Declassified topographic maps of the General Staff of the USSR are freely walking through the Internet. We all love to download them, regard, and often printing on sheets of paper for further use of them for direct purpose - i.e. Walk with them in hiking.
Topographic maps of the General Staff are the most accurate and best. Any other purchased cards printed in modern times will not carry so much accuracy and specifics. The symbols and designations on topographic maps of the General Staff are much more complex than any other designations of maps purchased in the store. We all remember them from the lessons of geography at school.
As a used user of such cards, I would like to describe the most important, in my opinion, designations at the beginning of this article. If the rest are more or less understandable, as they are almost all identical with other types of cards (not the General Staff), then these are something new and still incomprehensible. Actually, I will start with the conventional designations of rivers, frodes, forests and roads.
Rivers and water resources
| Speed \u200b\u200band direction of the flow of the river (0.6 m / s) | |
|
Characteristics of rivers and canals: 30 - width (m), 0,8 - depth (m), TO- type of soil ( TO - rocky, P - Sand, T. - solid IN - viscous) |
 |
| Mark of water cuts, height of the shore above sea level (393m) |  |
| Brody: 0,3 - depth, 10 - Length, TO - rocky soil, 1,0 - speed (m / s) |  |
| Swamp passable |  |
| The swamp is impassable |  |
| Characteristics of bridges: D. - Building material ( D. - wood, TO - Stone, ZB - reinforced concrete), 43 - the length of the bridge, 4 - Width of the roadway (M), 10 - Load capacity in tons |  |
| Forest Loose and width in meters (2m) |  |
| Field and forest roads |  |
| Winner, operating highway only in the winter season, in the cold period. Can pass by swamps. |  |
| Dirt road, 6 - Width of the roadway in meters |  |
| Gatch - the road with a wooden coating, focused from logs, 3 - Width of the roadway |  |
| Go |  |
| Railway canvas |  |
| Gas pipeline |  |
| Power lines (LEP) |  |
| Disassembled railway |  |
| Single railway, narrow scene. Also railway bridge |  |
| Highway: 6 -Shirina covered part, 8 - Width of the whole road from the ditch to ditch in meters; Sh - coating material ( B. - cobblestone, G. - Gravel, TO - Kolotny stone, SHL - slag, Sh - crushed stone) |  |
Relief
| River shore rivers, rocky balancing, Parma |  |
| Horizontal relief with a relative height designation (260 m) |  |
| Mountain terrain without vegetable cover, covered with stones - Kurumi and Rocks-remainers |  |
| Mountain terrain with vegetation cover and rare trees, a forest boundary is visible |  |
| Rocks-remains with a height of meters |  |
| Glaciers |  |
| Rocks and rocky cliffs |  |
| Height mark (479.2 m) |  |
| Steppe region. Near the forest border |  |
| Sands, desert |  |
Photos of some geographic objects
The main winter, laid through the Taiga Forest. In the summer there are thickets (Yakutia)
Forest dust road (Ivedelsky district, North. Ural)
GY - Wooden Road Road (Lobnensky Forest, Mosk. Obl)
Rock exposure, Parma (stone "Giant", Wed. Ural)
Rocks-remains (rock old stone, cf. Ural)
It should be understood that all existing topographic maps of the USSR General Staff have long been outdated. The information contained on them can be dated 70-80 years of the last century. If you are interested in the details of the passage of one or other paths, roads, the availability of settlements and geographical objects, then you should check the accuracy of information on other sources in advance. The trail and roads may not be at all. Small settlements can be abandoned and constituted wasteland, often have already crumpled young.
But, in any case, the Maps of the General Staff will still carry more accurate information, and on them you can more productively calculate your route and distance. In this article, I did not score your heads superfluous symbols and conditional signs of topographic maps. I posted only the most important and significant for the mountaineering and steppe region. Who are interested in details, can see.
