally. The sound repertoire of chicks is more diverse. The cry of a stork begging for food resembles a prolonged meow. The first part of this cry has a higher pitch, the second - a lower one. In chicks on the nest, you can also hear a loud squeak and hiss; already in the first weeks of life, chicks try to pop with their beak.

Description

Coloring. Adult male and female. There are no seasonal differences in color. Most of the plumage is white, the primary flight feathers, the outer secondary, the shoulder and part of the forearm coverts are black with a metallic sheen. The outer webs of secondary flight feathers have grayish fields along the trunk (the character varies, usually visible only from a close distance). Feathers on the neck and chest are somewhat elongated; excited birds (for example, during mating) often fluff them up. The beak and legs are bright red. The bare skin around the eye and the front of the chin are black. The iris of the eye is brown.

The first downy outfit. After hatching, the chick is covered with sparse and short grayish-white down. Legs are pinkish, after a few days they turn grayish-black. The beak and the skin around the eyes are black, the skin on the chin is reddish, the eyes are dark. The second downy outfit. The down is pure white, thicker and longer. Replaces the first in about a week.

Nest outfit. A young bird is similar in color to an adult, but the black color in the plumage is replaced by a brownish one, without shine. The beak and legs are dark brown; by the time the chicks leave their nests, they usually become reddish-brown, but you can often see flying fledglings with a black beak or brown with a blackish top. The iris of the eye is gray.

Structure and dimensions

As a rule, measurements of various body parts of storks are published without dividing the sample into sex groups. The wing length of the nominative subspecies of the white stork with this approach for the territory of the former. The USSR is, for 6 individuals, 585-605 mm (Spangenberg, 1951), for Ukraine (Smogorzhevsky, 1979) - 534-574 mm. The last author also reports that the length of the tail ranges from 206-232 mm, the beak 156-195, and the tarsus 193-227 mm. The revision of the collections of the Zoological Museum of Kiev National University and the National Science and Natural History Museum of Ukraine gave the following results: wing length (n = 14) - 513-587 mm, with an average value of 559.9 ± 5.8 mm; tail (n = 11) - 201-232, on average 222.5 ± 4.2; beak (n = 12) - 150-192, on average 166.4 ± 3.5; tarsus (n = 14) - 187-217, on average 201.4 ± 2.5 mm (orig.). For the Asiatic white stork, the wing length for 9 measured individuals turned out to be 550-640, on average 589 mm.

The sizes of the white stork by sex groups and subspecies for different territories are given in table. 31.

Table 31. Dimensions (mm) of different sex groups and subspecies of the white stork

Parameter	Males			Females			A source
	n	lim	M	n	lim	M
Ciconia ciconia ciconia. Europe
Wing length	—	530-630	—	—	530-590	—	Witherby et al., 1939
Tail length	—	215-240	—	—	215-240	—	Witherby et al., 1939
Beak length	—	150-190	—	—	140-170	—	Witherby et al., 1939
Trowel length	—	195-240	—	—	195-240	—	Witherby et al., 1939
Wing length	18	556-598	576	15	543-582	558	Hancock et al., 1992
Tail length	18	221-268	247	15	218-256	237	Hancock et al., 1992
Beak length	18	157-198	179	15	155-180	164	Hancock et al., 1992
Trowel length	18	191-230	214	15	184-211	197	Hancock et al., 1992
Ciconia ciconia asiatica. middle Asia
Wing length	18	581-615	596	9	548-596	577	Hancock et al., 1992
Beak length	18	188-223	204	9	178-196	187	Hancock et al., 1992
Trowel length	18	213-247	234	9	211-234	220	Hancock et al., 1992

The wing formula (not counting the rudimentary first flywheel) is IV? III? V-I-VI ... The outer webs of II and IV of the primary flywheels have notches. The tail is slightly rounded, the tail feathers are 12. The beak is long, straight, tapering towards the apex. The nostrils are long, slit-like. Weight 41 males from Vost. Prussia 2,900-4,400 g (average 3,571), 27 females - 2,700-3,900 g (3,325). Weight increases slightly during the summer. The average weight of 14 males in June is 3 341 g, 14 females - 3 150 g; in July-August, 12 males weighed on average 3 970 g, 12 females - 3 521 g (Steinbacher, 1936).

The male, therefore, is somewhat larger than the female, has a longer and more massive beak. In addition, the male's beak has a slightly different shape: the mandible is slightly curved upward in front of the apex, while the female's beak is straight (Bauer and Glutz von Blotzheim, 1966; Creutz, 1988). The sex of 67% of birds can be determined by the length of the beak, with a probability of error of no more than 5% (Post et al., 1991). Individual recognition of birds by the pattern of a black spot on the chin is also possible (Fangrath and Helb, 2005).

Molting

Not studied enough. In young birds, full post-juvenile molt begins, depending on the circumstances, from December to May of the first year of life. In adult birds, full molt takes most of the year. Primary flight feathers are replaced in an irregular sequence during the nesting period, some in winter (Stresemann and Stresemann, 1966).

The molting of primary feathers was traced in more detail on 5 storks kept in a nursery in Switzerland (Bloesch et al., 1977). The growth of the feather occurs at a linear rate. Primary flight feathers grow 8-9 mm per day, minor ones - 6.5-6.9 mm. It takes from 50-55 to 65-75 days to change the flight feather. In the birds under observation, 6 primary flight feathers and 13 secondary ones on both wings were replaced per year. The duration of wearing different feathers is different; for the primary flight feathers, it ranged from 1.2 to 2.5 years. The change of feathers is stepwise. In primary flight feathers, it starts from XI, in secondary - from several points. Moulting cycles begin from the second year of life, their final course is established only by 4-5 years. During the first or third molt, the change of feathers began in March-April, then in mid-May and continued until the beginning of November. Most of the feathers were replaced in the summer months between the beginning of incubation and departure.

The combination of molting and nesting may be due to the fact that the load on the wings of the white stork at this time is much less than during a long migration or during nomadic wintering (Creutz, 1988).

Subspecific taxonomy

There are 2 subspecies that differ in the size and shape of the beak:

1.Cicortia cicottia ciconia

Ardea ciconia Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., Ed. 10, c. 142, Sweden.

Smaller form. Male wing length 545-600 mm, tarsus length 188-226 mm, bill length 150-200 mm. The beak is less sharply sloped towards the apex (Stepanyan, 2003). Distributed in Europe, North. Africa, West. Asia.

2.Ciconia ciconia asiatica

Ciconia alba asiatica Severtzov, 1873, Izv. Imp. islands of lovers of natural science, anthropology and ethnography, 8, no. 2, p. 145, Turkestan.

Larger form. Male wing length 580-630 mm, tarsus length 200-240 mm, bill length 184-235 mm. The beak, especially the mandible, is more sharply sloped towards the apex (Stepanyan, 2003). Inhabits the territory of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.

Taxonomy notes

Earlier, the Far Eastern stork (Ciconia boyciana) was considered a subspecies of the white stork, but now it is considered by most taxonomists as an independent species. Special studies have shown significant morphological and behavioral differences sufficient to separate species (Hancock et al., 1992). The subspecies belonging to the population of the white stork from Transcaucasia requires special study.

Spreading

Nesting area. Europe, North-West Africa, Zap. and Central Asia (Fig. 78).

Figure 78.
a - nesting area, b - wintering areas, c - main directions of autumn migration, d - directions of expansion.

The European subspecies is distributed over most of Europe from the Iberian Peninsula to the Volga and Transcaucasia. To the north, its range reaches Denmark, South. Sweden, Estonia, northwest Russia. In France, storks live in only a few provinces, so nesting places in Spain, Portugal, West. France and North-West. Africa are cut off from the main European area. However, due to the ongoing dispersal, it is likely that these two parts of the range will close. In the North-West. Africa white stork nests in Morocco, northern Algeria and Tunisia. In Zap. Asia - in Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Iraq, Iran, in the Caucasus - in the south of Georgia, in Armenia, Azerbaijan, as well as in the Republic of Dagestan of the Russian Federation. Cases of breeding are also known at wintering grounds in Yuzh. Africa (Broekhuysen, 1965, 1971; Broekhuysen, Uys, 1966; Hancock et al., 1992). In 2004, an attempt was made to nest in the north-east of England in Yorkshire. This is the first white stork breeding in Great Britain since 1416, when birds nested in Edinburgh Cathedral.

In Russia, the white stork has long inhabited the territory of the Kaliningrad region. In other areas, it appeared relatively recently, expanding its nesting area in the east and north-east directions. The first cases of nesting in the modern borders of the Leningrad and Moscow regions. were noted at the end of the 19th century. (Malchevsky, Pukinsky, 1983; Zubakin et al., 1992). By the beginning of the XX century. the white stork began to nest in the Pskov, Tver and Kaluga regions. (Zarudny, 1910; Filatov, 1915; Bianki, 1922). By this time, it was already quite common in the western regions of the Smolensk (Grave, 1912, 1926) and the southern part of the Bryansk region. (Fedosov, 1959). Resettlement in new territories was undulating. The development of new localities was especially intensive in the 1970s-1990s. At present, on the territory of Russia, the northern and eastern border of regular nesting of the Eastern European population can be conditionally drawn along the line St. Petersburg - Volkhov - Tikhvin - Yaroslavl - Lipetsk - Voronezh - the border of the Rostov region. and Ukraine (Fig. 79).

Figure 79.
a - regular nesting, b - insufficiently clarified border of the nesting area, c - irregular nesting. Subspecies: 1 - S. p. ciconia, 2 - S. p. asiatica.

Periodic evictions of individual couples were noted far beyond the specified border: in Yuzh. Karelia, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov, Perm, Ulyanovsk, Penza, Saratov, Volgograd and Rostov Regions, Krasnodar Territory (Lapshin, 1997, 2000; Bakka et al., 2000; Borodin, 2000; Dylyuk, Galchenkov, 2000; Karjakin, 2000; Komlev, 2000; Mnatsekanov, 2000; Piskunov, Belyachenko, 2000; Sotnikov, 2000; Frolov et al., 2000; Chernobay, 2000a, etc.). The West Asian population of the nominative subspecies is widespread in the Tersko-Sulak lowland of Dagestan (Babayurtovsky, Khasavyurtovsky, Kizlyarsky, Tarumovsky districts), periodically nests appeared outside Dagestan - in the Stavropol Territory, Karachay-Cherkessia, Proletarsky Oblast. (Khokhlov, 1988a; Bicherev, Skiba, 1990). Were registered white storks in the foothills of the North. Ossetia (Komarov, 1986). Rostov oblast is obviously a territory where East European and West Asian populations practically converge from different directions. The first penetrates here from the north along the Don and from the west - from the Ukraine, the second - from the southeast along the Kumo-Manychka depression. Confirmation of the last, the most poorly clarified direction of movement of birds, can serve as a meeting on May 13, 1996 in the area of ​​the lake. Dadinskoe, in the extreme northeast of the Stavropol Territory, a flock of 18 birds that migrated at high altitude in the northwest (Dylyuk and Galchenkov, 2000).

