How the secessions happened
The Orthodox Church has kept intact the truth that the Lord Jesus Christ revealed to the apostles. But the Lord Himself warned His disciples that from among those who would be with them, people would appear who would want to distort the truth and muddy it with their inventions: Beware of false prophets who come to you in sheep's clothing, but inwardly they are ravening wolves(Matthew 7, 15).
And the apostles also warned about this. For example, the apostle Peter wrote: you will have false teachers who will introduce harmful heresies and, rejecting the Lord who redeemed them, will bring on themselves swift destruction. And many will follow their debauchery, and through them the path of truth will be reproached ... Leaving the straight path, they lost their way ... the darkness of eternal darkness is prepared for them(2 Pet. 2, 1-2, 15, 17).
Heresy is understood as a lie that a person follows deliberately. The path that Jesus Christ opened requires selflessness and efforts from a person to show whether he really entered this path with a firm intention and out of love for the truth. It is not enough just to call yourself a Christian; you have to prove by your deeds, words and thoughts, with your whole life that you are a Christian. The one who loves the truth, for its sake, is ready to abandon all lies in his thoughts and his life, so that the truth will enter into him, purify and sanctify.
But not everyone embarks on this path with pure intentions. And so the subsequent life in the Church reveals their unfit mood. And those who love themselves more than God fall away from the Church.
There is a sin of an act - when a person by deed violates the commandments of God, and there is a sin of the mind - when a person prefers his lie to Divine truth. The second is called heresy. And among those who called themselves Christians at different times, there were both people devoted to the sin of deed, and people devoted to the sin of the mind. He and the other person opposes God. That and the other person, if he made a firm choice in favor of sin, cannot remain in the Church, and falls away from it. Thus, throughout history, all who chose to sin left the Orthodox Church.
The Apostle John spoke of them: They went out from us, but they were not ours: for if they were ours, they would have remained with us; but they went out, and through that it was revealed that not all of our(1In. 2 , 19).
Their fate is unenviable, for the Scripture says that the betrayers heresies ... the kingdom of God will not inherit(Gal. 5 , 20-21).
Precisely because a person is free, he can always make a choice and use freedom either for good, choosing the path to God, or for evil, choosing sin. This is the reason why false teachers arose and those who believed them more than Christ and His Church.
When heretics appeared, bringing lies, the holy fathers of the Orthodox Church began to explain their errors to them and called upon them to abandon fictions and turn to the truth. Some, convinced by their words, corrected themselves, but not all. And about those who persisted in lies, the Church pronounced her judgment, testifying that they are not true followers of Christ and members of the community of the faithful founded by Him. This is how the apostolic council was fulfilled: After the first and second admonition of the heretic, turn away, knowing that he is corrupted and sins, being self-condemned(Tit. 3 , 10-11).
There have been many such people in history. The most widespread and numerous of the communities founded by them that have survived to this day are the Monophysite Eastern Churches (they arose in the 5th century), the Roman Catholic Church (which fell away from the Ecumenical Orthodox Church in the 11th century) and Churches calling themselves Protestant. Today we will consider what is the difference between the path of Protestantism and the path of the Orthodox Church.
Protestantism
If a branch breaks off from the tree, then, having lost contact with the vital juices, it will inevitably begin to dry out, lose its leaves, become fragile and easily break at the first onslaught.
The same can be seen in the life of all communities that have separated from the Orthodox Church. Just as a broken-off branch cannot keep the leaves on itself, so those who separate from genuine church unity can no longer preserve their inner unity. This is because, having left God's family, they lose touch with the life-giving and saving power of the Holy Spirit, and that sinful desire to resist the truth and put themselves above others, which led them to fall away from the Church, continues to act among the fallen ones themselves, turning already against them and leading to ever new internal divisions.
So, in the 11th century, the Local Roman Church separated from the Orthodox Church, and at the beginning of the 16th century, a significant part of the people separated from it, following the ideas of the former Catholic priest Luther and his associates. They formed their communities, which began to be considered the "Church". This movement is collectively called Protestants, and their very secession is called the Reformation.
In turn, the Protestants also did not preserve their inner unity, but they began to divide even more into different trends and directions, each of which claimed that it was precisely this Church of Jesus Christ. They continue to share to this day, and now there are more than twenty thousand of them in the world.
Each of their directions has its own peculiarities of doctrine, which would take a long time to describe, and here we will confine ourselves to analyzing only the main features that are characteristic of all Protestant nominations and which distinguish them from the Orthodox Church.
The main reason for the emergence of Protestantism was the protest against the teachings and religious practices of the Roman Catholic Church.
As St. Ignatius (Brianchaninov) notes, indeed, “many delusions have crept into the Church of Rome. Luther would have done well if, rejecting the errors of the Latins, he replaced these errors with the true teaching of the Holy Church of Christ; but he replaced them with his own delusions; some of the errors of Rome, very important, he fully followed, and some strengthened. " “The Protestants rebelled against the ugly power and divinity of the popes; but since they acted on the prompting of passions, drowning in debauchery, and not with the direct aim of striving for the holy Truth, they did not prove worthy to see it. "
They abandoned the mistaken idea that the Pope is the head of the Church, but retained the Catholic fallacy that the Holy Spirit comes from the Father and the Son.
Scripture
The Protestants formulated the principle: "only Scripture", which means that they only recognize the authority of the Bible, and they reject the Holy Tradition of the Church.
And in this they contradict themselves, because the Holy Scripture itself indicates the need to honor the Holy Tradition coming from the apostles: stand up and keep the traditions that you have been taught either by our word or message(2 Thess. 2 , 15), - writes the Apostle Paul.
If a person writes some text and distributes it to different people, and then asks to explain how they understood it, then it will probably be discovered that someone understood the text correctly, and someone incorrectly, having put their meaning in these words. It is known that any text can have different versions of understanding. They can be correct or they can be wrong. The same is with the text of Holy Scripture, if you tear it away from Holy Tradition. Indeed, Protestants think that you need to understand Scripture the way anyone wants. But this approach cannot help to find the truth.
Here is how St. Nicholas of Japan wrote about this: “Sometimes Japanese Protestants come to me, asking me to explain a passage of the Holy Scriptures. "Yes, you have your own missionary teachers - ask them," I say to them. "What do they answer?" - "We asked them, they say: understand as you know; but I need to know the true thought of God, and not my personal opinion" ... It's not like that with us, everything is bright and reliable, clear and solid - because we are apart from the Sacred We also accept Holy Tradition, and Holy Tradition is a living, unbroken voice ... of our Church from the time of Christ and His Apostles to this day, which will remain until the end of the world. It is on him that the whole of Holy Scripture is affirmed. "
The apostle Peter himself testifies that no prophecy in Scripture can be resolved by oneself, for the prophecy was never uttered by the will of man, but the holy men of God spoke it, being moved by the Holy Spirit(2 Pet. 1 , 20-21). Accordingly, only the holy fathers, moved by the same Holy Spirit, can reveal to a person the true understanding of the Word of God.
Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition form one inseparable whole, and this was the case from the very beginning.
Not in writing, but orally, the Lord Jesus Christ revealed to the apostles how to understand the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament (Luke 24, 27), and they orally taught this to the first Orthodox Christians. Protestants want to imitate the early apostolic communities in their organization, but in the early years the early Christians did not have a New Testament scripture at all, and everything was passed from mouth to mouth, like tradition.
The Bible was given by God for the Orthodox Church, it was in accordance with Holy Tradition that the Orthodox Church at its Councils approved the composition of the Bible, it was the Orthodox Church that, long before the appearance of Protestants, lovingly preserved Holy Scripture in its communities.
Protestants, using the Bible, not written by them, not collected by them, not preserved by them, reject the Holy Tradition, and thereby close for themselves the true understanding of the Word of God. Therefore, they often argue about the Bible and often come up with their own, human traditions that have no connection either with the apostles or with the Holy Spirit, and fall, according to the word of the apostle, into empty seduction, according to human tradition .., and not according to Christ(Col. 2, 8).
Sacraments
The Protestants rejected the priesthood and sacred rites, not believing that God could act through them, and even if they left something similar, only the name, believing that these are only symbols and reminders of historical events left in the past, and not a holy reality in itself. Instead of bishops and priests, they got themselves pastors who had no connection with the apostles, no succession of grace, as in the Orthodox Church, where on every bishop and priest is the blessing of God, which can be traced from our days to Jesus Christ Himself. The Protestant pastor is only an orator and administrator of the life of the community.
As Saint Ignatius (Brianchaninov) says, “Luther ... with fervor rejecting the unlawful authority of the popes, he rejected the legitimate one; Holy Scripture testifies that it is impossible to receive remission of sins without confessing them. " Rejected by Protestants and other sacred rites.
Veneration of the Virgin and the saints
The Most Holy Virgin Mary, who gave birth to the Lord Jesus Christ through humanity, prophetically said: from now on all generations will please me(OK. 1 , 48). This was said about the true followers of Christ - Orthodox Christians. And indeed, from then until now, from generation to generation, all Orthodox Christians venerate the Most Holy Theotokos the Virgin Mary. And Protestants do not want to honor and humor her, contrary to the Scriptures.
The Virgin Mary, like all saints, that is, people who have followed the path of salvation revealed by Christ to the end, have united with God and are always in harmony with Him.