Maps of the USSR General Staff are performed using the Soviet system of deraditions and the nomenclature of topographic maps. This system is still used in the Russian Federation and in some former Soviet republics. There are newer cards, the state of the area on which about the 60s of the 60s of the last century, and older maps, the so-called RKKA General Staff, made by geodesic reconnaissance of pre-war time. "Maps are compiled in the equival cross-cylindrical projection of Gauss-Kruger, calculated by the parameters of the Ellipsoid of Krasovsky for the six-genera zone," -and if you did not understand, it does not matter! The main thing is to remember (or write down, save this article) those moments that I was led above. Knowing them, you can skillfully use maps and plan your route without using GPS.
On one piece of card, a whole world can fit, with all the oceans, continents, mountains and plains, countries, cities, minerals, animals and birds. Just need to be able to correctly read the card. In this lesson, we will find out which cards were in antiquity, and what types of cards are now, what are the advantages of the card in front of the globe, what is the scale, the legend of the card. We will learn how to use the depth scale and heights, determine the coordinates of earth objects.
Subject: Planet on which we live
People began to draw cards even before they thought about the round earth or flat. Scientists have discovered in Kamchatka drawing on the dice depicting the path to a rich prey to the place. This is probably one of the oldest cards. The cards painted on the slices of the bark, cut out on wooden planks, which were convenient to take on the road. Some peoples scratched the cards with an acute subject on raw clay tiles, which, after drying, became durable, with a clear image.
This map of the worldIn the center of which is the city of Babylon, more than 3 thousand years.
Fig. 1. World map of the ancient Babylon ()
Also found rock paintings in the caves, where people lived thousands of years ago.
Fig. 2. Fashionable area of \u200b\u200bterrain ()
With the invention, paper cards began to draw on it. All information received by scientists and travelers was applied to the cards during wanderings on various lands.
Fig. 3. Ancient world map on paper ()
The manufacture of the map was a long process, because all the details were drawn manually, so the cards were very expensive.
The long period of time was present on the maps only four: Eurasia, Africa, North America, South America. Many years passed before the navigators opened Australia and Antarctica.
When you are looking for some country on the globe, you see only one hemisphere. And to see another, the globe must be turned.
On the globe, it is impossible to designate a large number of geographic objects without increasing its size. A large globe is uncomfortable for travel use.
Scale- This is the ratio of the length of the lines on the map or drawing to the actual length. The scale of the physical map of Russia tells us that every centimeter card corresponds to 200 km on the ground.
Fig. 7. Physical map of Russia ()
On the map you can show two half of the earth at once. If we divide the globe on the equator, it will turn out map of the North and South Hemispheres,
Fig. 5. North and South Hemisphere
and if on the line of zero meridian - Western and Eastern Hemispheres.
Fig. 6. Western and Eastern Hemispheres
On the mineral map Special icons marked places of mineral deposits.
Fig. 9. Maintenance map ()
On the habitat animal habitats The habitats of various types of birds and animals are indicated.
Fig. 10. Map of habitat birds and animals ()
On the contour cards No color designations and depicted, but not signed, all kinds of geographical objects. They are convenient for labeling routes.
Fig. 11. Contour map
On the political map The world is depicted countries and their borders.
Fig. 12. Political map of Eurasia ()
On the synoptic maps Conditional icons showing observations of the weather.
Fig. 13. Synoptic map ()
Different maps are combined into atlasi.
Fig. 14. Geographical Atlas ()
Maps depict various territories. There are cards of districts, cities, regions, states, mainland, oceans, hemispheres and world maps.
Legend The map is the same as on the globe. They're called legendand usually placed at the bottom of the card.
We will find on the physical map of Russia, the West Siberian Plain.
Fig. 16. West Siberian Plain ()
Small horizontal invasses covering a considerable part of its territory, mean swamps.
Here are some of the biggest world of swamps - Vasyugansky. Lines depict rivers, borders and roads, circles - cities.
Fig. 17. Vasyugan Swamot
The sea and mountains have real outlines and paint different colors. Blue and blue - reservoirs, yellow - hills, green - lowlands, brown - mountains.
At the bottom of the card, the depth scales and heights are placed, with which you can see what height or depth means one or another color shade on the map.
The deeper the ocean, the darker color. On the North Ocean map, the darkest shade of blue in the Greenland Sea, where the depth reaches 5 thousand 527 meters; The brightest shade of pale blue color, there is the depth of the sea - 200 meters.