In Ukraine, the modern border of the area passes through the North. and North-East. Crimea, southern parts of Zaporozhye and Donetsk regions, Lugansk region. (Grishchenko, 2005). In 2006, the first cases of nesting of the white stork in the southeastern Crimea near Feodosia were recorded (M.M.Beskaravayny, pers. Comm.).

The Turkestan white stork is widespread in Central Asia - in the southeast of Uzbekistan, in Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, in the south of Kazakhstan. Previously, the area reached the Chardzhou in Turkmenistan, the lower reaches of the Amu Darya; there were cases of nesting in the west of China - in Kashgaria (Spangenberg, 1951; Dolgushin, 1960; Sagitov, 1987; Shernazarov et al., 1992). Occasionally attempts at nesting - apparently already of the European subspecies - are recorded in the southeast of Turkmenistan (Belousov, 1990).

A small nesting center of the white stork (about 10 pairs) originated in the extreme south of Africa. Birds start nesting here in September-November, when storks of northern populations arrive after wintering (del Hoyo et al., 1992). As in the case of the black stork, this micropopulation originates from migrants who, for some reason, began to breed in wintering grounds.

Wintering

The main wintering grounds for the western population of the European subspecies are the savannahs south of the Sahara from Senegal in the west to Cameroon in the east. The most important places for the concentration of wintering birds are the valleys of the Senegal, Niger rivers and the area of ​​the lake. Chad. Storks nesting in northwest Africa also winter here. The eastern population winters in the East. and Yuzh. Africa from Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia to South Africa. Most of the birds spend the winter months in Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa. Storks from Zap. Asians winter partly in Africa, partly in southern Asia. The Asian subspecies winters mainly in India south to Sri Lanka. To the east, these birds can be found as far as Thailand (Schulz, 1988, 1998; Ash, 1989; Hancock et al., 1992). In India, the main wintering grounds for storks are the states of Bihar in the northeast and Gujarat in the west (Majumdar, 1989). Interestingly, birds ringed in Europe were also found in India (Lebedeva, 1979a). Apparently, these are storks that lost their way in the Iskander Bay area - not turning south, but continuing their migration to the southeast.

Some birds overwinter in the southern part of the nesting area. In Spain in the winter seasons of 1991 and 1992. in the delta of the r. Guadalquivir and off the Andalusian coast, about 3,000 were counted (Tortosa et al., 1995). In Portugal in the winter of 1994/95. 1,187 storks wintered (Rosa et al., 1999). Thousands of storks stay in Israel for the winter (Schulz, 1998). In Armenia, hundreds of birds winter in the Araks valley every year (Adamyan, 1990). In Bulgaria, storks remained for the winter at the end of the 19th century, now their number has increased significantly. Flocks of up to 10 individuals are recorded (Nankinov, 1994). There are known cases of wintering in more northern latitudes - in Ukraine (Grishchenko, 1992), in the Czech Republic (Tichy, 1996), Germany, Denmark (Schulz, 1998). On the territory of Russia, wintering of white storks was noted in Dagestan (T.K. Umakhanova, V.F.Mamataeva, pers. Comm.). In Central Asia, storks winter in small numbers in the Fergana Valley (Tretyakov, 1974, 1990). Here, in the Pungan-Urgench region, up to 250 birds were recorded in the winter months of 1989. It is believed that the partial settlement of white storks in the Fergana Valley contributed to the general increase in their number in the region. Irregular wintering was observed in the Syr-Darya valley and on the river. Pyanj in the South. Tajikistan (Mitropol'skiy, 2007).

Ringed in the former. USSR white storks were found wintering mainly in South Africa, individual birds - in Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Namibia, West. Africa (Lebedeva, 1979; Smogorzhevsky, 1979).

As established by H. Schulz (Schulz, 1988), the distribution of storks at wintering grounds in Africa is primarily determined by food supplies. First of all, birds choose wet biotopes, but they can also stay in arid places rich in food. Large flocks are found even in deserts and mountains. In 1987, a flock of 200 storks was found in Lesotho at an altitude of approx. 2,000 m. Birds fed on reservoirs that abound in amphibians. In places rich in food, storks can congregate in large numbers. In January 1987, about 100 thousand individuals were counted in Tanzania on an area of ​​25 km2. The birds fed in the alfalfa fields, where the caterpillars of one of the local butterflies multiplied en masse. In the South. In Africa this season, white storks were almost never seen.

Thanks to the results of ringing and satellite telemetry, it was found that the wintering sites of the western and eastern populations are not isolated from each other. To the Center. There is a mixed wintering zone in Africa, where birds from both populations are found. Here, individuals from one population can be carried away by flocks of storks from another population and return in spring by a different route and to other nesting sites (Berthold et al., 1997; Brouwer et al., 2003).

Migrations

The white stork is a distant migrant. Birds from the northeastern part of the range fly over 10 thousand km. There are two main geographic populations of the European subspecies, differing in flight paths and wintering places. The dividing line between them passes through Holland, Harz, Bavaria, and the Alps (Schuz, 1953, 1962; Creutz, 1988; Schulz, 1988, 1998). Birds nesting to the west of it migrate to the southwest in autumn through France, Spain, Gibraltar. Further, the flight goes through Morocco, Mauritania, the western part of the Sahara. These birds hibernate in Zap. Africa. Storks nesting east of this dividing line fly in the southeast in autumn, and from Russia, Ukraine, Belarus and the Baltic states to the south. Three main flyways pass through the territory of Ukraine in autumn, which merge into a powerful migration flow passing along the western coast of the Black Sea (Grishchenko and Serebryakov, 1992; Grischtschenko et al., 1995). Further, storks fly through the Balkans and Turkey, through the Bosphorus, Asia Minor. From Iskander they go out to the Mediterranean coast, where they again turn south and migrate in a narrow stream through Lebanon, Israel, the Sinai Peninsula to the Nile Valley. Along this river and the Rift Valley, there is further migration to the main wintering grounds in Vost. and Yuzh. Africa. In Vost. Storks in Sudan make a long stop for 4-6 weeks and feed intensively in order to restore fat reserves for continued migration (Schulz, 1988, 1998).

The stork, as a land steamer, avoids a long flight over the sea, therefore, migration flows along the coasts are formed. Storks from the western, northern and central regions of Ukraine migrate along the western coast of the Black Sea and across the Bosphorus, and birds from the East. Ukraine fly southeast to the eastern coast of the Black Sea. Storks from the eastern part of the range in Russia also fly here. Some storks, although insignificant, nevertheless fly directly across the sea. There is an "intermediate" flyway through Italy and Sicily to Tunisia. 1990-1992 at Bon Cape in Tunisia, 1,378 migrated storks were recorded and 67 - near Messina in Sicily (Kisling, Horst, 1999). It is assumed that birds from both western and eastern populations use this route (Schulz, 1998). An individual ringed in Latvia was found in September near Naples (Lebedeva, 1979). And one stork with a satellite transmitter flew across the Mediterranean Sea directly from Saint-Tropez in France to Tunisia; the path across the sea was at least 752 km (Chemetsov et al., 2005). Perhaps some of the storks fly across the Black Sea, crossing the Crimea.

Migrations of storks from Transcaucasia, Iraq and Iran are not well understood. It is assumed that they fly to the southeast to the South. Asia (Schtiz, 1963; Schulz, 1998). A bird ringed in Armenia was found in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, 160 km to the southeast (Lebedeva, 1979). The dividing line between populations migrating to Africa and Asia is still unknown. Apparently, it takes place somewhere in the east of Turkey. At least in this region, flocks of birds are observed in autumn, migrating both southeast and west (Schtiz, 1963).

Turkestan storks fly south through Afghanistan to India in autumn, crossing the Hindu Kush through the Salang Pass (Schtiz, 1963; Schulz, 1998). Storks ringed in Uzbekistan were hunted in the spring in Afghanistan and Pakistan (Lebedeva, 1979).

Analysis of satellite tracking of 140 German storks showed that these birds can vary in a fairly wide range the paths and timing of migration, wintering and stopping places, but, if possible, they remain constant. Changes are caused by natural factors, primarily feeding conditions (Berthold et al., 2004). The timing of departure from wintering grounds depends on the meteorological situation. Birds can linger under unfavorable conditions. Thus, in an extremely unfavorable 1997, storks started from their wintering grounds a month later than usual (Kosarev, 2006). Added to this was a delay due to prolonged cold weather in the Middle East. Storks equipped with transmitters made long stops in Syria and Turkey. The return flight was recorded (Kaatz, 1999). As a result, in 1997, only 20% of birds from the eastern population arrived at normal times, while the majority arrived with a delay of 4-6 weeks (Schulz, 1998).

From wintering grounds, mass movement in the opposite direction occurs at the end of January or in February. In Israel, the beginning of the spring migration of adult birds becomes noticeable in mid-February, the peak of migration occurs in the second half of March, especially noticeable movements end at the end of April; juveniles migrate through Israel in April-May (van den Bossche et al., 2002). In nesting places in northern Africa, storks appear in December-February. The peak flight over Gibraltar is observed in February-March, over the Bosphorus from late March to late April (Schulz, 1998).

In Moldova, arrived storks have been recorded since the first ten days of March (Averin et al., 1971). On the territory of Ukraine, the arrival is registered from the first days of March to the second half of April, the average arrival dates fall on the third decade of March - the beginning of April. First of all, birds appear in the Lviv and Chernivtsi regions, flying around the Carpathians; then migration goes in two streams: some birds fly to the northeast, others to the east along the southern regions of Ukraine. Storks appear most recently in the eastern regions and in the Crimea (Grishchenko and Serebryakov, 1992; Grischtschenko et al., 1995). In the north of the Sumy region. arrivals were registered from March 18 to April 26, the average date over 16 years was March 30 (Afanasyev, 1998). In the south-west of Belarus, the arrival of storks is observed in the third decade of March - the first half of April (Shokalo, Shokalo, 1992). Storks nesting in the European part of Russia reach their homeland in early March - early May. On the territory of the Kaliningrad region. in the first half of the XX century. the first birds appeared on the nests from March 19 to April 12 (data for 23 years, Tischler, 1941). In the 1970s. the arrival of storks took place from the beginning of March (Belyakov, Yakovchik, 1980). In 1990, the first birds on the nests in the Kaliningrad region. recorded on March 18 (Grishanov, Savchuk, 1992). In the Sebezhsky district of the Pskov region. arrival was observed in late March and early April (Fetisov et al., 1986). For the period from 1989 to 1999. the earliest registration in the Kaluga region. recorded on March 20 (1990), the latest - on April 8 (1991 and 1997), on average March 30. In some years, the earliest birds appear in the spring when the snow cover in the fields is 30-40 cm. The peak arrival of the first storks to the nests is in the Kaluga Region. falls on the second five-day period of April (1990-1999) (Galchenkov, 2000). In the Voronezh region. the first storks were observed at the same time: from March 19 to April 8, on average March 30 (1995-1998) (Numerov, Makagonova, 2000). Storks arrive at the northeastern border of the range 2-4 weeks later. To the Yaroslavl region. birds arrived on April 22-26 (1994), April 16 (1996), May 2 (1995) (Golubev, 2000). In the eastern regions of the Leningrad region. the earliest arrival was noted on April 20, 1999 (Tikhvinsky District), while the usual dates are from May 1 to May 8 (1983-1999) (Khrabry, 2000). In the southern regions of Karelia, the first birds appear in late April - mid-May; in the very early spring of 1990, a single bird was seen at the beginning of the second decade of April (Lapshin, 2000). In the Kirov region. earliest registration of white stork - April 17, 1992 (Sotnikov, 2000). On the Black Sea coast North. In the Caucasus, spring migration is observed from the first decade of March to the second half of April, in the Rostov region. and Krasnodar Territory, the first birds were recorded in April (Kazakov et al., 2004). In Dagestan, the first individuals appear in early and mid-March (Mamataeva, Umakhanova, 2000).