The Mother of God and all the saints became the closest and most beloved friends of God. Even a person, if his beloved friend asks him for something, he will try to fulfill it, and God willingly listens and soon fulfills the requests of the saints. It is known that even during His earthly life, when they asked, He certainly responded. So, for example, at the request of the Mother, He helped the poor newlyweds and performed a miracle at the feast in order to save them from shame (John 2: 1-11).
Scripture says that God is not the God of the dead, but of the living, for with Him all are alive(Luke 20:38). Therefore, after death, people do not disappear without a trace, but their living souls are contained by God, and those who are holy retain the ability to communicate with Him. And the Scripture directly says that the departed saints turn with requests to God and He hears them (see: Rev. 6, 9-10). Therefore, Orthodox Christians venerate the Blessed Virgin Mary and other saints and turn to them with requests that they intercede before God for us. Experience shows that many healings, deliverances from death and other help are received by those who resort to their prayerful intercession.
For example, in 1395, the great Mongolian commander Tamerlane with a huge army went to Russia to capture and destroy its cities, including the capital - Moscow. The Russians did not have enough strength to withstand such an army. The Orthodox inhabitants of Moscow began to earnestly ask the Most Holy Theotokos to pray to God for their salvation from the impending disaster. And so, one morning, Tamerlane unexpectedly announced to his commanders that it was necessary to turn the army and go back. And to questions about the reason, he replied that at night in a dream he saw a great mountain, on top of which stood a beautiful shining woman, who ordered him to leave the Russian lands. And, although Tamerlane was not an Orthodox Christian, he obeyed Her out of fear and respect for the holiness and spiritual strength of the Virgin Mary that appeared.
Prayers for the dead
Those Orthodox Christians who, during their lifetime, could not overcome sin and become saints, after death also do not disappear, but they themselves need our prayers. Therefore, the Orthodox Church prays for the dead, believing that through these prayers the Lord sends relief for the posthumous fate of our deceased loved ones. But Protestants do not want to admit this either, and refuse to pray for the dead.
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The Lord Jesus Christ, speaking about his followers, said: the days will come when the Bridegroom will be taken from them, and then they will fast in those days(Mark 2, 20).
The Lord Jesus Christ was taken away from his disciples for the first time on Wednesday, when Judas betrayed Him and the villains seized him to lead him to judgment, and the second time - on Friday, when the villains crucified Him on the Cross. Therefore, in fulfillment of the words of the Savior, Orthodox Christians from ancient times have been fasting every Wednesday and Friday, refraining for the Lord's sake from eating animal products, as well as from all kinds of entertainment.
The Lord Jesus Christ fasted for forty days and nights (see: Matthew 4: 2), setting an example for His disciples (see: John 13, 15). And the apostles, as the Bible says, with puddled the Lord and fasted(Acts 13, 2). Therefore, Orthodox Christians, in addition to one-day fasts, also have many-day fasts, of which the main one is Lent.
Protestants deny fasting and fasting days.
Sacred images
Anyone who wants to worship the true God should not worship false gods, who are either invented by people or by those spirits that fell away from God and became evil. These evil spirits often appeared to people in order to mislead them and distract them from worshiping the true God to worship themselves.
However, having ordered to build a temple, the Lord, even in these ancient times, also commanded to make in it images of cherubim (see: Ex. 25, 18-22) - spirits who remained faithful to God and became holy angels. Therefore, from the very first times, Orthodox Christians also made sacred images of saints who were united with the Lord. In the ancient underground catacombs, where in the II-III centuries Christians, persecuted by the pagans, gathered for prayer and religious services, they depicted the Virgin Mary, the apostles, stories from the Gospel. These ancient sacred images have survived to this day. In the same way, in modern churches of the Orthodox Church there are the same sacred images, icons. When looking at them, it is easier for a person to ascend his soul to prototype, concentrate your efforts on a prayer appeal to him. After such prayers in front of holy icons, God often sends people help, and miraculous healings often occur. In particular, Orthodox Christians prayed for deliverance from the army of Tamerlane in 1395 at one of the icons of the Mother of God - Vladimirskaya.
However, Protestants, by their delusion, reject the veneration of sacred images, not understanding the difference between them and between idols. This stems from their erroneous understanding of the Bible, as well as from the corresponding spiritual mood - after all, only those who do not understand the difference between a holy and an evil spirit can fail to notice the fundamental difference between the image of a saint and the image of an evil spirit.
Other differences
Protestants believe that if a person recognizes Jesus Christ as God and Savior, then he already becomes saved and holy, and no special deeds are needed for this. And Orthodox Christians, following the apostle James, believe that faith, if it has no works, is dead by itself(James 2 , 17). And the Savior Himself said: Not everyone who says to Me: "Lord, Lord!" Will enter the kingdom of heaven, but he who does the will of my Father in heaven(Matthew 7, 21). This means, according to Orthodox Christians, that it is necessary to fulfill the commandments that express the will of the Father, and thus by deeds to prove their faith.
Also, Protestants do not have monasticism and monasteries, while the Orthodox have them. Monks earnestly work to fulfill all the commandments of Christ. And besides, they take three additional vows for the sake of God: the vow of celibacy, the vow of non-possession (lack of property) and the vow of obedience to the spiritual leader. In this, they imitate the Apostle Paul, who was celibate, not covetous and completely obedient to the Lord. The monastic path is considered higher and more glorious than the path of a layman - a family man, but a layman can also be saved, become a saint. Among the apostles of Christ were married people, namely, the apostles Peter and Philip.
When Saint Nicholas of Japan was asked at the end of the 19th century why, although the Orthodox in Japan have only two missionaries, and the Protestants have six hundred, nevertheless, more Japanese converted to Orthodoxy than to Protestantism, he replied: “It's not about people, but in teaching. If a Japanese, before adopting Christianity, thoroughly studies it and compares it: he recognizes Catholicism in the Catholic mission, Protestantism in the Protestant mission, we have our teaching, then, as far as I know, he always accepts Orthodoxy.<...>What is this? Yes, that in Orthodoxy Christ's teaching is kept pure and whole; we added nothing to it, as Catholics, did not subtract anything, as Protestants. "
Indeed, Orthodox Christians are convinced, as Saint Theophan the Recluse says, of this immutable truth: “What God has revealed and what He has commanded, nothing should be added or subtracted from that. This applies to Catholics and Protestants. Those add everything, and these subtract ... The Catholics have muddied the apostolic tradition. The Protestants undertook to fix the matter - and they did it even worse. Catholics have one Pope, and Protestants, whatever Protestant, is a Pope. "
Therefore, everyone who is really interested in the truth, and not in their own thoughts, both in past centuries and in our time, will certainly find their way to the Orthodox Church, and often, even without any efforts of Orthodox Christians, God Himself leads such people to the truth. For example, we will give two stories that happened recently, the participants and witnesses of which are still alive.
Case in the USA
In the 1960s, in the American state of California, in the cities of Ben Lomon and Santa Barbara, a large group of young Protestants came to the conclusion that all Protestant Churches they knew could not be a real Church, since they assume that after the apostles the Church of Christ disappeared , and it seems that it was only in the 16th century that Luther and other leaders of Protestantism revived it. But such a thought contradicts the words of Christ that the gates of hell will not prevail against his Church. And then these young people began to study the historical books of Christians, from the earliest antiquity, from the first century to the second, then to the third, and so on, tracing the continuous history of the Church founded by Christ and His apostles. And so, thanks to their many years of research, these young Americans themselves became convinced that such a Church is the Orthodox Church, although none of the Orthodox Christians communicated with them and did not inspire them with such an idea, but the history of Christianity itself has borne witness to this truth for them. And then they came into contact with the Orthodox Church in 1974, all of more than two thousand people accepted Orthodoxy.
Case in Benin
Another story took place in West Africa, in Benin. In this country there were no completely Orthodox Christians, most of the inhabitants were pagans, a little more professed Islam, and some more were Catholics or Protestants.
One of them, a man named Optat Bekhanzin, had a misfortune in 1969: his five-year-old son Eric fell seriously ill and was paralyzed. Bekhanzin took his son to the hospital, but the doctors said that the boy could not be cured. Then the grief-stricken father turned to his Protestant "Church" and began attending prayer meetings in the hope that God would heal his son. But these prayers were fruitless. After that, Optat gathered some close people at his home, persuading them to pray together to Jesus Christ for the healing of Eric. And after their prayer a miracle happened: the boy was healed; this strengthened the small community. Subsequently, all new miraculous healings took place through their prayers to God. Therefore, more and more people moved to them - both Catholics and Protestants.
In 1975, the community decided to form itself as an independent church, and the believers decided to pray hard and fast in order to know the will of God. And at that moment Erik Bekhanzin, who was already eleven years old, received a revelation: when asked how he should call his church community, God answered: "My Church is called the Orthodox Church." This greatly surprised the Beninians, because none of them, including Eric himself, had ever heard of the existence of such a Church, and they did not even know the word "Orthodox". Nevertheless, they called their community “the Orthodox Church of Benin,” and it was only twelve years later that they were able to meet Orthodox Christians. And when they learned about the real Orthodox Church, which has been called that since ancient times and originates from the apostles, they all joined together, with over 2,500 people, transferred to the Orthodox Church. This is how the Lord responds to the requests of all who really seek the path of holiness leading to the truth, and brings such a person into His Church.