Fig. 18. Physical map of the Arctic Ocean
The higher the mountains, the darker the color they are indicated. So, the Ural Mountains, which are considered relatively low (the highest peaks from 1000 to 2000 m above sea level), on the map painted with light brown color.
Fig. 19. Ural Mountains
Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world (10 vertices with a height of more than 8 km) are denoted by dark brown.
Fig. 20. Himalayan Mountains
In Himalayas, Jomolungma is located (Everest) - the highest peak of the world (8848 m).
Taking advantage of the scale of heights, it is easy to determine the height of the Caucasian mountains.
Fig. 23. Caucasian Mountains
Their brown color indicates that the height of the mountains is more than 5 thousand meters. The most famous vertices - Mount Elbrus (5642 m) and Mount Kazbek (5033 m) are covered with eternal snow and glaciers.
Using a map, you can determine the exact location of any object. For this you need to know it coordinates: latitude and longitude, which are determined by a degree grid formed by parallels and meridians.
Fig. 26. Degree grid
The equator serves as the beginning of the reference - the latitude is equal to it 0⁰. The latitude is counted from 0⁰ to 90⁰ on both sides of the equator and is called northern or south. For example, the coordinate 60⁰ of northern latitude means that this point lies in the northern hemisphere and is at an angle of 60 ° to the equator.
Fig. 27. Geographic latitude
Longitude is counted from 0⁰ to 180⁰ on both sides of Greenwich Meridian and is called Western or Eastern.
Fig. 28. Geographical longitude
Coordinates of St. Petersburg - 60⁰ S.Sh., 30⁰ V.D.
The coordinates of Moscow - 55⁰ S.Sh., 37⁰v.
Fig. 29. Political map of Russia ()
- Vakhrushev AA, Danilov D.D. The world surrounding 3. M.: Ballas.
- Dmitrieva N.Ya., Kazakov A.N. The world around 3. M.: ID "Fedorov".
- Pleshakov A.A.Orrupturing World 3. M.: Enlightenment.
- Academician ().
- Survival ().
- Find a quiet ocean on the physical map of the world. Determine its deepest location, specify its name and depth. Describe how you defined this place.
- Make a short test (4 questions with three answers) on the topic "Geographical Maps".
- Prepare a memo with the rules of work with cards.
To ensure the requirement of visibility of topographic materials and understanding the content of plans and cards, a special system of graphic designation of terrain, which is called conditional signs is developed. Conditional signs divided into square, linear, bonus, explanatory and special.
P l about u and d n s (contour or large-scale) signs are used to fill out the contours of natural and agricultural land, the length and width of which are expressed on the map scale. The boundaries of the contours are shown by a point dotted line, within which the conditional sign is depicted, resembling an item on this area. For example, the forest is depicted with mugs, sands - dots, etc.
L and N E Y Y Y M and symbols show linear objects (roads, rivers, LEP, etc.), the length of which is expressed, and the width is not expressed on the map scale. Linear characters provide various numeric characteristics that complement information about the subject. For example, the highway shows the width of the roadway and the overall width of the road.
In the n e m and u t a b n s. The syllables are used for the image of objects, the dimensions of which are not expressed on the scale of the card (bridges, wells, kilometer pillars, etc.).
P about I C N and T E L H S E Correct signs are signatures, giving characteristics and names of objects, such as the length and width of the bridges, the forest plant, etc. These signs are affixed on the main area, linear and energetic conditional signs.
Caselies apply the relevant departments in the preparation of special cards and plans for this industry, such as communications pipelines (heating, plumbing, etc.).
In addition to conventional signs, for greater visibility, images of various elements of topographic cards are used color:
For rivers, lakes, canals, wetlands - blue;
For forests and gardens - green;
Highways - red;
Railways and the rest of the situation - black;
The horizontals characterizing the terrain are shown brown with brown.
In addition to colors, the type of font, the thickness of the letters, their height and the inclination are used, are also used. Conditional signs for different scales are reduced to special collections published by the geodesy and cartography services. They are mandatory for all departments and organizations involved in the preparation of plans, cards, topographic survey.