The appearance of white storks in spring in Central Asia occurs at the end of February - beginning of March and is observed almost simultaneously in most of the territory (Dementyev, 1952; Mitropol'skiy, 2007). At the Chokpak pass, they were recorded on March 11-14, 1974 (Gavrilov, Gistsov, 1985), an intensive migration was recorded on March 24 (Sema, 1989).

In the Kaluga region. in 69% of cases, the arrival of the white stork took place according to the 1 + 1 scheme: first, one bird from the pair arrived, and some time after it, the second. The first individual appears from March 20 to May 18, on average (n = 176) - April 10, the second - from March 25 to May 26, on average (n = 150) - April 14. The delay of the second bird occurs in the interval from several hours to 31 days, on average, by 4 days. In this scheme of arrival, there are rare variants: at the first, each of the individuals of the pair flies up with one or two other birds, which do not remain on the nest, but fly farther; in the second, a couple flies to a single stork and drives it out. In 31% of cases, two birds flew to the nest at once.

Nesting birds of the Eastern European population migrate in August. Young birds, as a rule, fly off earlier than adult birds. In the Kaluga region. juveniles left the nests starting from August 8, more often in the second decade of this month. Adult birds leave their homeland later, the departure of the last individuals ends on average on August 30 (1985-1999) (Galchenkov, 2000). In the Tver region. storks fly away from August 28 to September 5 (Nikolaev, 2000). In the Yaroslavl region. the birds flew away on August 23 (1996) and August 29 (1995) (Golubev, 2000). Individual individuals and pairs linger until September - October. In the southwestern regions of Russia, before departure, they form clusters of tens and up to 100 or more individuals, as, for example, in the Smolensk Region. (Bicherev, Barnev, 1998). To the North. In the Caucasus, autumn migration is observed from the first half of August to the end of September (Kazakov et al., 2004). The migration routes and wintering areas of Dagestan storks have not been clarified: it is known that the last of them leave the nesting area from October 25 to November 10, sometimes delaying until the middle-end of this month (November 25, 2003 and November 15, 2004). Most likely storks , nesting in the Tersko-Sunzhenskaya lowland, follow along the western coast of the Caspian Sea, where birds of this species were recorded on October 23, 1998 near the city of Kaspiysk (E.V. Vilkov, pers. comm.).

In Moldova, departure begins at the end of August and lasts until mid-September. Some birds can stay until the first half of October. The latest meeting was on November 9, 1964 (Averin, Ganya, Uspensky, 1971). In Ukraine, the first migratory flocks are observed from the first ten days of August to September and early October. The average departure start dates fall in the third decade of August - the first decade of September. First of all, the flight begins in the Lviv, Zhytomyr and Poltava regions. The last birds were observed from the second half of August to October. The average dates of the last observation in most regions of Ukraine fall on the first and second decades of September. The storks stay the longest in the Zaporozhye region. and in Crimea (Grishchenko and Serebryakov, 1992; Grischtschenko et al., 1995). Some late individuals can be observed in November as well. Sometimes it is very late to meet whole flocks. Thus, on December 4, 1985, a flock of several dozen storks was observed over Ivano-Frankovsk (Shtyrkalo, 1990). On November 5, 1997, a flock of 40 individuals was seen over Brest (Shokalo, Shokalo, 1992). The flight along the eastern coast of the Black Sea was recorded from August 29 to October 4 (Abuladze, Eligulashvili, 1986).

Central Asian storks fly away from late August to mid-October (Dolgushin, 1960; Tretyakov, 1990).

Migration of three young storks marked on nests in Zelenogradsky and Guryevsky districts of Kaliningrad region. satellite transmitters, was tracked in 2000. One bird went to winter on August 10, the other two - on the 14th. The flight route passed through northeastern Poland, the extreme south-west of Belarus, the western part of Ukraine, the east of Romania and Bulgaria, then through the Bosphorus Strait, Turkey, Palestine, the Sinai Peninsula. The storks reached the Bosphorus Strait on 23, 25 and 26 August, respectively, i.e. 13, 11 and 12 days after the start of migration. On the southern tip of the Sinai Peninsula, storks were on August 29, 31 and September 1, respectively (19, 17, and 18 days after the start of migration, or 6 days after each bird crossed the Bosphorus); here the storks stopped. Then the storks proceeded along the Nile Valley in mainland Egypt. The birds stopped their rapid movement to the south on September 6, 7 and 10, by which time two of them were in the center. Sudan, one in eastern Chad near the Sudanese border (Chemetsov et al., 2004).

In the course of autumn migrations, the average length of daily movements of storks of the eastern population according to telemetry data is: in Europe - 218 km (for adult birds from 52 to 504, for juveniles - from 51 to 475 km), in the Middle East - 275 km (for adult birds from 52 to 490, for young people - from 55 to 408 km), in the North. Africa - 288 km (for adult birds from 70 to 503, for juveniles - from 108 to 403 km) (van den Bossche et al., 1999).

A comprehensive study of the migrations of the white stork has shown that this species, at least its eastern population, has a very special type of migration, not yet known for other birds. It is characterized by a very fast flight from nesting sites to the recreation area in Vost. Africa. The distance of 4,600 km is covered by both adults and young birds in an average of 18-19 days. Under normal conditions, storks fly every day, spending 8-10 hours on the way. Long, especially multi-day stops are encountered only as an exception and are primarily associated with unfavorable weather conditions. In storks, unlike other migratory birds, fat reserves during migration are insignificant. There is no noticeable hyperphagia during the flight. Storks practically do not regain weight until Africa itself (Berthold et al., 2001).

Most immature storks spend the summer months away from their nesting sites. After the first wintering, birds migrate towards the nesting area, but very rarely reach it. Only a third of one-year-old storks were found closer than 1000 km from the ringing site. With age, the share of "defectors" decreases rapidly. A significant part of 1-2-year-old storks spend the summer south of the Sahara, but 3-year-old birds do not occur there at all during the nesting period. Ringing has shown that, in most cases, storks first appear at nesting sites at the age of 3 years (Libbert, 1954; Kania, 1985; Bairlein, 1992).

Vagrant storks can be found much to the north and east of the border of the nesting area. In Russia, they were observed on the shores of the White Sea in the Murmansk region. (Kokhanov, 1987), at p. Kholmogory in the Arkhangelsk region. (Pleshak, 1987), in Bashkiria (Karjakin, 1998a), Tatarstan (Askeev, Askeev, 1999), Perm region. (Demidova, 1997; Karjakin, 19986), Sverdlovsk region. (Zelentsov, 1995), in the steppes of the South. Ural (Davygora, 2006). According to insufficiently reliable data, two birds were observed in August in Kurgan Region. (Tarasov et al., 2003). White storks are also recorded in Finland, Sweden, Norway, Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland (Hancock et al., 1992; Birina, 2003). During migration, real invasions can occur, when large flocks find themselves far from the main flyways. Thus, on September 15, 1984, a flock of 3,000 storks appeared near the city of Abu Dhabi in the east of the Arabian Peninsula (Reza Khan, 1989). On August 27-29, 2000, an accumulation of 300-400 individuals was kept in the valley of the river. Teberda to the North. Caucasus (Polivanov et al., 2001). Sometimes migratory flocks of storks are carried by the wind far into the sea. Such birds are recorded even in the Seychelles, which lie 1,000 km from the African coast (Stork, 1999).

Habitat

The white stork is a typical inhabitant of open landscapes; avoids continuous forests and overgrown swamps. Prefers areas with wet biotopes - meadows, swamps, pastures, irrigated lands, rice fields, etc. It is also found in steppes and savannas with single large trees or human structures. The optimal biotope in our conditions is the vast floodplains of rivers with a normal hydro regime and extensive agricultural use. In such places, the population density can reach tens of pairs per 100 km2. Inhabits, as a rule, flat areas, but can also nest low in mountains with suitable conditions.

To the Center. In Europe, white storks rarely nest above 500 m above sea level. m (Schulz, 1998). In the Carpathians, they rise to 700-900 m (Smogorzhevsky, 1979; Rejman, 1989; Stollmann, 1989), in Armenia and Georgia - up to 2,000 m. (Adamyan, 1990; Gavashelishvili, 1999), in Turkey up to 2,300 m (Creutz, 1988), and even up to 2,500 m in Morocco (Sauter and Schiiz, 1954). In Bulgaria, 78.8% of stork pairs nest at altitudes from 50 to 499 m above sea level. and only 0.2% - from 1,000 to 1,300 m (Petrov et al., 1999). In Poland, the dispersal of storks to higher altitudes during the growth of their numbers was noted (Tryjanowski et al., 2005). The white stork prefers to feed in open areas with low grassy vegetation, in shallow water of stagnant and slow-flowing reservoirs. Less common on the banks of large rivers and mountain streams. Arable land and intensively cultivated meadows and fields of perennial grasses are also used by storks for feeding, but the favorable period for forage collection in such places is very short - immediately after plowing or harvesting.

Stork nests are found on the periphery of colonies of herons and other ankle birds. But most often it nests in settlements. It can settle even among dense buildings in large cities, from where it has to fly for food for 2-3 km. The white stork usually leaves villages abandoned by people. Thus, these birds have ceased to nest in most of the evicted villages of the Chernobyl zone (Samusenko, 2000; Gashek, 2002).

During migration, the white stork also prefers an open landscape; He tries to fly around large bodies of water and woodlands, since, as we believe, flying over them at a specialized steamer requires more energy.

Number

The total number of white storks according to the results of the V International census in 1994-1995. it is possible to estimate at least 170-180 thousand pairs, of which 140-150 thousand pairs fall on the eastern population (Grishchenko, 2000). Compared to the previous census in 1984, the total has grown by 23%. Moreover, the size of the western population increased significantly more - by 75%, and the eastern - by 15% (Schulz, 1999). The largest number of white storks was recorded in Poland. In 1995, about 40,900 pairs were counted there, 34% more than in 1984. The average nesting density in Poland is 13.1 pairs / 100 km2 (Guziak, Jakubiec, 1999). In Spain, where the bulk of the western population nests, in 1996 the number was estimated at 18,000 pairs. This country has recorded the largest growth: it has more than doubled here between the two international censuses (Marti, 1999).