Saint Ignatius (Brianchaninov). The concept of heresy and schism.
St. Hilarion. Christianity or Church.
Saint Ignatius (Brianchaninov). Lutheranism.
As a result - a broad religious and political movement that began in Germany, spread throughout Western Europe and aimed at transforming the Christian Church.
The term "Protestantism" comes from the protest made by the German princes and a number of imperial cities against the repeal of an earlier regulation on the right of local rulers to choose a faith for themselves and their subjects. However, in a broader sense, Protestantism is associated with the socio-political and moral protest of the rising, but still disenfranchised, third estate against and guarding the outdated medieval order.
See also: , .Protestant creed
The difference between Protestantism and Orthodoxy and Catholicism
Protestants share common Christian ideas about the existence of God as the Creator of the world, about his trinity, about the sinfulness of man, about the immortality of the soul and salvation, about heaven and hell, rejecting the Catholic doctrine of purgatory, about Divine revelation and some others. At the same time, Protestantism has a number of significant dogmatic, organizational and cult differences from Orthodoxy and Catholicism. First of all, it is the recognition of the priesthood of all believers. Protestants believe that everyone is directly related to God. This leads to the rejection of the division of people into clergy and laity and the establishment of the equality of all believers in matters of faith. Every believer with a good knowledge of the Holy Scriptures can be a priest for himself and for other people. Thus, the clergy should not have any advantages and their very existence becomes superfluous. In connection with these ideas, the religious cult in Protestantism was significantly reduced and simplified. The number of sacraments has been reduced to two: baptism and communion; all divine services are reduced to the reading of sermons, joint prayers and the singing of hymns and psalms. At the same time, the service takes place in the native language of the believers.
Almost all the external attributes of the cult - temples, icons, statues, bells, candles - were discarded, as well as the hierarchical structure of the church. Monasticism and celibacy were abolished, the office of a priest became elective. Protestant ministry usually takes place in humble meetinghouses. The right of the ministers of the church to forgiveness of sins was abolished, since this was considered the prerogative of God, the veneration of saints, icons, relics, and the reading of prayers for the dead were abolished, since these actions were recognized as pagan prejudices. The number of church holidays is kept to a minimum.
The second basic principle Protestantism is salvation by personal faith. This principle was contrasted with the Catholic principle of justification by works, according to which everyone who desires salvation should do whatever the church needs, and above all contribute to its material enrichment.
Protestantism does not deny that there is no faith without good deeds. Good deeds are useful and necessary, but it is impossible to be justified by them before God, only faith makes it possible to hope for salvation. All directions of Protestantism in one form or another adhered to the doctrine of predestination: each person has his destiny prepared before his birth; it does not depend on prayers or on activity; a person is deprived of the opportunity to change fate by his behavior. However, on the other hand, a person could by his behavior prove to himself and to others that he was intended by the Providence of God for a good fate. This could apply not only to moral behavior, but also to luck in life situations, to the opportunity to get rich. It is not surprising that Protestantism is becoming the ideology of the most enterprising part of the bourgeoisie in the era of initial capital accumulation. The doctrine of predestination justified the inequality of states and the class division of society. As the German sociologist showed Max Weber, it was the installations of Protestantism that contributed to the rise of the entrepreneurial spirit and its final victory over feudalism.
The third basic principle Protestantism is recognition of the exclusive authority of the Bible. Any Christian denomination recognizes the Bible as the primary source of Revelation. However, the contradictions contained in the Holy Scriptures led to the fact that in Catholicism the right to interpret the Bible belonged only to priests. For this purpose, a large number of works were written by the fathers of the church, a large number of decrees of church councils were adopted, in the aggregate, all this is called Holy Tradition. Protestantism deprived the church of its monopoly on the interpretation of the Bible, completely abandoning the interpretation of Sacred Tradition as a source of Revelation. The Bible does not derive its credibility from the church, but any church organization, group of believers, or individual believers can claim the truth of the ideas they preach if they find their confirmation in the Bible.
However, the very fact that there was a contradiction in the Holy Scriptures was not refuted by such an attitude. Criteria were required to understand the various positions of the Bible. In Protestantism, the criterion was the point of view of the founder of one direction or another, and all who disagreed with it were declared heretics. The persecution of heretics in Protestantism was no less than in Catholicism.
The possibility of its own interpretation of the Bible led Protestantism to the fact that it does not represent a single teaching. There are many who are close in spirit, but in some ways different directions and trends.
The theoretical constructions of Protestantism entailed changes in cult practice, which led to a reduction in the cost of the church and church ritual. The veneration of the biblical righteous remained unshakable, but was devoid of the elements of fetishism inherent in the cult of saints in Catholicism. The refusal to worship visible images was based on the Old Testament Pentateuch, which considers such worship as idolatry.
Among the different directions of Protestantism, there was no unity in matters related to the cult, with the external environment of the churches. Lutherans preserved the crucifix, the altar, candles, organ music; the Calvinists abandoned all this. Mass was rejected by all branches of Protestantism. Divine services are conducted in their native language everywhere. It consists of preaching, singing prayer hymns, reading certain chapters of the Bible.
In the biblical canon, Protestantism has made some changes. He recognized as apocryphal those Old Testament works that were not preserved in the Hebrew or Aramaic original, but only in the Greek translation of the Septuagint. The Catholic Church regards them as Deuterocanonical.
The sacraments have also been revised. Lutheranism left only two of the seven sacraments - baptism and communion, and Calvinism - only baptism. At the same time, the interpretation of the sacrament as a rite, during the performance of which a miracle occurs, is muted in Protestantism. Lutheranism retained some element of the miraculous in the interpretation of communion, believing that during the performance of the rite, the Body and Blood of Christ are actually present in bread and wine. Calvinism considers such a presence to be symbolic. Some areas of Protestantism carry out baptism only in adulthood, believing that a person should consciously approach the choice of faith; others, without abandoning the baptism of infants, carry out an additional rite of confirmation of adolescents, like a second baptism.
The modern position of Protestantism
Currently, there are up to 600 million followers of Protestantism, living on all continents and in almost all countries of the world. Modern Protestantism is a vast aggregate (up to 2 thousand) of independent, practically unrelated churches, sects and denominations. Already from the very beginning of its inception, Protestantism did not represent a single organization, its division continues to the present day. In addition to the main directions of Protestantism already discussed, others that have arisen later also enjoy great influence.
The main directions of Protestantism:
- Quakers
- Methodists
- Mennonites
Quakers
The direction arose in the 17th century. in England. Founder - artisan Dmyurj Fox proclaimed that the truth of faith is manifested in the act of illumination with the "inner light." For ecstatic methods of achieving communion with God, or due to the fact that they emphasized the need to be in constant awe before God, the followers of this trend got their name (from the English. quake- "shake"). Quakers completely abandoned external rituals, clergy. Their worship consists of an internal conversation with God and preaching. Ascetic motives can be traced in the moral teachings of the Quakers; they widely practice charity. Quaker communities exist in the USA, England, Canada, and East African countries.
Methodists
The current arose in the 18th century. as an attempt to increase the interest of the masses in religion. Its founders were brothers Wesley - John and Charles. In 1729, they founded a small circle at Oxford University, whose members were distinguished by a special religious stubbornness and methodology in studying the Bible and fulfilling Christian precepts. Hence the name of the direction. The Methodists paid special attention to preaching work and its new forms: preaching in the open air, in workhouses, in prisons, etc. They created the institution of the so-called itinerant preachers. As a result of these measures, the direction spread widely in England and its colonies. Separating from the Church of England, they simplified the doctrine by reducing the 39 articles of the Creed to 25. They supplemented the principle of salvation by personal faith with the doctrine of good works. In 18В1 was created World Methodist Council. Methodism is especially widespread in the United States, as well as Great Britain, Australia, South Korea and other countries.
Mennonites
The trend in Protestantism, which arose on the basis of Anabaptism in the 16th century. in the Netherlands. Founder-Dutch preacher Menno Simone. The principles of the doctrine are set out in "Declarations of the main articles of our common Christian faith." The peculiarities of this trend are that it preaches the baptism of people in adulthood, denies the church hierarchy, proclaims the equality of all members of the community, non-resistance to evil by violence, up to the prohibition to serve with arms; communities are self-governing. International body established - Mennonite World Conference located in the United States. The largest number of them live in the USA, Canada, Holland and Germany.
One of the main modern trends in Christianity is Protestantism, a teaching that actually opposes the official Catholic Church, and today we intend to talk about this in more detail, considering its main ideas, essence, principles, and philosophy of Protestantism, as one of the most massive religious teachings today. the world.
Having emerged as an independent movement, Protestantism, together with Catholicism and Orthodoxy, became one of the three main directions in Christianity.
What is Reformation in Christianity?
Sometimes Protestantism is called reformers, the reformation movement, or even revolutionaries of Christianity, for their ideas that a person should be responsible for himself, and not the Church.
Protestant reformers believe that, after the split of Christianity into Catholics and Orthodoxy, the Christian Church turned into officials who departed from the original teachings of the Apostles, but rather began to earn money from parishioners and increase its influence in society and on politicians.