Knowledge of conditional signs is necessary in order to understand the content of topographic materials, be able to "read" and for obtaining the necessary information. For better familiarization with conditional signs on training topographic maps, their main samples are given.
3.6 terrain and its image on the plans and maps.
Horizontal and their properties. Ways to build horizontals
By points
Relief Call a combination of irregularities of the earth's surface. Knowledge of the area needs when designing and building railways and roads, drying and irrigation systems, industrial enterprises, etc. There are several ways to image relief on topographic maps and plans. The oldest way is the image of the relief W t p and x and m and, applied to the card on a special scale. The relief of the area can also be depicted P o d P and - with I M and marks of a number of points or about t m to a m and of various tones. However, the best way was to depict the relief of the city and in combination with some conditional signs and signatures of the marks of characteristic points. The horizontal is a line connecting the ground surfaces with the same heights.
To correctly depict the relief, it is necessary to know its main forms. There is a question of the relief (Figure 3.5):
Elevation (Figure 3.5, a);
Brand (Figure 3.5, b);
Range (Figure 3.5, B);
Hollow (Figure 3.5, g);
Saddle (Figure 3.5, e).
Figure 3.5, these relief forms are shown in the context. Consider the essence of the image of the relief by horizontals. Figure 3.5, and shows the elevation (hill, mountain), the highest point of which is called the vertex, bottom - sole, and the side surfaces are skates. For the image of the hill, horizontals will imagine that this elevation is crossed by a number of equal planes from each other, parallel to the main surface surface. The intersection lines with these planes of the earth's surface and will be horizontally. After placing them with the sheer lines to the plane, we obtain an exaltation image on it.
For clarity, some horizontal sign up, in addition, they put the Bergshtrichwritch drops, showing the direction of the area of \u200b\u200bthe area.
The distance between two adjacent secular planes is called the height of the cross section H. On the maps and plans, the height of the relief section is characterized by the difference between the heights of two adjacent horizontals. For example, in Figure 3.5, and the height of the cross section of the relief H \u003d 5 m.
The distance between horizontals on the plan or the map is called the downstream. In Figure 3.5, and the locking d \u003d ac. The dependence between the height of the cross section H, the embedding D, the angle of inclination υ, the bias I and the line of the AB region can be obtained from the ABC triangle (Figure 3.5, a):
i \u003d h / d \u003d tg υ. (3.6)
The slope and angle of inclination of the area of \u200b\u200bthe area are the main characteristics of the steepness of the rods. The greater the angle of inclination, the steeper of the area. From formula (3.6) it follows that the smaller the locking D or the more often the horizontal on the plan, the volume of the terrain cooler.
The image of the horizontals of the basin, the arrow, the ridge and the saddle is shown in Figure 3.5. Basin (Wpadina) - closed surface deepening (see Figure 3.5, b). The lowest part of the depression is called the bottom, the side surfaces are skates, and the fusion line with the surrounding area is engines.
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b)
in)
d)
Figure 3.5 - Basic Forms of Relief
The ridge is an exalted elevation with two slopes in one direction (see Figure 3.5, B). The line of meeting the rods in the upper part is called watershed (water-seed line).
Hollow - stretched in one direction slide with two slopes (Figure 3.5 g). The line of meeting the rods in the lower parts is called water or talveg (water-fledged line).
Saddle - lowering between two hills (see Figure 3.5E). The lowest point between the elevations is called the pass.
Bergshtrichy on maps and plans are usually shown on water-seated and water-feling lines. Signatures on horizontals make that the base is shown the direction of the skate. Horizontal drawn with brown color. Each tenth or fifth of them is drawn up a thickened line.
From the essence of horizontals, their properties flow:
The horizontal is a closed curve line, all points on which have the same height, a multiple height of the relief cross section;
Horizontal on the plan can not be split and break; If the horizontal does not closes within the plan, it closes behind its limit;
Horizontals should not be intersected with each other, since they are obtained by the intersection of the earth's surface with planes lying at different heights;
The more often the horizontal on the plan, the inclination of the terrain is more, or the less the mark, those skate steeper;
Waterproof and water-filling lines and the directions of the maximum slope of the horizontal are crossed at right angles.