According to the preliminary results of the VI International Census, which took place in 2004-2005, the total number of white storks is estimated at 230 thousand pairs. The largest number is in Poland - 52.5 thousand pairs, followed by Spain - 33.2 thousand pairs, Ukraine - approx. 30 thousand pairs, Belarus - 20.3 thousand pairs, Lithuania - 13 thousand pairs, Latvia - 10.7 thousand pairs, Russia - 10.2 thousand pairs. The largest increase in the number was noted in France - 209%, Sweden - 164%, Portugal - 133%, Italy - 117%, Spain - 100%. The number has decreased (by half) only in Denmark. There are only 3 nests left. For the Asian subspecies, data are provided only for Uzbekistan, where 745 pairs were taken into account; the number decreased by 49%.

Based on materials collected in Russia in 1994-1997, as well as expert estimates for areas where the survey was not carried out or was incomplete, the total number of the nesting group was at least 7,100-8,400 pairs (Cherevichko et al., 1999). The most densely populated storks are the Kaliningrad and Pskov regions. - respectively, 2,371 and 1,910 pairs. In the Bryansk region. about 600 pairs were counted, however, most likely 800 to 1,000 pairs nested here; at least 600 pairs bred in the Smolensk region. (449 pairs were noted in 12 western out of 25 administrative districts of the region). In the Kursk region. 325 pairs were counted, in Novgorodskaya - 316, in Tverskaya - 200-230, in Kaluga - about 200, in Leningradskaya - at least 100 pairs. From several dozen to 100 pairs lived in the Oryol and Belgorod regions, in the Moscow region. 23 pairs were counted, in Voronezh - 10, Yaroslavl - 15-20, Lipetsk - 5, Ryazan - 216, Kirov - 1, Mordovia - 1 pair (Galchenkov, 2000a; Golubev, 2000; Dylyuk, 2000).

During the VI International registration, according to preliminary data, it was taken into account: Kursk region. - 929 pairs (+ 186% in comparison with the V International registration, data of V. I. Mironov), Bryansk region. - 844 (+ 31%, S. M. Kosenko), Kaluga region. - 285 (+ 58%, Yu.D. Galchenkov), Leningrad region. - 160 (+ 344%, V.G. Pchelintsev), Oryol region. - 129 (S.V. Nedosekin), Moscow region. - 80 (+ 248%, M. V. Kalyakin).

The current population in Armenia is estimated at 1-1.5 thousand pairs, in Azerbaijan - 1-5 thousand pairs, in Moldova - 400-600 pairs (Birds in Europe, 2004).

During the 20th century, the number of the white stork has undergone significant changes (see Grishchenko, 2000). In the first half of the century (and in some places even earlier), its rapid decline began in many European countries. By the end of the 1940s. in Central Europe, it has almost halved. Held in 1934, 1958, 1974, 1984 international surveys of white storks showed a steady decline in the number of occupied nests. So, if in 1907 there were 7-8 thousand nesting pairs in Germany (Wassmann, 1984), then by 1984 their number had decreased to 649 in the FRG (Heckenroth, 1986) and 2 724 in the GDR (Creutz, 1985) ... In the Netherlands in the XIX century. the white stork was one of the common birds, there were thousands of nests in the country. But already in 1910 there were only 500 breeding pairs, the number continued to decline rapidly: 209 pairs in 1929, 85 in 1950, 5 in 1985 (Jonkers, 1989). After 1991, not a single “wild” pair remained, only birds released from special nurseries nested (Vos, 1995). Storks have ceased to nest in Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, have come to the brink of extinction in France, Denmark and some other countries. The most vulnerable was the western population of the white stork. According to the IV International Registration in 1984, in just 10 years its number decreased by 20%, and the eastern population - by 12% (Rheinwald, 1989).

A radical change in the situation began in the 1980s, first of all in Spain. Since about 1987, the growth of the number of storks begins. For 11 years, it increased more than 2.5 times and soon exceeded the level of half a century ago (Gomez Manzaneque, 1992; Martinez Rodriguez, 1995). The number in Portugal also more than doubled (Rosa et al., 1999). All this was due primarily to climatic reasons. In the second half of the 1980s. Finally, a prolonged period of drought in the Sahel region came to an end, which significantly worsened the wintering conditions of the western population of the white stork. Contributed to an increase in the number and a significant improvement in the food supply at nesting sites. In Spain, for example, the area of ​​irrigated land has increased; in addition, the South American crayfish Procambarus clarkii has taken root in the canals, which is readily eaten by storks (Schulz, 1994; 1999). In Spain and Portugal, many more birds stayed overwintering, which also reduced mortality (Gomez Manzaneque, 1992; Rosa et al., 1999). The jump in the number of the white stork in the Iberian Peninsula contributed to the rapid growth of the entire western population. Soon the rise in the number and dispersal of these birds began in France, and the connection with the processes taking place in Spain was proved: in 1990 and 1991. found storks nesting on the Atlantic coast of France and ringed in Spain. It is assumed that some of the storks nesting in the departments along the coast of the Bay of Biscay have settled from Spain. In northeast and central France, storks from Alsace, Switzerland and the Netherlands have appeared. In the department of Primorskaya Charente in 1995, a stork nested, ringed in 1986 by a chick in Poland. Rapid dispersal of storks in Holland, Switzerland, Italy, Germany and other countries was also noted. In France from 1984 to 1995. the number increased by 830% (Duquet, 1999).

The eastern population did not have such sharp jumps in number as the western one, but its positive trend was noted. It should be emphasized that with a general decrease in the number, the dispersal of storks to the east in Russia and Ukraine and its growth at the border of the range continued. The increase in the eastern population began at about the same time as in the western one, although the growth rates were much lower. The situation in the Asian subspecies changed almost simultaneously. From 1984 to 1994, the number of white storks in Central Asia increased more than 7 times (Shemazarov, 1999), and by 2005, the number of these birds here is estimated at 700-1,000 breeding pairs (Mitropol'skiy, 2007).

According to monitoring data on permanent test plots in Ukraine, in 1990. the wave of population growth has passed. It was already outlined in the first half of the 1990s, somewhat earlier in the north-east of Ukraine, and most recently in the western regions. In 1992-1994. in villages along the river. Diet in the Sumy region. there was an increase in the number of 25-30% annually (Grishchenko, 1995a, 20006). Since 1994, the average growth in Ukraine has been increasing all the time (the decline was noted only in 1997, which is extremely unfavorable for the white stork throughout Europe), reaching a maximum in 1996 and 1998. - respectively 13.7 ± 2.9 and 16.3 ± 3.6%. Then the growth rate began to decline, and in 2001-2003. the population has stabilized. (Grishchenko, 2004).

During the same period, settlement to the east intensified in the eastern regions of Ukraine and in Russia. In the Kharkov region. by 1994, a shift of the range boundary to the east was noted compared to the distribution in 1974-1987; in 1998, nests were found on the right bank of the river. Oskol (Atemasova, Atemasov, 2003). In the Luhansk region, where the white stork was found east to the river. Aydar, in 1998 2 nests were found in the floodplain of the river. Derkul on the border with Russia (Vetrov, 1998). In the Rostov region. in 1996, storks again nested after a 5-year hiatus - a nest was found in the Manych valley (Kazakov et al., 1997). In the Krasnodar Territory, storks began to nest in the mid-1990s. (Mnatsekanov, 2000). In 1993, nesting was first recorded in the Kirov region. (Sotnikov, 1997, 1998), in 1994 - in the Tambov region. (Evdokishin, 1999), in 1995 - in Mordovia (Lapshin, Lysenkov, 1997, 2000), in 1996 - in the Vologda region. (Dylyuk, 2000). In 1996, there was a sharp increase in the number of birds (by 20.1%) in the Kaluga region. (Galchenkov, 2000).

Reproduction

Daily activity, behavior

The white stork is a daytime bird, however, there are cases of feeding chicks on light nights (Schuz, Schuz, 1932). At night, birds can be active on the nest: copulations, care of plumage, change of incubating partners, etc. were noted. During migration, the stork flies during the day, but in northwestern Africa, at high daytime temperatures, migratory flocks were noted at night (Bauer, Glutz von Blotzheim, 1966). Large flocks are most often crowded, disordered; birds fly at different heights (Molodovsky, 2001).

On the ground, the white stork moves with steps, less often runs. Active flight is quite heavy, with slow wing flaps. Prefers vaping under favorable conditions, especially when flying over long distances. In updrafts, congestions of birds gaining height are often formed. The white stork can swim, although it does so reluctantly. With a favorable wind, it can take off from the surface of the water (Bauer, Glutz von Blotzheim, 1966; Creutz, 1988).

During the non-nesting period, the white stork leads a gregarious lifestyle. During nesting, colonies and aggregations can also form in feeding places. Non-breeding birds in summer keep in flocks, the number of which reaches tens and even hundreds of individuals. They keep in places rich in food, leading a wandering lifestyle. The number of such flocks gradually increases from May to June, in July their size increases markedly; they become even more numerous in August, due to the formation of premigratory aggregations. According to observations in the Kaluga region. in the 1990s, the average number of birds in summer flocks was: in May - 3.4 individuals, in June - 4.0, in July - 7.8, in August - 10.5 (n = 50). Broods after departure unite in flocks, which gradually enlarge in the course of migration. So, if in Ukraine the usual size of migratory flocks in autumn is tens, less often hundreds of individuals, then already on the Black Sea coast of Bulgaria the average size of a flock is 577.5 individuals (Michev, Profirov, 1989). In the Middle East and North-East. In Africa, huge concentrations of more than 100 thousand individuals are often noted (Schulz, 1988, 1998). It has been established that the efficiency of migration (speed of movement, wind drift compensation, etc.) is higher in large flocks (numbering several thousand individuals) than in small groups or in individual birds (Liechti et al., 1996).

Storks rest mostly at night. During the nesting period, the amount of time that remains for rest and cleaning of plumage depends on the abundance of food and the number of chicks. With its abundance, storks can rest for hours during the day or clean their plumage. The pose of a resting bird is very characteristic: the stork most often stands on one leg, pulling its head into its shoulders and hiding its beak in the fluffy plumage of its neck. As a rule, storks rest on high perches with a good view - on dry trees, poles, roofs.

White storks use a rather unusual way of thermoregulation - they defecate on their feet. On a hot day, you can see many birds with white "stockings" on their paws. Apparently, liquid uric acid evaporates, cooling the surface of the tarsus. Its skin is abundantly permeated with blood vessels, passing through which the blood cools (Prinzinger and Hund, 1982; Schulz, 1987). Experiments on the American forest stork (Mycteria americana) have shown that with intense bowel movement on the legs, body temperature decreases (Kahl, 1972). X. Schultz (Schulz, 1987), observing storks in Africa, found that the frequency of bowel movements depends on the air temperature. The temperature threshold, after which birds with feet splattered with droppings begin to meet regularly, is approximately 28 ° C. At 40 °, the frequency of bowel movements already reaches 1.5 times per minute. White droppings, moreover, shield the feet from the scorching rays of the sun. In cloudy weather, the frequency of bowel movements decreases. Observations in Ukraine have shown that storks also begin to use this method of thermoregulation at a temperature of about 30 ° C in nesting places (Grischtschenko, 1992).