The history of the emergence of Protestantism
It is believed that Protestantism appeared in Europe in the 16th century in the form of opposition to the Roman Catholic Church... The teaching of the Protestants is sometimes called the Reformation, since the Protestants decided that the Catholics had departed from the principles of true Christianity, based on the teachings of the apostles.
The emergence of Protestantism is associated with Martin Luther born in Saxony. And he is considered the initiator of the Reformation, who opposed the sale of indulgences by the Roman Catholic Church. By the way, it has already been canceled, perhaps thanks to him.
Indulgence among Catholics
In the modern Catholic Church, it is accepted that one can be freed from sins by performing repentance during the sacrament of confession. But during the Renaissance or Renaissance, sometimes indulgences were simply not handed out for money.
Seeing what the Catholics had reached, Martin Luther began to speak out openly against this, and also argued that Christianity needed to be urgently and substantially reformed.Principles of Protestantism and the Protestant Faith
Religious principles in Protestantism are expressed in the form of theology or the presentation of the faith of the Reformation, that is, the transformation of Catholic Christianity. These principles include the following:
- God's Word is only found in the Bible and therefore it is the Bible that is the only source and document for a believer;
- No matter what actions a person commits - forgiveness can only be earned by faith, not by money;
- Salvation in Protestantism is generally regarded as God's grace and this is not a merit of man, but a gift from God for the sake of Jesus Christ and for people living on earth. And according to the Bible, salvation is the deliverance of a person from his sins and, accordingly, from grave consequences, namely from death and hell. And it is said that salvation is possible because of the manifestation of God's love for man;
- The Church cannot even be a mediator between God and man... And the only mediator is Christ. And therefore salvation is possible not through faith in the church, but through faith in Jesus and in God directly;
- You can only worship God, since salvation comes only through him. Therefore, just as a person believes in the atonement of sins through Jesus, so faith in God is also salvation;
- Any believer can and has the right to expound and interpret the word of God.
The main ideas of Protestantism
All the main ideas of Protestantism began with Martin Luther, when he began to oppose the indulgence of the Roman Catholic Church, when absolution was sold for money and there was a rate or price for each crime.Himself Martin Luther argued that the forgiveness of sins is not committed by the Pope, but by God... Also in Protestantism, the idea is seriously affirmed that the Bible is the only source of the teachings of Christianity.
As a result, Martin Luther was excommunicated from the Catholic Church, which led to the split of the Church into Catholics and Protestants ( Lutherans) and contributed to the emergence of many wars on religious grounds.
Supporters or followers of Martin Luther were called Protestants after they stood up for him. This happened after the Speyr Reichstag (the highest legislative authority of the Roman Church) declared Martin Luther a heretic.
The essence of Protestantism
In its essence, the teachings of Protestantism are based, like Orthodoxy and Catholics, on faith in the One God, as well as on the Bible, as the only source of the teachings of Christianity.
Protestants recognize the immaculate conception of Jesus Christ and his death for human sins. They also have faith in the resurrection of Jesus after his death.
And they are waiting for the messiah or the return of Christ in the flesh in the future. Lutherans in the 20th century even managed to achieve a ban on teaching the theory of Charles Darwin in some US states as "anti-divine".
Philosophy of Protestantism
The philosophy of Protestantism is based on the Reformation of Roman Catholicism, which is believed to have departed from the true teachings of the Bible.
In addition, the Catholic Church in the West owned up to 1/3 of the cultivated land, where the labor of serfs, that is, practically slaves, was used. And Protestantism emphasizes personal responsibility to God and society, and also does not approve of slavery.
In England, the Lutherans even demanded the destruction of the Papal system of government. So the famous Lutheran John Wyclif argued that the Roman Church after the schism departed from the true teaching. And he said that Jesus Christ, and not the Pope, is the head of the church and the Bible, not the Church, is the authority for the believer.
Protestant supporters
The Lutheran Reformation was supported by the peasants, who were practically ruined by the church tithe, as well as the artisans who were imposed an unbearable tax.
Protestantism rejects all the decisions of the Pope and all of his decrees, claiming that one Sacred Teaching or the Bible is enough. At one time, Martin Luther even publicly burned one of the papal decrees.
Naturally, soon after dissatisfaction with a large church business with a turnover of tens, if not hundreds of billions of dollars a year, the persecution of Protestants began, and although Martin Luther himself was not injured, nevertheless two Protestant monks were burned... The philosophy of the Lutherans was already used by the masses in their own way in their knightly and peasant wars.
Later, Martin Luther wrote two books for the supporters of Protestantism: one for pastors, which tells how to preach correctly, and another for ordinary believers, which set out the Ten Commandments, the Creed and the prayer of Our Father.
Destinations in Protestantism
One of the famous trends in Lutheranism is Evangelicalism- this includes Mennonites and baptists... This is how evangelicals are known in Russia baptists, Pentecostals and prokhanovites.The basic principles of Evangelicalism include the affirmation of the Bible as the only affirmation of God, as well as active missionary activity.
Also, the directions in Protestantism include fundamentalism, Liberalism and Dialectical theology... All of them are based on the Bible - as the only teaching from God.
Features of the doctrine of Protestantism
Protestants have common ideas with other traditions of Christianity, such as about the One God, about the Trinity, about Heaven and Hell, and the sacraments of Baptism and Communion are also recognized.
But on the other hand, there is no tradition of praying for the dead and praying to the saints, as is the case with Catholics or Orthodox Christians.
Any room can be used in Protestant worship and it is based on preaching, praying and singing psalms.
Number of Protestants
Protestantism is considered the second largest number of believers in Christianity and has up to 800 million people. Protestantism is widespread in 92 countries of the world.
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Needless to say, Martin Luther succeeded in spreading his teachings, which he had always dreamed of. And perhaps the Protestants went deeper, towards the personal freedom of each person, in contrast to the more traditional ecclesiastical and commercial Christianity.
And yet, God still acts as something external to man. And for some reason everyone passes by the main thing - by God, and “God is Love,” as Jesus Christ said.After all, if God is Love, then it is invisible, it can only be felt, it simply is. I AM, that I AM. Love is being itself, this love for everyone is really g, and which should not be forgotten even by Protestants with their desire to reform only the outer part of this teaching, in fact, as well as love for nature and for everything else.
I hope for further meetings on our Learning And Self-Development portal, where we have already written not only about the philosophy, essence, ideas of the Protestant Church and Protestants, but also about other types of Christianity, for example, you can or Fr.
Protestantism is one of the main directions of Christianity, along with Orthodoxy and Catholicism, covering many independent confessions and churches. The peculiarities of the ideology and organization of modern Protestantism are largely determined by the history of its emergence and subsequent development.
Reformation
Protestantism arose in the 16th century, during the Reformation
According to Engels, the Reformation was the first decisive battle in the struggle of the European bourgeoisie against feudalism, the first act of the bourgeois revolution in Europe.
The first act of the bourgeois revolution was not accidentally played out in the form of religious wars. The feelings and consciousness of the masses were wholly nourished by the spiritual food that the church offered them. Because of this, the historical movement, the content of which was the transition from feudalism to capitalism, had to take on a religious connotation. One of the first steps of the reform movement in Germany was the speech of Martin Luther (1483-1546) against indulgences. Luther opposed the claims of the Catholic clergy to control faith and conscience as an intermediary between people and God. "God," wrote Luther, "cannot and does not want to allow anyone to dominate the soul, unless depriving himself." Man can save the soul only through faith, which is directly given by God, without the help of the church. This teaching of Luther about salvation, or justification by faith in the atoning sacrifice of Christ, became one of the central tenets of Protestantism.
The Lutheran Reformation proclaimed the doctrine of a universal priesthood, of the equality of all believers before God. Under the slogan of restoring the traditions of the early Christian church, the demand was put forward for the abolition of the separate class of priests, the elimination of monks, prelates, the Roman curia, that is, the entire expensive hierarchy. The demand for a cheap church was in the interests of the burghers. Along with the Catholic hierarchy, the authority of papal decrees and epistles, decisions of councils (“sacred tradition”) was rejected, the only authority on matters of faith was recognized as “sacred scripture.” Every believer, according to Lutheran teaching, has the right to interpret it according to his own understanding. Luther into the German language, the Bible became the reference book of the adherents of reformed Christianity.
Luther's central doctrine of "justification by faith" led to the secularization of religion. Rejecting the ecclesiastical hierarchy and special sacred rite as the path "to the salvation of the soul," this doctrine viewed the worldly activities of a person as serving God. Not in flight from the world, but in earthly life, man had to seek salvation. Hence - the condemnation of monasticism, celibacy of the clergy, etc. From the teachings of Luther it followed that the worldly life of a person and the social order, which should provide a person with the opportunity to surrender to faith, constitute an important aspect of the Christian religion.