The height of the relief section is established depending on the scale of the plan and nature of the terrain so that the horizontals do not merge among themselves. In the Republic of Belarus, the following elevations of the relief section are adopted under the scales of shooting:
|
1: 500 - H \u003d 0.25; 0.5 m; 1: 1000 - H \u003d 0.25; 0.5; 1m; 1: 2000 - H \u003d 0.5; one; 2 m; |
1: 5000 - H \u003d 0.5; one; 2; 5 m; 1: 10000 - H \u003d 1; 2.5; 5 m. |
For a fulfillment and convenience of reading the relief on the cards and plans, sign the characteristic points of the relief (vertices of the hills, the bottom of Kotlovin, Pozals, etc.). For example, in Figure 3.5, B signed the bottom of the bottom of the bottom of 98.7 m.
Methods for building horizontals by points of points.To carry out horizontals on the plan you need to apply the characteristic points taken on the ground and write them down. Those points between which the earth's surface does not have fractures, i.e. it has a permanent slope, connect lines. Next, on each line, the interpolases find the intersection points by horizontals and mark the heights of these horizontals. By connecting with smooth curves of the point with the same heights, the area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain is obtained on the plan. Thus, the task of constructing horizontals on the plan is mainly reduced to the ability to find the projection of the intersection points of the lines by horizontally, the ends of which are known, while the height of the relief section should already be installed. This task is called the horizontals, i.e., finding the intermediate values \u200b\u200bof the heights of horizontals by points of points. Interpolization can be analytic or graphically.
Analytical method. According to the known heights of the points A and B and the distance D between them (Figure 3.6, a), it is necessary to find the values \u200b\u200bof the distances d 1 and d 2 from the point A to the points M 0 and N 0 with the marks n M and H N, equal to the horizontal marks.
Figure 3.6 - Analytical Method of Interpolition
From the likeness of the triangles ABB Oh, AMM O and ANN O find:
d 1 \u003d DH 1 / H; D 2 \u003d DH 2 / H,
where H \u003d h b - h a; h 1 \u003d h m - h a; H 2 \u003d H n - H a.
On the plan, the segments D 1 and D 2 are laid and obtain points M O and N O, which have their marks. It should be noted that the interpolating horizontal is carried out only by lines with a uniformly scatter. Figure 3.6, B shows the case of incorrect interpolation between points A and C with the uneven rod of the area. As can be seen from the figure, instead of the actual position of the point in will be obtained point B "and, accordingly, instead of n in the incorrect height of H in".
Graphic method. Interpolating this method is performed using millimeter or transparent paper. If there are millimeters, it is applied to the line of the AV plan. At the ends of AV build a profile of this line. Designing then on the line of the Perez point plan 
the profile lines with the lines of millimeter paper, taken for the secant planes, receive the desired point and N. If there are transparent paper (waving, tanks), it is pre-applied a number of equidate parallel lines from each other, which give the sequential planes. The waist is applied to the plan so that the end points of the plan line occupy the position corresponding to their marks between the lines of the waist (Figure 3.7). Next, the point of intersection of the plan line with the lines of the waist is piled on the plan. This will be the desired points on the plan.
Conditional signs of topographic maps and plans.
Card frames and coordinate lines.The sheets of topographic maps have three frames: inner, minute and external. The inner frame form segments of parallels that limit the area of \u200b\u200bthe map from the north and south, and the segments of meridians that limit it from the West and the East. Values \u200b\u200bof lard and longitude on the inner frame lines are associated with the map nomenclature and are written in each of its corners.
A minute frame is placed between the inner and outer framework, which causes divisions corresponding to one minute latitude (left and right) and longitude (at the top and bottom). Dots on the frame marked tens of seconds.
The system of rectangular coordinates on the map is represented by a kilometer grid formed by coordinate lines conducted by 1 km x. and y.. Values x. and y., pronounced in kilometers, are inscribed on the outputs of lines for the inner frame of the card.
Object plans 1: 5000-1: 500 with rectangular separations have only a grid of rectangular coordinates. Her lines were conducted after 10 cm.