When white and black storks and herons feed together, the white stork dominates (Kozulin, 1996).

Nutrition

The diet of the white stork is very diverse. It eats various small animals from earthworms to rodents and small birds: leeches, molluscs, spiders, crustaceans, insects and their larvae, fish, amphibians, reptiles, etc. It can destroy the nests of nesting birds or catch a hare. Even small predators, such as the weasel (Mustela nivalis), were noted in the diet (Lohmer et al, 1980; Shtyrkalo, 1990). The size of the prey is limited only by the ability to swallow it. The diet depends on the conditions of the area and the number of hunting objects. In dry places, it can almost entirely consist of insects; in meadows and swamps, their share is much smaller. Thus, according to the data of E. G. Samusenko (1994), in Belarus the proportion of various groups of animals in the diet of the white stork varies considerably. In the floodplains of the Sozh and Berezina, invertebrates accounted for 51.6-56.8% in frequency of occurrence, and in non-floodplain biotopes - up to 99%.

Storks swallow their prey whole. Small animals are swallowed immediately, large insects and rodents are first killed by blows of their beak. Sometimes you can see how the white stork "chews" a caught vole or mole with its beak for some time. If there is water nearby, the bird rinses large dry prey for some time until it can be easily swallowed. In the same way, storks wash frogs or pbi6y soiled in silt (Creutz, 1988).

Undigested food debris regurgitates as pellets. The pellets are formed within 36-48 hours. They consist of chitinous remains of insects, wool and bones of mammals, scales of fish and reptiles, bristles of worms, etc. The size of pellets is 20-100 × 20-60 mm, weight 16–65 g. In chicks, they are somewhat smaller - 20-45 × 20-25 mm (Creutz, 1988; Muzinic and Rasajski, 1992; Schulz, 1998).

Storks feed in a variety of open biotopes - in meadows, pastures, swamps, the banks of water bodies, fields, vegetable gardens, etc. Favorite feeding places are areas with disturbed vegetation or soil layer, where small animals deprived of shelters become easy prey. The effectiveness of hunting in such situations can be quite significant. For example, in Poland, a stork, feeding on a combine harvester that harvested wheat, caught 33 rodents in 84 minutes (Pinowski et al., 1991). In the Elbe floodplain in Germany, the highest hunting efficiency (on average 5 g of prey per minute) was observed during haymaking or immediately after it (Dziewiaty, 1992). Therefore, clusters of feeding storks can be seen on fresh mows, in cultivated fields and even among burning grass. In Africa, these birds congregate where locals burn the savannah during the dry season. It is enough for them to see the smoke, how storks flock from everywhere, concentrating behind a wall of fire. They stroll along the still smoking stems and catch insects. Sometimes hundreds of individuals gather in such fires (Creutz, 1988). Storks willingly accompany herds of livestock or wild animals in pastures. Ungulates scare away small animals, making it easier for them to prey. In meadows, storks most often feed on areas with low grass or in shallow water bodies. They rarely wander deeper than 20-30 cm. Storks collect earthworms most often after rains, when they come to the surface, or in freshly plowed fields. They readily feed on irrigated fields teeming with earthworms. Although the abundance of insects in high vegetation is higher, the hunting efficiency of the white stork decreases. So, in Austria, it was 61% in vegetation with a height of 25 cm and 52% with a plant height of 25-30 cm (Schulz, 1998).

The main way to hunt white storks is to actively search for prey. The bird walks steadily on the grass or in shallow water, then slowing down, then accelerating the pace; can make sharp throws or freeze in place. Less often, storks watch for their prey, primarily rodents and large insects. Birds collect food on the ground, in shallow water, less often on plants. They can also catch flying animals with their beak - dragonflies, beetles and other insects. Sometimes they even knock them down with their wings. Storks kept in captivity quickly learn to grab food thrown to them on the fly with their beak. Even cases of successful stork hunting for passing sparrows and other small birds have been described (Niethammer, 1967; Creutz, 1988; Berthold, 2004). The bird gropes for earthworms and other soil invertebrates with its beak, plunging it into the ground for several centimeters (Schulz, 1998). It was also observed that storks in flight seized fish from the surface of the water (Neuschulz, 1981; Schulz, 1998).

According to research by P. Zakl (Sackl, 1985, cited in: Schulz, 1998) in Austria, the average speed of movement of a stork during feeding is 1.7 km / h. At the same time, he makes from 1 to 90 steps per minute, an average of 39.3. The time to watch for prey varies from 10.5 to 720 seconds, averaging 151.8 seconds. Occasionally, birds can freeze in place for up to 12 or even 20 minutes. A feeding stork makes an average of 5.3 pecks per minute, of which 4.0 are successful. When feeding with tadpoles and young frogs in shallow water in the floodplain of the river. Sava in Croatia, the frequency of pecks was 5.9 per minute, of which 2.9 were successful (Schulz, 1998).

The bird detects prey most often visually. Sometimes, in muddy water in shallow waters, white storks also use tactolocation, similar to storks of the genus Mycteria (Luhrl, 1957; Rezanov, 2001). According to the observations of A.G. Rezanov (2001) in the south of Ukraine, the sounding of the muddy water and the muddy bottom was carried out non-stop with a slightly open beak. Storks walked in shallow water, making 43-89 steps per minute, constantly probing the bottom areas in front of them. 98.9% of pecks were one-time tactile sensing. Feeding success was 2.3%.

Storks can also eat dead animals, for example, fish that have died or chicks that have died during haymaking, and even feed on garbage. In Spain in the 1990s. they have mastered the dumps and now feed there along with gulls and corvids. Some birds even hibernate in landfills (Martin, 2002; Tortosa et al., 2002).

Storks feed both singly and in flocks. In places rich in food, huge accumulations can form, which sometimes reach tens of thousands of individuals during wintering. Moreover, in congregations, the feeding efficiency of storks increases, since they are better protected from predators and spend less time inspecting (Carrascal et al., 1990).

During the nesting period, storks get food, as a rule, near the nest, but they can fly for food even several kilometers away. Breeding success largely depends on the distance to the main forage lands. Studies on the Elbe in Germany have shown that the average distance from the nest to the forage harvesting sites is inversely proportional to the number of chicks raised (Dziewiaty, 1999). A significant correlation was found between the number of hatched chicks and the proportion of wet meadows, bogs, and water bodies in the nesting area (Nowakowski, 2003). According to observations of one of the nests in Silesia in Poland, birds flew for food most often to several preferred places located at a distance of 500 to 3,375 m, on average 1,900 m (Jakubiec and Szymocski, 2000). Observations of another pair in Pomerania in northern Poland showed that storks were feeding on an area of ​​about 250 hectares. In more than half of the cases, they looked for prey in several preferred areas, which accounted for only 12% of the total area. 65% of the time they fed in meadows and pastures, 24% in the fields and 11% in the pond. The maximum flight distance for prey is 3,600 m, the average is 826 m. In 53% of cases, storks fed no further than 800 m from the nest. They flew farthest when the chicks had already grown up. Interestingly, the male and female differed in their preferences, feeding mainly in different places (Oigo and Bogucki, 1999). On the Elbe, in 80% of cases, storks collected food no further than 1 km from the nest (Dziewiaty, 1992). The maximum flight distance for food, determined for ringed birds in Zap. Europe is 10 km away (Lakeberg, 1995).

An analysis of 242 food samples collected during the non-nesting period in Ukraine showed that amphibians and shields are of the greatest importance in spring, and orthoptera and various beetles in August. Storks feed their chicks mainly amphibians and insects at various stages of development. Of the insects, Orthoptera and beetles are of the greatest importance; in total, representatives of 19 families of 3 orders were found in the diet (Smogorzhevsky, 1979).

In pellets collected in the upper reaches of the Kiev Reservoir. in the Chernihiv region, 96.1% of the total number of fragments belonged to the remains of arthropods. Moreover, the food of storks was very diverse: in one pellet, up to 130 species of animals were found, including such small ones as ants. Among insects, Coleoptera (35.3%), Hymenoptera (21.0%) and Caddis flies (19.6%) prevailed. Vertebrates played only an insignificant role in nutrition (Marisova, Samofalov, Serdyuk, 1992).

According to the analysis of 337 pellets collected in the southern and central parts of Belarus in 1986-1992, invertebrates constituted the main food of the white stork - 99% of the total number of certain specimens of food items. Aquatic beetles and bugs, mass species of ground beetles inhabiting predominantly humid habitats, and molluscs prevailed. In settlements, the proportion of small mammals and insects characteristic of dry biotopes is increasing (Samusenko, 1994). MI Lebedeva (1960), in pellets collected in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, found 80 specimens among 187 food items. molluscs, 75 - insects, 24 frogs, 8 viviparous lizards. Of the insects, 42 dragonflies, 20 larvae of swimming beetles and water lovers, 9 bear beetles, 2 grasshoppers, and 1 caterpillar were found. According to A.P. Nettle (1957), in the diet of white stork chicks in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, 72.5% by weight were vertebrates, of which 60.6% were frogs. The proportion of earthworms was only 1%.

In the Kaluga region. entomological analysis of pellets showed the presence of representatives of 17 species belonging to 7 families of the order Coleoptera. The most common were representatives of the family of ground beetles (Carabidae) - 41%. Next come lamellar beetles (Scarabaeidae) - 22%, water lovers (Hydrophilidae) - 15%, leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae) and rove beetles (Staphylinidae) - 7% each, water beetles (Dytiscidae) and false beetles (Anthribidae) - 4% each. The presented species of beetles were mainly inhabitants of moderately humid and dry meadows, as well as anthropogenic landscapes, and were characteristic of the soil surface - 44%, inhabited small ponds and puddles or were dung beetles - 19% each; they were followed by coleoptera, inhabiting fields and living on vegetation, as well as inhabiting mixed forests and living on bark and leaves - 7% each. In the Tver region. the food contains representatives of 7 families of beetles, most of which are lamellar beetles and ground beetles (61.3%) (Nikolaev, 2000).

In Masuria in Poland, of 669 pellets collected, 97.3% contained insect remains (representatives of the families Carabidae, Silphidae, Dytiscidae, Scarabeidae prevailed), 72.2% - small mammals (mainly moles, mice and voles), 1.6% - molluscs, 1.0% - small birds, 0.7% - amphibians. The proportion of insects in the diet was highest in the fields during the growth of cereals and alfalfa and in the mown meadows and fields after the harvest, rather high in the plowed fields (Pinowski et al., 1991). In Austria, during the nesting period, Orthoptera (67.7%) and beetles (24.1%) predominated in food quantity, vertebrates (55.5%), primarily small rodents (33.2%), by weight. Among insects, storks preferred locusts, ground beetles, leaf beetles and lamellar beetles. In April-June, the diet was more varied, with a predominance of small rodents; in July-August, Orthoptera predominated (Sackl, 1987). In the diet of summer flocks of non-breeding birds in meadows in Poland, insects predominated in number (83%), primarily beetles, in terms of biomass, small mammals, mainly voles (58%), insects (22%) and earthworms (11.5%) ) (Antczak et al., 2002). Studies in Greece showed a wide variability of the diet in different habitats, but the remains of insects, primarily Orthoptera and beetles, predominated in pellets everywhere (Tsachalidis and Goutner, 2002).