Two camps in the Reformation
The reformation movement was socially heterogeneous and very quickly split into two camps, the bureau-moderate, led by Luther, and the plebeian-revolutionary, whose largest representative in Germany was Thomas Münzer (c. 1490-1525). Engels pointed out that the religious philosophy of Münzer in many ways approached atheism, pantheistically identifying the concepts of "God" and "the world," and that Müntzer's teaching was directed "against all the basic dogmas of not only Catholicism, but Christianity in general" (K. Marx, Engels F. Soch., Vol. 7, p. 370). Müntzer called for a search for paradise in earthly life, demanded to establish the kingdom of God on earth, meaning "nothing more than a social system in which there will no longer exist neither class differences, nor private property, nor isolated, opposed to members of society and alien to them state power "(Marx K, Engels F Soch., Vol. 7, p. 371). Müntzer used Luther's formula of "justification by faith" to substantiate the need for active action by the masses in the name of implementing a socio-political program, which Engels described as a fantastic anticipation of communism. Müntzer's supporters, especially from the Anabaptist (re-baptized) sect, deduced from the equality of the "sons of God" the demand for civil equality and the elimination of at least the most significant property differences.
The high point of the reformation movement in Germany was the Great Peasant War of 1525, which ended in the defeat of the rebels and the death of its leader Thomas Münzer. In the face of a sharp exacerbation of class contradictions, Luther opposed the popular movement. The Lutherian reformation, the basis of which was proclaimed unconditional obedience to the existing orders and authorities, turned into an instrument of reactionary German princes and sanctioned princely omnipotence as the only support for "order" and the possibility of "Christian humility."
The document expressing the essence of the burgher reform is the "Augsburg Confession", which Engels evaluates as "the constitution of the reformed burgher church, finally negotiated" (K. Marx, F. Engels Soch., Vol. 7, p. 366). This document is a summary of the basics of Lutheranism. In 1530 he was presented to Emperor Charles V, but rejected by him. A war broke out between the emperor and the princes who accepted the Luther's reformation, which ended with the Augsburg religious world in 1555. The princes were given the right to determine the religion of their subjects, according to the principle "Whose country is the faith".
This result of Luther's reformation expressed its social essence. Luther, as K. Marx wrote, “defeated slavery out of piety only by replacing it with slavery out of conviction. He broke faith in authority, restoring the authority of faith. external religiosity, making religiosity the inner world of man. He emancipated the flesh from the fetters, imposing fetters on the human heart "(K. Marx, F. Engels Soch., vol. 1, p. 422-423).
Spread of Protestantism
In the first half of the XVI century. the reformation movement began to spread rapidly outside Germany. Lutheranism took root in Austria, the Scandinavian countries, and the Baltic states. Separate Lutheran communities appeared in Poland, Hungary, and France. At the same time, new varieties of the Reformation movement appeared in Switzerland - Zwinglianism and Calvinism.
The Reformation in Switzerland, led by Zwingli (d. 1531) and Calvin (1509-1564), much more consistently than Lutheranism, expressed the bourgeois essence of the Reformation movement. Zwinglianism, in particular, more decisively broke with the ritual side of Catholicism, refusing to recognize a special magical power - grace behind the last two sacraments preserved by Lutheranism - baptism and communion; communion was seen as a simple ceremony performed in memory of the death of Jesus Christ, in which bread and wine are only symbols of his body and blood. In the organization of the Zwinglian church, in contrast to the Lutheran, the republican principle was consistently carried out: each community is independent and elects its own priest.
Calvinism became much more widespread, which, according to Engels, became the ideology of "the most daring part of the bourgeoisie at that time." John Calvin, who renounced Catholicism, settled in Geneva in 1536, where he led the reformation movement. The main ideas of his teaching he outlined in his writings "Instruction in the Christian Faith" and "Church Institutions", which became fundamental in the Calvinist church.
One of the main tenets of Calvinism is the doctrine of "absolute predestination": even before the "creation of the world", God allegedly predetermined the fate of people, heaven is destined for some, hell for others, and no efforts of people, no "good deeds" can change what is intended supreme. This teaching was, according to Engels, "a religious expression of the fact that in the world of commerce and competition, success or bankruptcy does not depend on the activities or art of individuals, but on circumstances beyond their control. It is not the will or action of any individual that determines man, but the mercy of powerful, but unknown economic forces. " On the theological level, this teaching was associated with one of the main principles of the Reformation - justification by faith, and not by good works. "
From the very beginning, Calvinism was characterized by petty regulation of the personal and social life of believers in the spirit of sanctimonious decency, intolerance of any manifestation of dissent, which was suppressed by the most cruel measures.
In accordance with the dogmatic foundation, Calvinism radically reformed the Christian cult and church organization. Almost all the external attributes of the Catholic cult: icons, vestments, candles, etc., were discarded. The main place in the service was occupied by reading and commenting on the Bible, singing psalms. The church hierarchy was eliminated. Elders (elders) and preachers began to play a leading role in the Calvinist communities. Elders and preachers made up the consistory, which was in charge of the religious life of the community. Dogmatic issues came under the jurisdiction of special gatherings of preachers - congregations, which later became local and national congresses of community representatives.
The reformation in England was of a slightly different character compared to Germany or Switzerland. It began not as a popular movement, but on the initiative of the ruling elite. In 1534, the English parliament proclaimed the independence of the church from the pope and declared it head of King Henry VIII. In England, all monasteries were closed, and their property was confiscated in favor of the royal treasury. But at the same time, the preservation of Catholic dogmas and rituals was announced. Over time, the influence of Protestantism on the Anglican Church intensified and deepened its demarcation from Catholicism. In 1571, the Anglican "creed" was adopted by parliament, which confirmed that "the king has supreme power in the church," although "he has no right to preach the word of God and perform the sacraments." The Anglican Church adopted Protestant doctrines of justification by faith and of "scripture" as the sole source of faith; rejected the teaching of Catholicism about indulgences, about the veneration of icons and relics. At the same time, the Catholic doctrine of the saving power of the church was recognized, albeit with reservations. The liturgy and a number of other rituals characteristic of Catholicism were preserved, and the episcopate remained inviolable.
In Scotland, the Church Reform movement took place under the banner of Calvinism. This movement was led by the Anglican theologian John Knox (1505-1572). The Reformation movement in Scotland was associated with the struggle against the Stuart dynasty. At the end of the 60s of the XVI century. Mary Stuart, who relied on the Catholic nobility and support from the papacy, was defeated. In Scotland, the Presbyterian Church grew out of Calvinism. It proceeded from the recognition of the autocracy of Christ in the community of believers and the equality of all its members. In this regard, unlike the Church of England, the bishopric was abolished and only Presbyterianism in the spirit of Calvinism was preserved. Hence the name of this church.
In connection with the aggravation of social contradictions in England at the end of the XVI-beginning of the XVII century. a bourgeois opposition to the absolutist regime was formed, which was not satisfied with the royal reformation. Calvinism spread among the English bourgeoisie, the adherents of which were called Puritans. Moderate Puritans confined themselves to demanding the establishment of a Presbyterian church, while the radical wing, the Independents, completely rejected the principle of the state church; every religious community should be completely free in the choice of religion.
The activation of democratic elements led to the emergence of religious sects of Congregationalists, Baptists, Quakers, etc. In most cases, the formation of these sects in a religious form reflected the disappointment of the lower classes in the results of the bourgeois revolution
Thus, during the Reformation in Germany and Switzerland and then during the bourgeois revolutions, primarily in England, the main trends that represent Protestantism at the present time were formed. The main varieties of Christianity reformed in the bourgeois spirit were and remain the Lutheranism and Calvinism that arose directly during the Reformation. All other Protestant formations only vary the basic principles of these movements.
Modern Protestant organizations
The organizational forms of modern Protestantism are very diverse - from the church as a state institution (in Sweden, for example) and to the almost complete absence of any unifying organization (for example, among the Quakers); from large confessional (for example, the World Baptist Union) and even interfaith associations (ecumenical movement) to small isolated sects.
Lutheranism in the modern world
The largest Protestant movement is Lutheranism. Lutheran evangelical churches exist in many countries. In Europe, they are most influential in the Scandinavian countries - Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Germany. There are many Lutheran churches in North America. In South America, the position of the Lutheran churches is weak. The largest is the Lutheran Church in Brazil. There are few Lutherans in the countries of Asia, their influence is stronger in Africa, where there are Lutheran churches in countries such as Ethiopia, Sudan, Cameroon, Liberia, etc.
The main doctrinal documents of Lutheranism are "Augsburg Confession" and "Apology", written by Luther and another prominent preacher of Protestantism - Melanchthon. Central to Lutheran doctrine is the doctrine of justification by faith. The attitude of the church to the world characterizes the teaching of Luther about the two kingdoms. Luther clearly distinguished two areas: religious and social life. The content of the first consists of faith, Christian preaching, the activity of the church; the second is worldly activity, civic morality, state and reason.
After the First World War and until now the most influential direction of evangelical theology is "dialectical theology" (or "theology of crisis"), the largest representatives of which are K. Barth, E. Brunner, R. Bultmann. This movement was initiated by the work of the Swiss theologian K. Barthes "Epistle to the Romans" (1921). The main idea of "dialectical theology" boils down to the fact that the Christian faith cannot be substantiated from the outside, arguments of reason, philosophical arguments or scientific data. It arises from an "inner immediate encounter" with God, when God meets "me" in "my existence." "Faith is always a gift from God." True religion is a religion of revelation. Supporters of "dialectical theology" appeal to the gospel as the only source of Christian faith.