Conditional signs.On plans and maps, objects of terrain are depicting conditional signs.
Conditional signs distinguish contour, leaning and linear.
Contour conventional signs depict objects, the form and dimensions of which can be transmitted on the scale scale (card). These include land (forests, gardens, arable land, meadows), reservoirs, and for larger scales - buildings, structures. The outlines of objects (contours) on the plan are shown by a point dotted line or lines of a certain thickness and color. Inside the contour placed signs indicating the nature of the object.
We depict objects that need to be applied to the plan, but it is impossible to portray (benzokolontics, wells, geodesic network items, etc.).
Linear conditional signs depict objects whose length is expressed on the scale of the plan, and the width is not expressed (power lines and communication, pipelines, fences, trails).
To reflect the characteristics of the objects depicted, many conditional signs are accompanied by explanatory signatures. So, in the image of the railway indicate the height of the embankment and the depth of the excavation, the width of the rut on the narrow-chain road. The highway image indicates its width and coating material; When the lines of communication are the number of wires and their purpose; When depicting forests - the breed of trees, middle height, the thickness of the trunks and the distance between the trees.
Image of relief.On the maps and plans, relief is depicted using horizontals, high-rise marks and conventional signs.
Horizontal - lines of the cross section of the earth's surface with equifiable levels. In other words, horizontals are lines of equal heights. Horizontal, like other points of terrain, project on the level surface Q. And apply to the plan (Fig. 4.3).
Fig. 4.3. Horizontal: h. - height of the cross section of the relief; d. - Issue
Difference h. adjacent horizontal heights equal to the distance between the secant surfaces is called the height of the cross section of the relief. The height of the section is signed at the bottom frame of the plan.
The horizontal distance between adjacent horizontals is called shoe. The minimum in this place is the mark, perpendicular to horizontals, - carting. The smaller the mint of the skate, the steeper of the skate.
Skate direction indicate bergshithdhami - short strokes in some horizontals directed towards descent. On separate horizontals, their heights write their heights in their ruptures so that the top of the numbers indicate towards the lifting.
Horizontal with round height values \u200b\u200bmake thickened, and to reflect relief parts use semiGorizontali - Stroke lines corresponding to half the height of the cross section of the relief, as well as auxiliary horizontal With short strokes conducted at arbitrary height.
The image of the relief by horizontals is complemented by the fitting on the layout plan of heights near the characteristic points of the relief and special conventional signs depicting the cliffs, rocks, ravines, etc.
The main form of relief is the mountain, a brand, a ridge, a hollow and saddle (Fig. 4.4).
Fig. 4.4. Basic Relief Forms: but - Mountain; b. - brand; in - Range; g. - Hollow; d. - saddle; 1 - waterproof line; 2 - Watellular line.
Mountain (hill, hill, kurgan, hill) are depicted by closed horizontals with bergshtri, converted outwards (Fig. 4.4, but). The characteristic points of the mountain are its vertex and point at the sole.
Cobbin (Wpadina) is also depicted with closed horizontals, but with bergshitriy, addressed inside (Fig. 4.4, b.). The characteristic points of the hollow are points at its bottom and along the brow.
Ridge - elongated elevation. Depicted by the ridge crest and walking along its rods elongated horizontals (Fig. 4.4, in). Bergshitri, like the mountain, are turned out. The characteristic line of the ridge is passing along its ridge water seed line.
Loschina (Valley, gorge, ravine, beam) - elongated in one direction. Depicted with elongated, horizontals with berkhrichs addressed inside (Fig. 4.4, g.). The characteristic liner is water-feline line (Talveg) - a line on which water runs away.
Saddle (Pass) - lowering between two hills (Fig. 4.4, d.). On both sides, the saddle adjoin the dell. Sedlovina is the place of intersection of water-seated and water-filling lines.
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Conditional signs There are contour, linear and boring.
- Contour (square) signs shown, for example, lakes;
- Linear signs - rivers, roads, channels.
- In bulk signs Plans are noted, for example, wells, springs, and in geographical maps - settlements, volcanoes, waterfalls.