The diet of storks can vary from year to year, depending on weather conditions. So, in the north of Germany in 1990, when there was a surge in the number of murine rodents, the latter accounted for 59.1 and 68% of the food weight in the two sites where the studies were carried out, and in 1991 - only 3.6 and 3, eight%. In a very humid 1991, earthworms predominated in the diet - 50 and 61.6% by weight (Thomsen and Struwe, 1994). In southern Germany, in different years, the weight share of earthworms in the diet of the white stork ranged from 28.9 to 84%, arthropods - from 8.9 to 28.5%, leeches - 0 to 51.9%, rodents - from 1.5 up to 55.2%, frogs - from 1.2 to 5.4% (Lakeberg, 1995).

Orthoptera, primarily locusts, are one of the main groups of insects that the white stork feeds on. It has the greatest importance in the diet at wintering grounds in Africa, and therefore in the languages ​​of some African peoples, the white stork is called a "locust bird". Storks can eat a huge amount of locusts, sometimes overeating so that they cannot take off. During a locust raid on Hortobágy in Hungary in 1907, about 1,000 specimens were found in the digestive tract of one of the storks caught. locusts. The bird's stomach and esophagus were stuffed right up to the throat. In one of the stork pellets, 1,600 locust mandibles were found (Schenk, 1907). According to the last author, a flock of 100 storks is capable of destroying 100 thousand specimens per day. these dangerous pests. In nesting areas, the white stork also destroys a large number of agricultural pests, primarily the bear (Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa), weevils, and wireworms. According to A.P. Krapivny (1957), in Belovezhskaya Pushcha in the diet of nestlings, bear cubs accounted for 8% by number and almost 14% by weight. In the Masurian Poozerie in Poland, 31% of pellets contained wireworm remains, 14% - weevils, 16% - bear bear (Pinowska et al., 1991). In Zap. In France, the food that storks brought to their chicks was dominated by water-loving beetles and bear beetles (Barbraud and Barbraud, 1998).

When kept in captivity, the daily food requirement of an adult stork ranges from 300 g in the warm season to 500 g in winter. A bird needs 110-130 kg per year (Bloesch, 1982). The daily energy requirement of a pair of storks feeding chicks is estimated at 4 660 kJ. This amount gives the consumption of 1.4 kg of earthworms, 1,044 g of frogs or 742 g of small rodents (Profus, 1986). According to other sources, a pair with 1-2 chicks consumes about 5200 kJ (B5hning-Gaese, 1992). On the river Sava in Croatia, a pair of storks brought an average of 1.4 kg of food per chick every day at the age of 3-6 weeks (Schulz, 1998), in northern Germany (chicks age 3-8 weeks) - 1.2 kg (Struwe, Thomsen, 1991).

For the white stork, the most energy-efficient food is vertebrates. In humid habitats, these are usually amphibians. However, due to land reclamation and hydraulic engineering works, their number in many countries has significantly decreased. Thus, the diet of a pair of storks under observation in the Swiss Jura consisted of 2/3 of earthworms, while vertebrates accounted for only 0.4% (Wermeille and Biber, 2003). In such conditions, rodents are becoming increasingly important for storks. Observations in the valley of the river. Cliffs in western Poland showed that breeding success and even the number of nest populations were higher in years with a high abundance of the common vole (Microtus arvalis) (Tryjanowski and Kuzniak, 2002).

Enemies, adverse factors

The white stork has few natural enemies. Large birds of prey, corvids, martens can destroy the nests. Adult birds become victims of attacks by eagles, sea eagles, large four-legged predators - foxes, stray dogs, wolves, etc. However, the death of most adult white storks is directly or indirectly related to humans.

Power lines are most responsible for mortality. 1986-1989 in Ukraine, out of 489 cases of death of adult storks with a known cause, 64.0% fell on power lines. Among the victims of power lines, 80.8% died on poles from electric shock and 19.2% broke on wires. Power lines pose the greatest danger to young poorly flying birds: 72.8% of deaths occur in storks that have recently left the nest. In second place was the direct destruction by people - 12.7%. 8.8% of storks died as a result of fights on nests and during the formation of flocks before departure, 7.6% - due to unfavorable weather conditions, 2.9% - due to pesticide poisoning, 1.6% - due to collisions with transport, 1.2% - due to diseases, 0.8% - from predators, 0.4% - due to falling into large pipes. Thus, only 18.4% of storks died for reasons not related to human activity. The main reason for the death of chicks (742 cases with a known cause) is the throwing out of chicks by their parents from the nests. It accounts for 41.9%. 20.2% of chicks died due to unfavorable weather conditions, 12.9% - due to falling nests, 7% - during fights between adult storks on the nests, 6.2% - destroyed by humans, 4.5% - due to for the combustion of nests, 2.7% - as a result of the death of parents, 2.0% died from predators, 1.5% - poisoned, 1.1% - died because of the materials brought to the nest (Grishchenko, Haber, 1990).

In the Kaluga region. the picture is somewhat different. According to data collected in 1960-99, poaching is the main cause of death of adult birds. It accounts for 74% of cases with an established cause of death (n = 19). In 21% of cases, birds died on power lines, once an adult bird died during a fight for a nest with other storks. The main reason for the death of fledglings is contact with electrical communications: from an electric shock on open transformers and power transmission lines, as well as in a collision with wires. Some of the cases of the loss of young birds soon after leaving the nests should probably be attributed to poaching. Such differences are associated with the fact that in the territories recently inhabited by storks, the attitude of people towards them is much less favorable. There are even known cases of destruction of the appeared nests. For example, the first nest in Mordovia was destroyed by local residents because of fears that storks would damage cucumber crops (Lapshin and Lysenkov, 1997). In the Nizhny Novgorod region. the main reason for the death of nests is persecution by humans (Bakka, Bakka, Kiseleva, 2000). The destruction of adult birds and the destruction of nests was noted in the southeast of Turkmenistan, where storks tried to nest in the 1980s. (Belousov, 1990). However, even in those regions where the white stork has lived for a long time, the attitude of the local population towards it has changed for the worse. This is evidenced by at least a high percentage of the destruction of birds by people among the causes of death and the destruction of nests on the poles of power lines.

Among the reasons for the death of chicks, as mentioned above, in the first place is parental infanticide. A significant part of chicks is thrown out of nests or even eaten by adult storks. So, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, almost 30% of pairs threw out chicks, and sometimes even all the chicks of the brood were destroyed (Fedyushin, Dolbik, 1967). In Spain, infanticide was noted in 18.9% of the nests under observation. In all cases, the weakest chick was discarded. The average age of discarded storks is 7.3 days (Tortosa, Redondo, 1992). Usually this behavior is associated with a lack of feed. According to D. Lack (1957), the instinct to abort part of the laid eggs or hatched chicks is a device that allows the size of the family to be brought in line with the amount of food available. It is assumed that the prevalence of infanticide in the white stork is associated with the absence of siblicide and competition for food in broods. Parents bring in large amounts of small feed, and larger chicks cannot monopolize it. Since the weakest chicks do not die on their own, their parents “have to” destroy them (Tog-tosa, Redondo, 1992; Zielicski, 2002).

A similar situation is noted not only in the territory of the former. USSR, but also in other countries. Most adult storks die on power lines, the greatest danger is power lines for young, still poorly flying birds. This was noted in Bulgaria (Nankinov, 1992), Germany (Riegel, Winkel, 1971; Fiedler, Wissner, 1980), Spain (Garrido, Femandez-Cruz, 2003), Poland (Jakubiec, 1991), Slovakia (Fulin, 1984), Switzerland (Moritzi, Spaar, Biber, 2001). In the Rostock district in East Germany, of the 116 dead white stork chicks, 55.2% were discarded by their parents, 20.7% died from falling nests, 9.5% from hypothermia (Zollick, 1986). On the flight routes and in wintering grounds, the main reasons for the death of storks are shooting and other forms of persecution by people, death on power lines, and poisoning with pesticides (Schulz, 1988). If a stream of thousands of migrating storks crosses an area with a dense network of power lines, dozens of individuals die at the same time (Nankinov, 1992).

In many African countries, the white stork is traditionally a hunting species. According to the returns of the rings, in the North. and Zap. In Africa, about 80% of deaths are due to shooting. According to the estimates of H. Schultz (1988), in the 1980s. on the eastern flyway, 5-10 thousand storks were shot annually, of which 4-6 thousand were in Lebanon.

Mass death of storks can be caused by catastrophic weather events - storms, large hail, etc. On August 5, 1932, near one of the villages in northern Bulgaria, during an unprecedented hailstorm (pieces of ice up to half a kilogram in weight fell from the sky!), About 200 storks died and about a hundred were left with broken legs and wings (Schumann, 1932). In 1998, in two villages of the Lviv region. almost all chicks in 19 monitored nests died during heavy rains (Gorbulshska et al., 2004). The return of cold weather after the arrival of storks can cause great damage. So, in 1962 in the Lviv region. hundreds of individuals died due to frost and snowfall in the third decade of March (Cherkashchenko, 1963).

Sometimes chicks die trying to swallow too large prey brought by parents. For example, a case of death of a stork chick that choked on a snake was noted (Kuppler, 2001). Some materials brought by parents to the nest - pieces of twine, tow, in which storks can get entangled, are also dangerous to chicks; scraps of film or oilcloth in the tray, on which water collects.

The unfavorable factors include the changes in the habitat that have taken place in recent decades. The thatched and thatched roofs, on which storks willingly nest, have practically disappeared from the villages. The number of old trees suitable for nesting in settlements is also decreasing. Excessive reclamation, flooding of river floodplains with reservoirs, violation of the normal water regime of reservoirs leads to a depletion of the food base. This is especially true for many Western countries. Europe, where amphibians have to be specially bred to feed storks. Recently, one more problem has been added - the reduction of the areas of traditionally used meadows and pastures in many regions of the East. Europe and North. Asia due to the economic downturn. The increasing chemicalization of agriculture causes the accumulation of pesticides in food chains, which causes poisoning and disease in birds. This is most pronounced in wintering places, where an active fight against locusts and other agricultural pests is carried out, which serve as the main food for storks.

In Central Asia, the most important factor that influenced changes in the area and number was the development of new lands for sowing agricultural crops with a predominance of cotton monoculture, cutting down trees in river valleys, draining swamps, and reducing the area of ​​rice fields. Thanks to the enlargement of the fields, many forest belts were cut down. Modern architecture and urban planning trends do not favor the nesting of the white stork in settlements (Sagitov, 1990; Shernazarov et al., 1992).

In Russia, a significant factor limiting the number of nesting pairs is the destruction of nests on churches in connection with their restoration, on telegraph poles and power transmission towers when servicing electrical communications, as well as the dismantling of water towers for installation in a new place or for scrap metal. The latter factor seems especially threatening, since more than half of the Russian group of white storks nest on the water towers.