The vagueness and uncertainty of Protestant ideology with its subjective interpretation and perception of the gospel make it possible to widely delimit political positions within Protestantism, and in particular within the Lutheran-Evangelical trend, from progressive ones taking an active part in the struggle for peace and even supporting socialism or taking practical part in his construction of circles of believers and theologians to the most reactionary servants of imperialism, apologists of atomic war and preachers of anti-communism. Although the leadership of many Lutheran-Evangelical churches is pursuing a reactionary pro-empirealist line, the majority of ordinary believers and many members of the clergy not only do not share it, but also actively oppose fascism and the nuclear arms race.
Lutheranism in our country is widespread mainly in the Baltic states - in the Latvian and Estonian SSR. The most influential Lutheran organization in our country is the Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church, headed by an archbishop.
In the past, Lutheranism in the Baltics, when it was part of the Russian Empire, faithfully served the Russian autocracy, and subsequently supported the nationalist policy of the bourgeois governments of Latvia and Estonia. A significant part of the Lutheran clergy took anti-Soviet positions and compromised themselves by cooperating with the Nazis during the Patriotic War. In 1944, many clergymen emigrated abroad. In the post-war years, many believers left the Lutheran Church. In an effort to retain its influence, the Lutheran Church is now persistently emphasizing its loyal attitude to Soviet power, making attempts to adapt to Soviet reality, to meet the spirit of the times.The main emphasis in preaching work is now on the interpretation of issues of public life, and especially on moral and ethical problems.
If in the recent past the Lutheran clergy made no attempts to bring Christianity closer to communism, then in recent years the situation has changed. There is a clear tendency to interpret communism as a society embodying Christian ideals.
Despite the efforts of the clergy, the influence of Lutheranism in the Soviet Baltic region is waning.
The current state of Calvinism
At present, Calvinism is represented by the so-called Reformed (in a number of European countries) and Presbyterian (in England and the United States) churches, the total number of believers in which slightly exceeds 40 million people, as well as by Congregationalism, the number of adherents of which is about 5 million people. The World Presbyterian Union includes 125 independent Calvinist churches from different countries. On the territory of the Soviet Union, these varieties of Protestantism never had any widespread distribution. A small number of followers of the Reformation are found only in the regions of Western Ukraine. Congregationalism (from the Latin word "union") was formed during the time of the Reformation movement in England as a trend in opposition to the Church of England. Its distinctive feature is the principle of the independence of the communities of believers from the secular authorities and their complete independence, the autonomy of each community - congregation. Calling for a revival of the early Christian order of religious life, the Congregationalists initially rejected hierarchy entirely. However, in the 19th century. the Congregational Union of England and Wales was formed. Congregationalism was most developed in North America.
Congregationalists are active in preaching and missionary work, taking part in the ecumenical movement with a program whose main slogan is the revival of early Christianity, that is, "pure", "true" Christianity. Since 1891, the Information Congregational Council has functioned as a world center for Congregationalism.
Modern Anglicanism
The Anglican Episcopal Church is currently the State Church of England.
Anglican churches also exist in the United States, India and D.C., in a total of 16 countries. Since 1867, the Anglican Churches, while maintaining their independence, are united by the Anglican Union of Churches. The so-called Lambeth Conferences, convened every 10 years, have been acting as an advisory body since the middle of the last century. In total, there are about 30 million Anglican believers in the world. The head of the church is the English king. The hierarchy is preserved, reminiscent of the Catholic one. Bishops are appointed by the king through the prime minister. The clergy of the two counties, Canterbury and York, are headed by the archbishops. The Primate is the Archbishop of Canterbury. The outer ritual side of Catholicism in the Church of England has hardly been reformed. The main place in the divine service was preserved for the Liturgy, which is distinguished by complex rituals and solemnity. In the United States, Anglicanism is represented by the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States. It is headed by a life-long elected head from among the bishops; the governing body of the synodal body includes representatives of the clergy and parishioners. The Episcopal Church of the United States conducts a large missionary activity in the countries of Asia and Africa, in Latin America.
Old Catholics
The Protestants also include the Old Catholics - supporters of the directions that have broken away from the Roman Catholic Church. The Sgarok Catholic Church was formed on the basis of opposition to the decision of the Vatican Council, which proclaimed in 1870 the dogma of papal infallibility. It included the so-called previously created in Holland. Utrecht Church. At present, Old Catholicism is represented by several independent churches. Its main centers are Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the Netherlands. The Old Catholic Churches are united in the International Old Catholic Congress and are members of the World Council of Churches. The creed of the Old Catholics occupies an intermediate position between Catholicism and Protestantism. On the one hand, the Old Catholics retain a number of aspects of the Catholic cult, on the other hand, they do not recognize the primacy of the Pope, reject the veneration of icons, church relics, obligatory celibacy for the clergy, etc. with whom they are in constant contact.
Mennonites
Among the varieties of Protestantism that developed back in the days of the Reformation is the Men-nonite sect. It arose in Northern Germany shortly after the defeat of the Peasant War of 1524-1525. Its founder was the Dutchman Menno Simone, who called for non-resistance, rejected an active struggle against the evil that exists in the world. The source of the Mennonite doctrine is the "Foundations of the True Christian Faith" written by Menno Simons. The Mennonite dogmatics and rituals are largely borrowed from the Anabaptists.
Like the Anabaptists, Mennonites do not believe in predestination. They attach great importance to personal faith, which, according to their teaching, takes precedence even over "scripture." Messianic and chiliastic beliefs are widespread among Mennonites.
Currently, the Mennonite sect is represented in many countries, mainly in North America and Europe. Although the sect is relatively small in number, it is well organized and very active in almost all countries of the world. Typically, Mennonite organizations lead nationally central committees; they are united in the World Conference (USA). Mennonites in foreign countries have a network of schools and seminaries to train propagandists and missionaries. The sect has been engaged in missionary activity for a long time and attaches great importance to it; Mennonite missions can be found in almost every country in the world. Mennonites publish mass editions of religious literature in many languages, publish the newspaper "Mennonite Bulletin" and the magazine "Msnnonite Life". For the Menno-Nite communities in our country, see the section "Contemporary Religions".
Baptism
According to its doctrine, Baptism in me merges with other Protestant organizations. Sharing common Christian doctrines about the Trinity, the divine origin of Christ, etc., the Baptists at the same time deny the role of the church as a mediator between God and people, preaching the principle of "justification by faith." Like Calvinists, they believe in predestination, but they have not taken this principle to the extreme. Elements of Arminianism are clearly distinguished in their doctrine. recognizing the free will of a person.
The cult of the Baptists is greatly simplified. They abandoned the veneration of icons, the cross, faith in the saints. Divine services were replaced by them with sacred gatherings. Baptism is performed over adults and is considered not a sacrament, but a rite symbolizing the initiation of a person into church members.
The "democracy" of the Baptists concerns only the church organization. With regard to social problems, the Batista basically remain in the position of defending the ideology of private ownership.
Founded at the beginning of the 17th century. As a petty-bourgeois trend in its social content, Baptism evolved chagem in its doctrine and social principles in the direction of adapting to the interests and needs of the big bourgeoisie. As a result, since the 19th century. the influence of Baptism begins to grow with the rise of capitalism. Baptism is particularly strong in the United States today. There are over 20 independent groups in American Baptism. Besides the USA, Baptism is represented in Great Britain, Brazil, Canada, Mexico, Burma, India, South Africa, Australia and other countries of the world.
In 1905, the Baptist World Union was formed as a result of efforts to unite the various branches of Baptism. Batista publishes dozens of newspapers and magazines, has 25 universities and high schools. The international church that leads the activities of the Baptist congregations is located in Washington (USA).
Among the Baptists you can find people of various political orientations, but the official governing bodies of Baptism in capitalist countries pursue a policy aimed at supporting the bourgeois system, neo-colonialism. The 1955 Jubilee Baptist Congress passed a rather vague resolution that spoke of the need to preserve peace.
Closely related to Baptism are such religious movements and organizations as "brothers in Christ," "young Christians," and others. For Baptists in our country, see the section "Modern religions."
Quakers
In the 1840s, after the Society of Friends of the "Inner Light" was founded in England by H. Fox, many Baptist groups and prominent religious leaders joined it. The members of this society were called Quakers (shaking). Since the sect boldly defended the principle of the equality of all people, opposed military service, etc., it was persecuted, which ended only in the 18th century. Already in the 60s, Quakers appeared in North America.
The basis of the Quaker doctrine is the idea of that. that God is in the hearts of people; the truth should be sought in the "inner light" that illuminates a person and testifies to the presence of the divine principle in him. "Inner light" can be kindled in every person, regardless of his race or social status. Illumination with "inner light" means at the same time victory over sin, over the powers of darkness. To find the "inner light", you need to walk the "right path", you need first of all silent prayer. Accordingly, Quakers completely reject external rituals and church hierarchy, they do not have a strictly regulated ceremonial of worship, they do not recognize the sacraments, do not get baptized or receive communion. One of the participants in the prayer meeting who will feel that he has been illuminated by the "inner light" is preaching.