Fig. 1. Examples of bore-scale, linear and area conventional signs
Fig. Main conditional signs
Fig. Conditional marks of terrain
Isolastic
There is a separate category of conditional signs - isolated,i.e. lines connecting points with the same values \u200b\u200bof depicted phenomena (Fig.2). Equal atmospheric pressure lines are called Fromobami, line of equal air temperature - Isothermami, lines of equal heights of the earth's surface - inhappiness or horizontals.
Fig. 2. Examples of isolated
Methods of mapping
For the image of geographical phenomena on maps apply various Methods. Method of Areashow areas of dissemination of natural or social phenomena, such as animals, plants, some minerals. Move traffic signs Used to show sea flows, winds, transport streams. Qualitative background Show, for example, states in the political map, and quantitative background - Division of the territory according to any quantitative indicator (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Cartographic methods: A - method of ranges; b - motion signs; in - a method of high-quality background; M - Quantitative Background - Point Signs
To show the average phenomenon on any territory, it is most advisable to use the principle of equal intervals. One of the ways to obtain an interval is dividing the difference between the largest and most small indicator for five. For example, if the largest indicator is 100, the smallest - 25, the difference between them is 75, its 1/5 -15, then the intervals will be: 25-40, 40-55, 55-70, 70-85 and 85-100 . When you show these intervals on the map, a bright background or rare hatching depicts a smaller intensity of the phenomenon, darker tones and thick hatching - large. This method of cartographic image is called cartographer (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4. Examples of the cartogram and cardage
To method Cartiragram Resort to show the total amount of the phenomenon at any territory, such as the production of electricity, the number of school students, freshwater reserves, the degree of deposit of the Earth, etc. Camera Call a simplified map that does not have a degree network.
Relief image on plans and maps
On the maps and plans, the relief is shown using horizontals and elevation marks.
Horizontal As you already know, it is lines on a plan or a map, connecting points of the earth's surface, which have the same height above the ocean level (absolute height) or above the level adopted per point of reference (relative height).
Fig. 5. Image of relief horizontals
In order to show the hill on the plan, you need to define it relative height Which shows how much the distance is one point of the earth's surface above another (Fig. 7).
Fig. 6. Image of a hill on the plane
Fig. 7. Definition of relative height
Relative height can be determined using a level. Level (from FR. niveau.- Level, level) - a device for determining the difference in heights between multiple points. The device is usually installed on a tripod (tripod), equipped with a visual pipe adapted to rotate in a horizontal plane and a sensitive level.
Spend Hill Leveling - This means to make measurements of the western, southern, eastern and northern slopes from the soles to the top with the help of levels and knock the pegs in those places where the level was installed (Fig. 8). Thus, four kids will be driven by the hill sole, four - at an altitude of 1 m from the ground, if the height of the level is 1 m, and so on. The last peg is driven on the top of the hill. After that, the position of all pegs are applied to the area of \u200b\u200bterrain and the smooth line is combined first all points having a relative height of 1 m, then 2 m, etc.
Fig. 8. Unregister hill
Please note: if the slope is cool, the horizontal on the plan will be close to each other, if gently - far from each other.
Little dashes carried out perpendicular to horizontals - it is Bergshtri. They show, in which direction the slope is down.
The horizontals on the plans are depicted not only the hill, but also depressions. At the same time, the Bergshtrichy is drawn to the inner side (Fig. 9).
Fig. 9. Image of horizontals of various form of relief
Cool slopes of cliffs or ravines on the maps are denoted by small teeth.
The height of the point above the middle level of the ocean is called Absolute height. In Russia, all absolute heights are calculated from the level of the Baltic Sea. Thus, the territory of St. Petersburg is above the water level in the Baltic Sea, on average by 3 m, the territory of Moscow is 120 m, and the city of Astrakhan is below this level by 26 m. The heights of the heights on geographic maps indicate the absolute height of points.
On a physical map, relief is depicted using layer-by-layer color, i.e., the color of different intensity. For example, plots having a height from 0 to 200 m are painted in green. At the bottom of the card placed a table, from which it can be seen which color what is the height corresponds to. This table is called Scale heights.