The negative factors include the deterioration of the positive attitude towards the white stork of the local population, the loss of long-standing folk traditions. So, held in the Kiev region. The survey showed that a significant part of rural residents not only do not know how to attract a white stork to nest, but also do not want to have a nest on the estate (Grishchenko et al., 1992). This is despite the fact that the presence of a nest was previously considered a great blessing; attracting a white stork to nesting was one of the elements of ancient agricultural magic (Grishchenko, 19986, 2005). In Uzbekistan, the white stork was considered a sacred bird, but now the population in some places is engaged in ruining nests and collecting eggs (Sagitov, 1990).

In southern Ukraine, four types of helminths have been recorded in the white stork: Dyctimetra discoidea, Chaunocephalus ferox, Tylodelphys excavata, Histriorchis tricolor (Kornyushin et al., 2004).

About 70 representatives of various insect species, mainly beetles (Coleoptera), were found in the nests of the white stork (Hicks, 1959).

Economic value, security

The white stork destroys a large number of agricultural pests, primarily insects and rodents. It is widely recognized as one of the most active locust exterminators. The stork can cause some damage to the fishing and hunting economy, eating fish, chicks, hares, etc., but this is only random, and such food items do not occupy any noticeable place in the diet of the white stork. More or less significant damage to the fishery occurs only where large concentrations of storks are formed and there is practically no other food (for example, at fish farms in Israel). In the countries of the East. Europe and North. Asia is rare.

The white stork is a longtime human companion, it has a great aesthetic value, it is considered one of the most beloved and revered birds among many peoples. His cult was formed in ancient times, quite possibly soon after the emergence of a manufacturing economy (Grishchenko, 19986, 2005). The stork is an excellent object for environmental education and upbringing, accepts human help, positively affects the emotions of people living nearby. To protect the stork, active propaganda and explanatory work is needed, the revival of long-standing folk traditions of helping this bird. At the same time, thanks to the great popularity of the white stork, it is possible to attract a significant number of people to nature conservation activities. Large-scale scientific and propaganda campaigns are very effective, for example, the operations "Leleka" ("Aist") and "Year of the White Stork" carried out in Ukraine (Grishchenko, 1991, 1996; Grishchenko et al., 1992). Both propaganda work and practical assistance in the settlement zone are especially important - for fixing birds in new nesting places.

The white stork is listed in the Red Books of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and in the Russian Federation - in the Red Books of Karelia, Mordovia, Chechnya, Krasnodar and Stavropol Territories, Belgorod, Volgograd, Kaluga, Kirov, Lipetsk, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Penza, Rostov, Ryazan, Tambov , Tver and some other regions.

When it comes to what the white stork eats, for some reason everyone remembers first of all frogs (remember yourself), although they are far from being the basis of his diet. This representative is unpretentious to food, he catches all sorts of small animals found under his feet - from worms to small rodents. It could only be swallowed. But, first of all, the stork feeds on a variety of insects; in dry areas, they can make up to 99 percent of the prey.

Storks swallow their prey whole. All kinds of trifles are swallowed at once, and large insects and rodents are first killed by blows of their beak, and then only eaten. Sometimes you can see how a stork, before eating, "chews" a caught mouse with its beak, as if tasting it. Maybe he will play, now releasing, then grabbing her again, like a kitten. Large and dry prey, in the presence of water nearby, the stork is first rinsed in it for a while until it becomes such that it can be easily swallowed. In the same way, it first washes the contaminated caught frogs and fish.

Birds look for prey on the ground or in shallow water. They do not like to go far into the water - you rarely see a stork at a depth of more than 20-30 centimeters. Hunting techniques can be varied. More often storks are actively looking for prey. Everyone is familiar with the picture: a stork, solemnly pacing in the grass. At the same time, he can make either sudden throws, then freeze in place, and sometimes even beat his wings. Often, birds accompany herds of cows, herds of horses, working tractors or combines.

Storks' favorite feeding place is fresh mowing. You can see these birds even near the fire in the grass. This is rare in our country, but in Africa, storks like to gather where the locals burn the savannah in the dry season. It is enough for them to see the smoke, as birds from everywhere begin to flock to the conflagration, concentrating behind the wall of fire. They walk on the still smoking burnt stems and catch insects. Sometimes hundreds of birds gather on such fires. Storks also fly in on a freshly plowed field, collecting worms and insect larvae.

Another hunting option is waiting for prey, which is typical for herons. The stork is able to guard near a mouse hole, waiting for one of its inhabitants to push its nose. As a rule, the duration of such a wait does not exceed a few minutes, but once a bird was observed, which "guarded" a mouse mink for 20 minutes. In muddy shallow water bodies, the stork often hunts "by touch": it drives its beak through the water, quickly closing and opening it, until it bumps into a tadpole or something else. He collects earthworms by probing soft soil with his beak. The stork can also catch flying prey, for example, dragonflies or other insects. Sometimes he even knocks them down with his wings. When kept in captivity, he quickly learns to grab food thrown to him with his beak, as dogs do.

Among the insects in the stork's diet, there are such dangerous pests as the Kuzka beetle, the turtle bug, various beetles, and the beet weevil. But most of all he loves the so-called Orthoptera. These include grasshoppers, crickets, spinning tops and the notorious locusts. In the wintering grounds in Africa, storks eat so many locusts that in the languages ​​of a number of African tribes the white stork is called "locust eater" or "locust bird". The fame of the exterminator of this dangerous pest was so entrenched in him that in Afrikaans (the language of the white population of the South African Republic), even one of the official scientific names of the white stork is “a large locust bird”. However, it is justified to some extent for Ukraine as well. In the past, there have been many devastating "raids" of locusts in the southern provinces. Even now, despite the huge arsenal of chemical weapons and the use of aviation, it can turn blooming lands into a barren desert in a matter of days. One can imagine what a disaster the locusts were for the peasants in the past.

The stork also does not let the other "favorite" of the peasants, the top or the "cabbage", get off the ground. Having a vegetable garden can tell a lot about her. Studies in various European countries, from Spain to the former USSR, have shown that in the stork's diet, tops in the summer make up from 5-10% to a third. Ornithologist A.P. Krapivny studied the nutrition of the white stork in Belovezhskaya Pushcha. It turned out that in the food that adult birds brought to chicks, tops were about 8% by number and almost 14% by weight. There were as many as 113 bears in one portion brought to the connector! In the Masurian Lake District (Poland), 31% of the white stork contained the remains of the larvae of click beetles (wireworms), 14% - weevils, 16% - tops.

In years with outbreaks of the number of murine rodents, they are eaten in large numbers not only by white, but also by black storks, which feed mainly on small fish and other aquatic animals. So, according to F.I. Strautman, in 1946, in the Irshavsky district of the Transcarpathian region, during a surge in the number of mouse-like rodents, several specimens of mice and voles were found in the stomachs of harvested black storks.

The efficiency of stork hunting is quite good. According to calculations made in Poland, one bird caught 44 mice for an hour, 2 young hamsters and one frog, the second caught 25-30 crickets per minute! Continuous observations of one stork carried out by scientists showed that it caught at least 1037 different animals for 10.5 hours, an average of 1.6 per minute. The hunting success of birds depends on the terrain conditions and the type of prey, but on average, about half of the attacks are effective.

The daily requirement of an adult stork is about 700 grams of food. In summer, in order to feed themselves and raise an eternally hungry crowd of chicks, birds have to search for prey almost all daylight hours. According to the estimates of Polish ornithologists, a medium-sized stork family - a pair of adult birds and 2-3 babies - consumes about 2.5 centners of food during the period of feeding the chicks. To raise offspring, storks must receive about one and a half kilograms of earthworms, a kilogram of frogs, or 700 grams of small rodents every day.

Apparently it was not for nothing that the popular belief arose that a village in which many storks nest may not be particularly worried about a good harvest. Scientists believe that it was precisely the destruction of locusts and many other dangerous pests that was one of the reasons why in the distant past the stork was respected as a sacred bird.

V.M. Grishchenko (www.birdlife.org.ua)

Appearance... The stork is considered to be a fairly large bird (the weight of an adult is about 4 kg), reaching a length of 120 cm.The length of the metatarsus is 24 cm, the beak is 22.5 cm.The wings are large, almost 64 cm in length, have a white color (like everything plumage of a bird). True, a black tint can be seen on the flight feathers and long shoulder feathers. The iris, beak and legs take on red. Legs and neck are extended during flight.

Where to meet a white stork, his family and chicks, where he flies in winter

Habitat... The white stork lives in an open area of ​​forests and steppes.

Nutrition... Small fish, along with frogs, are the stork's most important food, although sometimes it can eat snakes, lizards, various types of insects and chicks of other representatives of birds, as well as slugs, mice and gophers. Nesting places... The settlements in the western part of Russia are nesting places that the white stork predominantly occupies. It is worth noting that other representatives of storks could not take root in the conditions of active human activity.

Location and material for building a nest... The stork nests in elevated areas, which can be a tree, the roof of a wooden building, or a completely dilapidated building. On a tree for nesting, areas of dry branches are selected, located low above the ground at a level of 3-5 m, or the top of an already destroyed tree, well illuminated by the sun. For the nest, various thick dry branches and twigs are selected with the addition of rotten straw and hay. A good pliable material - feathers, wool, hay, straw, felt rags, and pieces of paper - are used to line the tray.

Nest, its shape and dimensions... Due to the fact that storks are able to use their nests for a long time, periodically repairing and building on them, the perennial nest turns out to be large, reaching up to one and a half meters in diameter. The height is the same, however, for a freshly built nest, it is approximately 40-50 cm.

Clutch of eggs and its features... The female white stork is capable of laying from 2 to 4 eggs, more often there are four of them. The eggs are 7.1-7.8x5-5.7 cm in size, without a pattern (they differ from the eggs of a black stork in a shell that is yellowish in the lumen), as a result of prolonged incubation they lose their whiteness.

Breeding dates... In the second half of March or at the beginning of April, stork couples arrive, as a result of which eggs can be laid already in May, which both the male and the female will incubate for 33-34 days. Only in the second half of July do chicks at the age of 54-63 days leave their nests, and by seventy days of their life they acquire complete independence. Young storks in late August or the first weeks of September fly off to winter in Africa.

Distribution area... The prevalence of the white stork in Russia is not wide. This species of stork predominantly occupies the western end of the Russian border, moving eastward up to the regions of the Pskov, Smolensk, Oryol and Kaluga regions. Lives separately in the eastern part of the Transcaucasian republics, rarely in Dagestan; also the white stork is found in the Central Asian lands, where it occupies some part of Uzbekistan. In addition, southwestern Ukraine and the rest of Europe are favorite nesting sites for white storks.

A man and a white stork: the benefits of a bird for nature and people

Household purpose... It is believed that the stork contributes to the extermination of locusts when, on its rare flights to grain fields and sections of the steppe, it begins to hunt for the myriad hordes of these harmful insects. On the other hand, although the stork can eat some types of snakes (for example, a completely harmless snake), nevertheless, it sometimes causes damage to a brood of poultry - small chickens and ducklings, when they freely walk around the yard.