Quakers derive a number of ethical and social requirements from their creed. These include the requirement of unconditional truthfulness and honesty in everything, simplicity, simplicity, refusal of luxury and entertainment. While placing a high level of personal independence, Quakers do not recognize titles, they turn to everyone equally, etc. The social views of Quakers are essentially bourgeois and, in general, in their meaning and significance, they are reactionary: they oppose the revolutionary transformation of society to the path of moral self-improvement of the individual. Accordingly, they widely practice charity. In the past, they have opposed slavery and the slave trade by submitting petitions to parliament. Currently, some of the Quaker organizations are actively involved in the fight for peace and in the fight against racism in the United States. The basic principles and forms of organization that took shape in the 17th century have remained almost unchanged to this day. In addition to community meetings, which are held regularly to discuss various aspects of the life of its members, there are also quarterly meetings of several communities in a certain area and once a year - a national meeting of the congregation. World Quaker conferences are also held.
Methodism
One of the largest church formations within the framework of Protestantism is Methodism, which developed in the first half of the 18th century. on the basis of Anglicanism and related to it by origin. In addition to the traditional centers of England and the USA, Methodist churches now exist in Australia, New Zealand, Fiji, and South Africa. Ghana, Korea, Brazil, Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavian countries, Austria, France, Italy, Hungary, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and a number of other countries. The largest is the Methodist Church in the United States, one of the largest religious organizations in the country.
Methodism is very close to Anglican in doctrine and cult. This trend is characterized by the adoption of the Arminian doctrine. The Methodist cult is extremely simplified. Of the rituals, baptism and communion are preserved. Considering communion as a sacrament, Methodists deny the presence of the body and blood of Christ in the elements of the sacrament. The Catholic doctrine of purgatory is completely rejected, the need for confession is denied. The hallmark of Methodist organizations is strict centralism. The Methodist community is divided into "classes" - groups of 12 people. The congregations are organized into districts headed by superintendents (in some Methodist Churches in the United States, bishops). District conferences are held annually, which are the supreme body for believers in a given district. The World Methodist Council includes most Methodist organizations in many countries; the largest of these is the American Episcopal Methodist Church.
Mormons
In 1830, a sect of Mormons was organized who call themselves "doomsday saints." Its founder was Joseph Smith, who from childhood had "visions" and on this basis declared himself a prophet. He published the "Book of Mormon", which became "the Bible" of his followers in 1830. As J. Smith stated in his sermons, thanks to divine revelation, he found a copper plaque inscribed with mysterious ancient writings - the revelation and testament of the last Israeli prophet Mormon, who allegedly with the remnants of the Israelites for several centuries BC Smith allegedly translated this document into English and published it as the "Book of Mormon." It includes, along with elements of Christianity, elements of Islam.In 1843, on the basis of a revelation, J. Smith proclaimed polygamy and the need to create a theocratic organization. human well-being in earthly life. spices. The number of Mormons grew quite noticeably also thanks to the work of missionaries sent to many countries of the world.
One of the distinctive features of the religious views of Mormons is the expectation of the imminent onset of the millennial kingdom of God on earth, as well as the belief in the existence of, in addition to a single god, also lower gods and spirits. In order to be able to become one of them, the human soul must free itself from the fetters of the flesh. Mormons have a peculiar hierarchy, which includes high priests ("general authorities"), a "college of 12 apostles" subordinate to them, patriarchs, bishops, priests, teachers and deacons.
Adventism
In the 1830s, an Adventist sect emerged in the United States (from the Latin "adventus" - parish, coming). The founder of the sect was W. Miller (d. 1849), who predicted the second coming of Jesus Christ to earth in 1844. Faith in the imminent coming of Christ, who would establish the millennial kingdom and execute the last judgment on sinners, is the basis of the sect's doctrine. Adventists claim to deny the immortality of the soul. They believe that after death, the soul of a person seems to sink into sleep in order to awaken on the day of judgment and either gain eternal bliss, or be completely destroyed. Of course, eternal bliss will be granted only to those chosen ones who have acquired true faith, that is, Adventists.
Adventists deny much of Christian worship. They preserve the rites of communion and baptism (performed over adults). It is obligatory for members of the sect to pay tithes, one tenth of their earnings, to the community's treasury. This sect is characterized by active missionary activity, as well as "sanitary reform", which requires taking care of one's health, for the body, according to Adventist ideas, is a "vessel of God."
Adventists are divided into several groups, the most influential is the Seventh-day Adventist sect. She is guided by the "revelations" of the American preacher Ellen White (1827-1915) about the seventh day of the week - Saturday as a day of rest, about the fall of all the seokwey, except the Adventist one, about the assignment of Adventists to preach the commandments of God, etc. According to the provision on the internal structure of the church, a group of Adventist communities "on the seventh day it forms compounds that unite into unions; 12" divisions "are formed from alliances, each of them, as a rule, represents an association of believers of several states." Divisions "are divided into three divisions: European, American and Asian. At the head of all Adventists The General Conference is on the seventh day, the executive committee elected by it is located in Washington (USA). Adventists in our country are not officially members of the World Seventh-day Adventist Union, but the latter considers the members of the sect in the USSR as an independent ... division. "
With vigorous missionary work, Adventists run dozens of publishing houses, publish newspapers and magazines, maintain schools, hospitals, and so on.
Along with the Seventh-day Adventists, there are other currents: Reform Adventists, Christian Adventists, Adventists of the coming century, the Second Coming Society, etc.
Jehovah witnesses
This sect arose in the second half of the last century in the United States. Its founder Charles Roussel foreshadowed the immediate proximity of the coming of Christ and the death of all, with the exception of Jehovists, in the last war between Christ and Satan - Armageddon. Jehovah's Witnesses are characterized by the denial of faith in the afterlife, in the divine essence of Christ. Christ, in their view, is a "glorified spiritual being" who fulfills the will of Jehovah God. The sect's leadership is strictly centralized. Its center is located in Brooklyn (USA). The main bureau in Brooklyn manages an extensive network of local groups through county bureaus. The sect has a well-organized propaganda apparatus. The Watchtower magazine is published twice a month, with a circulation of several million copies and distributed in dozens of countries in many languages. The sect has a printing house, a publishing house, a radio station, and training centers in Brooklyn.
Salvation Army
In 1865, the Methodist preacher W. Boots in London launched a movement for the moral revival of society. In 1870 this movement received the name "Christian Mission", and since 1878, when it took on specific organizational forms, it was called the Salvation Army. Superintendent W. Boots, who stood at its head, became a general, members of his organization - officers and soldiers of the Salvation Army, dressed in uniform. For several years, the movement has become widespread in many countries of the world. In 1959, the Salvation Army operated in 86 countries, uniting about 2 million people in its ranks. According to the organizational structure, the Salvation Army is headed by a general elected by the High Council. On the scale of a given country, an "army" consists of "divisions," "corps," and "outposts."
The Salvation Army trains "officer" personnel in special "cadet schools". Its weekly organ has a circulation of 2 million. The main stronghold of the Salvation Army is currently the United States.
Originating on the soil of Methodism, The Salvation Army shares the basic tenets of its doctrine, and especially the doctrine of salvation. Baptism and the sacrament are not considered prerequisites for achieving eternal bliss. Dual membership - in the Salvation Army and some other church - is rare but generally not accepted. The Salvation Army was created by W. Boots as a religious and philanthropic organization. Its founder argued that one should take care not only about the salvation of the soul and the otherworldly existence, but also about making life easier for the lower strata of society. In accordance with this, public canteens with free meals, brigades to help alcoholics and prisoners were created, a campaign against prostitution was organized, etc. In sermons and speeches in the press, W. Boots exposed the most glaring social vices in the life of England at the end of the 19th century. However, U. Boots saw the only means of counteracting social evil, want, and suffering of the masses in philanthropic activity. Objectively, the Salvation Army plays a reactionary role in capitalist society, since it sows illusions about the possibility of achieving universal justice on the basis of this social system.
"Christian Science"
In 1866, a certain Mary Becker founded the Church of "Christian Science". Its adherents are also called scientists. Mary Becker allegedly managed to discover "Christ's method of healing", which is based on the assertion that there is nothing in the world except the spirit. All the rest is just an appearance. Therefore, the path to healing from ailments, to deliverance from sin and death consists only in throwing out of the head the thoughts about these ailments, about sin, about death. All evil, all troubles, say the followers of the sect, are a product of the human imagination.
There are currently approximately 1,600 Scientist church congregations. At their services, excerpts from the Bible and the Book of Texts (the main work of Mary Becker) are read. The congregations are led by the "Mother Church" in Boston, USA, which is headed by a board and a president. The sect publishes its daily newspaper.
"Christian Fellowship"
This sect, founded by Rudolf Steiner (d. 1925) and Friedrich Rittelmeier (d. 1938), is widespread in Europe and America. The headquarters are located in Stuttgart (Germany).
Pentecostals
This Protestant sect arose in the United States at the beginning of this century and within a relatively short period of time spread to many countries of the world. Like other Protestant denominations, Pentecostals deny the need for the church to mediate between God and people. However, they maintain a certain organization, maintain discipline in the sect, and do their best to completely subordinate the believers to the influence of the leaders of the sect. The peculiarity of Pentecostals is the belief in the possibility of the embodiment of the holy spirit in any believer. At the same time, members of the sect believe that a person in whom the holy spirit has taken over acquires the gift of prophecy, begins to speak in "other tongues", like the apostles of Christ, as described in the New Testament book of the Acts of the Apostles. The rite of baptism in the spirit, as a result of which people supposedly receive the gift of speaking in tongues, often leads to a violation of the psyche of believers, for they drive themselves to a frenzy during prayers.