The white stork keeps many beliefs and legends about itself (there are also many), from time immemorial symbolizing longevity and marital fidelity (as well as). But it is worth noting that the seemingly strong affinity of the stork pair is very ghostly, because often the male does not neglect the new female, if he did not wait for his first darling, who was late from wintering. So a big conflict can arise between two females in the nest.

Who of people does not come to mind all the peculiar appearance of a stork, as soon as it is worth hearing the name of this white bird? If you think sensibly, then a very small number of birds have earned their attention from people. Since the white stork, for a reason mysterious for scientists, for some reason seeks to coexist next to a person, without moving far from the human habitat, it can be said that the natural (natural or “wild”, in human language) habitat is not typical for family of storks.

Often this bird nests on the roofs of houses, large sheds, chimneys of abandoned factory enterprises, on garden or park trees. By the way, the nesting places of the white stork are found not only in rural areas, but also in large urbanized centers - Bukhara is an example of this.

Storks are migratory birds. They arrive somewhere in March-April. In length they reach more than 1 meter, and the distance from beak to tail is approximately 1.3 m. An adult stork weighs about 4 kg. The stork bird is characterized by rather long legs without feathers, covered with mesh skin. Also, bare skin can be found on the head and neck. A long, straight beak flaunts on the head. There is a swimming membrane between the toes and pink claws on the tips of the toes.

The coloring of a stork depends on its species - there are 12 species of storks in total. All types are dominated by white and black colors in different proportions.

Genus: Storks

Family: Stork

Class: Birds

Order: Stork

Type: Chordates

Kingdom: Animals

Domain: Eukaryotes

Where does the stork live?

White and black storks are common in Europe and Asia. They fly to overwinter to Africa and India, sometimes they can stay overwinter in the countries of southern Asia. They love to live in swampy areas, in meadow lowlands. White storks are not afraid of people and can build their nests right on the roofs of houses or on poles next to people's dwellings. People consider such a neighborhood a good omen and are glad to see these birds. Other types of storks can be found in Eurasia, Africa, South America.

An interesting fact is that storks can fall asleep while flying. Scientists have recorded cases when the bird's pulse slowed down during flight and breathing became shallow. At this time, hearing increased in order not to fight off the pack. This rest is enough for the bird for 10-15 minutes and it returns to its normal state again.

What does the stork eat?

Storks 'favorite food is frogs, but the variety of storks' diet is impressive. They can eat insects, mollusks, snails, fish, worms, May beetles, they can also eat larger food - mice, snakes, lizards, small rats, rabbits, gophers. During the search for food, the stork can move slowly, but as soon as suitable food is found, the stork quickly runs up to it and grabs it with its strong and long beak.

Stork lifestyle

Storks are migratory birds. They belong to monogamous birds. They choose one couple for life. Returning to their nest, after hot countries, they are engaged in the continuation of their kind. At this time, all couples are on their own. But during wintering, storks, on the contrary, gather in huge flocks, which can number tens of thousands of individuals.

Another feature of storks is "cleaning". All sick and weak individuals are hammered to death by strong and healthy individuals. At first glance, this is a rather cruel act, but it is a necessity for survival and the creation of a healthy family. Thus, storks protect other individuals from the spread of the disease and prevent weak individuals from becoming parents.

Breeding storks

The mating season begins in storks from the moment they return to their nest after wintering. First of all, they start to rebuild it after winter. Storks even have a kind of inheritance where the parents' nest passes to their children. Old nests are large.

Males return first to nests and wait for females. If a pair has not yet been created, then the female who first sits on his nest can become the male's wife. Sometimes females can fight for the male. In this case, the male does not take part in the fight.

When the couple has already decided, then it is created until the end of life. The female incubates 2 to 5 eggs. The eggs are incubated for approximately 30 days. Parents take turns sitting on eggs. Chicks hatch with white down. At first, parents feed their children, and in the heat they pour water on them.

After a month and a half, the chicks make their first flight attempts, and after 2-3 months they become independent and fly away with everyone to the south in the fall. After three years, the chicks are already sexually mature. But storks begin to build nests from the age of 6. The life span of storks is approximately 20 years.

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There are many stories of the stork in human culture. Legends and beliefs are associated with this bird, poems and songs are composed about it. Since ancient times, it has been considered a symbol of family and loyalty. This amazingly graceful bird never ceases to amaze the imagination with its beauty and grace.

The most famous among the storks is the white one. About him and will be discussed.

general characteristics

The stork bird has twelve species of which white is the most common. Its external features:

• a white bird with a black edging on the wings;
• graceful elongated neck;
• thin beak;
• long red legs.

The bird is distinguished by a proud gait. When the wings are folded, it looks like it is half black.

Males do not differ in color from females. You can distinguish them by their size - females are smaller... The birds grow up to 125 cm in height, in a wingspan of 2 meters. The weight of an adult bird is no more than 4 kg. The lifespan of birds in nature is up to 20 years, less in captivity. The bird is considered a long-liver.

Habitat

Where do storks live

The white stork is found throughout Europe and Asia. This is a fairly large area. In recent years, the range has been shifting towards the east.

For the winter, the white stork flies to Africa or India. Populations living in Africa and Western Europe do not fly away for the winter, as winters in these areas are warm.

In wintering places birds gather in numerous flocks, consisting of thousands of individuals. Young birds can stay in Africa for the entire winter. The flight occurs during daylight hours. They fly at a considerable height, while hovering. Aerodynamically comfortable areas are suitable for this. The birds avoid routes over the sea.

Nests

Bird watchers have a particular interest not in the habitat of the white stork, but in the choice of a place for its nest. Back in the 19th century, an amazing feature of these birds was noticed - before building a nest, stork watches people for a long time.

In connection with this feature, a belief was even born that if a stork's nest appeared in a village, it would bring prosperity and happiness to the inhabitants. Cases have been recorded when nests were found even on the roofs of multi-storey buildings. People, having found such a dwelling, do not get upset, but, on the contrary, rejoice. Sometimes they even specially prepare sheds so that the bird can live on their roof.

Life in the wild

The white stork is in flight most of the time. And more often he uses energetically profitable way of flying - soaring... Having found suitable places for this, the stork can fly for many kilometers without flapping its wings. The birds fly 200-250 km per day.

During the flight, the bird may even take a nap. Scientists made this conclusion from data on the weakening of the pulse and respiration of birds. At the same time, hearing is sharpened so that the bird can hear in which direction the flock is flying.

Birds fly to winter in numerous flocks... At this time, they switch to insect feeding, preferring locusts. In Africa they are called "locust birds".

To observe storks, scientists use banding. Recently, satellite surveillance has been used. This method involves the provision of birds with transmitters that broadcast signals to the satellite. Thanks to this method, scientists study the peculiarities of bird life, what the stork eats, how other interesting moments breed.

Nutrition

What does a stork eat in nature

The white stork feeds on small vertebrates and invertebrates. They feast on frogs, vipers, grasshoppers, eat beetles, earthworms, small fish, lizards. The movement of birds when searching for food is unhurried. But as soon as they notice the prey, they quickly run up to it and grab it. They carry water to chicks with the help of their beak.

To search for food, the stork bypasses swamps and lowlands. The structure of his body quite allows him to do this. Legs with long toes provide stability on shaky wet ground. And the oblong beak allows you to get all sorts of goodies from the depths - mollusks, snails, frogs.

They can even collect dead fish do not mind eating also:

• moles;
• rats;
• small birds.

Of course, it is not so easy for them to catch moving animals.

The winged hunt in shallow water, they do not like to go into deep water. They can feed on the ground, they prefer freshly cut grasses, where they catch small insects. In Africa, storks congregate where people burned grass. Hundreds of birds can be seen in such places. They also fly to the fields and collect the larvae there.

Storks can expect prey for a long time. For example, he can hide near the hole of a rodent and wait for him to stick out his nose. The time of such fading does not exceed a few minutes.

In troubled waters, the bird hunts "at random", not seeing its prey. It opens and closes its beak in the water until a tadpole is caught. The bird can catch food on the fly by capturing a dragonfly or other insects. In captivity, birds catch food, like dogs, on the fly.

Stork destroys dangerous insects: bug-turtle, beetle-kuzka, beet weevil. He helps farmers eliminate the bear - this is a harmful insect that all farmers know about.

During the years of outbreaks of mice and rats, storks actively eat these rodents, providing significant assistance to humans.

One stork needs 700 grams of food per day. When the offspring are reared, this volume greatly increases, and adults have to spend all day looking for food.

Reproduction

White stork is a monogamous bird... It creates a pair and a breeding nest. Previously, nests were built only on trees near human dwellings. The birds built them from branches. Later they began to settle on the rooftops. Such a neighborhood does not upset people, but only pleases.

In recent years, storks have been building nests on factory chimneys and even on power lines. One nest is built for several years. Over the years, it is gaining more and more size. It happens that after the death of adults, the nest passes to the offspring.

Storks begin nesting at the age of about six years. This is not surprising, because the bird lives for 20 years.

Males are the first to arrive at the nesting site.... In Russia, this is the beginning of April. First, the first female appears, then the second, a struggle flares up between them for the right to become a mother. Of course, no one wants to remain an old maid and live their whole life alone. After all, only death can separate a couple of storks. The male does not interfere with the struggle of the females. He calls the winner to his nest, making special sounds. If another male flies up to the nest, the owner ruthlessly drives him away, striking him with his beak.

The female lays from 2 to 5 eggs, rarely from 1 to 7. Both parents incubate them. Usually it is a male during the day and a female at night. The process takes 33 days. Little chicks have eyesight, but they are absolutely helpless.

Raising chicks

Parents feed their babies with earthworms giving them from his beak. Chicks catch worms on the fly or gather in the nest. Growing up, they pick up food from the beak of adults. Parents watch the offspring, the sick and the weak are thrown out of the nest. Chicks can also die due to lack of food.

After 55 days, the chicks begin to take off. Their first attempts are monitored by their parents, feeding them for another 18 days. Young individuals spend nights in parental nests, and during the day they learn to fly.

After 70 days, young people gain independence and fly away to winter. Adults fly later in September.

White stork, meeting a couple, begins to loudly click its beak... At the same time, the bird throws back its head to form a resonating space that amplifies sounds. In this way, storks communicate.

In relation to congeners, the bird behaves aggressively. Weak individuals can even be beaten to death.

The number of storks in the western regions is rapidly declining. This is due to a decrease in the amount of feed, an increase in the chemicalization of nature, leading to the death of birds and a violation of the reproductive regime. In Russia, the number of birds, on the contrary, is increasing.

There are about 150 thousand pairs of white storks around the world, a third of them live in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine.

Interesting legends associated with the bird... The stork has long been considered a protector against satanic forces. There is a legend explaining the origin of the bird. According to her, God, seeing the danger of snakes, decided to destroy them. He collected all the reptiles in a sack and asked the man to throw the sack into the sea or mountains. But the man, out of curiosity, opened the bag and freed the creepers. As a punishment, the Creator turned a person into a stork and made him collect snakes throughout his life.

There is also a fairy tale "Caliph the Stork", where a man turned into this beautiful bird.