Like other Protestants, Pentecostals do not venerate icons, a cross, and deny church rituals. They perform baptism on adults "by conviction." A large role in the sect is assigned to preachers who enjoy influence and authority among believers.
The Pentecostal sect is not homogeneous. It has several currents. In our country there are independent Pentecostal movements: Voronaevites, currants, shakers, Zionists, etc. Abroad, many adherents have the Assemblies of God, the Church of God, etc.
Perfectionists
Pentecostals are joined by perfectionists. Like Pentecostals, perfectionists believe it is possible to achieve and maintain a state of personal holiness and believe in the second coming. Unlike Pentecostals, they do not recognize speaking in tongues - glossolalia. In general, perfectionists can be called moderate Pentecostals (sometimes perfectionists and Pentecostals are grouped under the name "holiness churches"). The largest organization of perfectionists is the Na-Zaryan Church. The vast majority of perfectionists are concentrated in the United States.
Waldens
Somewhat aloof from the three main currents of Protestantism is the Waldensian sect, which appeared long before the Reformation - in the 12th century. It arose in the south of France among the urban lower classes and had a pronounced antifeudal and antipapist character. Like Protestants, the Waldensians demanded a return to the principles of early Christianity. They established the principle of elective clergy, refused to baptize children, and opposed private property. Despite the repeated pogroms of the Waldensians, perpetrated by both secular and ecclesiastical authorities, their sect, unlike most other early (pre-Reformation) Protestant sects, survived and exists abroad until the present day (Italy, Uruguay, Argentina).
Moravian brothers
In the pre-reformation period (in the 15th century) a sect of Moravian (Bohemian) brothers appeared. It arose among the urban and rural poor of medieval Bohemia. The most important positions of the sect went back to early Christian principles. Being antifeudal at first, the sect gradually assumed a more moderate character. This did not free her from persecution. Fleeing from persecution, some adherents of the sect fled to Germany, where they settled in the town of Gerngut. Here in 1727 they created a religious society "Hernguthers". Under the influence of the German aristocrat N. Zinzendorf, who provided them with shelter, the Moravian brothers recognized the Augsburg confession.
The Moravian brothers see the main content of Christianity in faith in the atoning sacrifice of Christ. Great importance is attached to the ritual aspect of religious life - liturgy, hymns and prayers, washing of feet, etc. The Moravian brothers retain the church hierarchy, local church organizations are headed by bishops. Strict discipline is maintained in the communities; the life of ordinary members of the sect is under the control of special overseers.
Active missionary activity contributed to the spread of the sect across the globe. Currently, there are communities in the United States, Nicaragua, a number of Antilles, Suriname, South Africa, Tanzania, Germany, Czechoslovakia and some other countries. The organizations of the Moravian brothers are in close alliance with the Lutherans.
Features of the ideology of modern Protestantism
The ideology of Protestantism was formed in the process of adapting Christianity to bourgeois social relations, which were going to replace the feudal system. Naturally, the content of Protestant ideology corresponded to capitalist relations and acted as their ideological justification. This was clearly revealed in the close ties established between Protestant churches and bourgeois states.
With the transition of capitalism to its last, imperialist stage of development, the bourgeoisie renounces its former progressive aspirations and humanistic ideals, it seeks to oppose socialism with a united front of all the forces of reaction. Protestantism does not immediately find its place in the changed conditions. He is going through a crisis and is forced to start looking for a new ideological program and new forms of organization.
At the end of the XIX and beginning of the XX century. the most influential in Protestantism was the so-called "liberal theology" (Harnack, Troeltsch). The representatives of this trend saw the opportunity to reconcile Christianity with reason and scientific knowledge in abandoning a literal understanding of biblical myths and miracles. Supporters of "liberal theology" allowed a very free allegorical interpretation of the Bible, considering Christianity as an essentially moral doctrine. Christianity in the interpretation of "liberal theologians" acquired the character of a philosophical teaching rather than a "religion of revelation."
The course of so-called social Christianity, or "social evangelism," which brought to the fore the idea of the kingdom of God on earth, was associated with Protestant theological Modernism. In an effort to lead the labor movement, the ideologues of Protestantism put forward the slogan of "religious socialism" behind which a typically bourgeois program was concealed: private property was proclaimed unshakable and on its basis "Christian reconciliation of classes" was proposed. In essence, reformed capitalism is proposed as the kingdom of God on earth.
The victory of the socialist revolution in Russia, which established a new social system on earth, a deep general crisis that struck capitalism, led to very significant shifts in Protestant theology, to the demarcation of forces differing in their political orientation. There are emerging trends such as the "new orthodoxy" on the one hand, and "Christian communism" on the other. The school of "new orthodoxy" that emerged in the early 1920s abandoned the hopes placed by "liberal theology" on the progress of society and the establishment of rational and moral relations. Its main guiding idea is the idea of the insolubility of the tragic contradictions of human existence. The contradiction between the individual and bourgeois society, which in the minds of the "little man" appears as a world alien and hostile to him, which is incomprehensible to him and before which he is powerless - this real contradiction is expressed by the theologian K. Bart in the form of an absolute opposition of man and God, creation and the creator. The reasons for the tragedy of human existence lie in the insoluble contradiction between the absolute truth of God and the imperfection of a sinful man by nature. Man cannot but strive to understand God, but these attempts are in vain: for human feelings and reason, God will forever remain an incomprehensible mystery. This situation leaves for man only one way of communion with God - through blind faith.
The irrationalist perception of the world characteristic of the apologists of the "new orthodoxy" is also manifested in the rejection of attempts to rationalize the religious faith itself. Supporters of the "new orthodoxy" propose to consider biblical myths as a way of transmitting the deepest truths that reveal to a person his relationship to God, and not as stories about true events. Christianity, according to them, can be translated from the language of the Bible into the language of modern man, demythologized. The meaning of such statements should be sought in an effort to reconcile religion with science.
However, Protestant theologians really fail to reconcile science and religion. They cannot accept everything that science claims. By itself, the division of the world into two spheres is tantamount to the assertion that not everything in the world is accessible to the knowing mind, is tantamount to an attempt to limit science in the spirit of agnosticism. The failure of this attempt to find an area for religion in which science could not touch it is obvious: the world, united in its materiality, is on the whole an object of scientific knowledge, there is no place in it for a supernatural mystery that is inaccessible to the human mind.
Ecumenical movement
The movement for the worldwide (ecumenical) unification of Christian churches, which emerged at the beginning of this century among a number of Protestant organizations, eventually led to the formation in 1948 at a conference in Amsterdam of the World Council of Churches. At this first conference, 147 churches from 44 countries were represented. In 1968, the World Council of Churches included 231 churches from 80 countries. Among them are Protestant (Evangelical Lutheran churches, Reform, Presbyterian, Men-nonites, Baptists, Quakers, Methodists, Congregationalists, etc.), as well as the Old Catholic and some Orthodox churches. He is a member of the World Council of Churches and the Russian Orthodox Church. The Roman Catholic Church is not a member of the World Council of Churches.
The supreme body of the ecumenical movement is the General Assembly, which usually meets every five years. She elects a six-member presidium for the World Council of Churches, as well as a central committee of up to 90 members; these bodies direct all the work of the ecumenical movement between the assemblies. There are also a number of commissions dealing with private issues. The governing bodies of the World Council of Churches meet annually. The General Secretariat is located in Geneva.
In purely religious matters, the ecumenical movement currently adheres to the point of view that all existing Christian churches are parts of the "one church of Christ" and must through negotiations overcome the historically arisen differences in doctrine and structure. Official documents state that the movement does not seek to create an organization that stands above the churches, that the World Council is not a "superchurch." Membership in the World Council means that churches, agreeing on some issues with each other, may disagree on others.
The ecumenical movement is not limited to purely religious issues. It is also forced to give an answer to the main questions of concern to modern man. The desire of the ideologists of the ecumenical movement in these conditions to develop a "general Christian social program" equally suitable not only for various Christian movements, but also for believers living in countries with different social systems, gives the declarations and slogans of the ecumenical movement an extremely abstract look and sometimes features of utopia. The search for new religious ways to solve the social problems of our time is fruitless, because they cannot change the essence of the bourgeois system with the help of "correctly understood" Gospel commandments.
At the same time, it should be noted that the World Council of Churches has recently been approaching a number of problems of concern to humanity from the standpoint of common sense. He stands for the relaxation of international tension, supports the efforts of peace-loving states to defend peace on earth.
And Orthodoxy, unites a number of independent churches and sects (Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglican Church, Methodists, Baptists, Adventists), differing from each other in cult and organization, but connected by a common origin and dogma. The name “Protestants” (Latin protestans) was originally given to the German princes and cities who signed the so-called Protestant at the Speyer Sejm in 1529 - a protest against the decision of the majority of this Sejm to restrict the spread of Lutheranism in Germany. In the future, Protestants began to call the followers of church trends that broke away from Catholicism during the 16th century Reformation, and also appeared later as a result of separation from the main Protestant churches. In the 19-20 centuries, some areas of Protestantism were characterized by the desire to give a rationalistic interpretation of the Bible, the preaching of "religion without God", that is, only as a moral teaching. Protestant churches play a leading role in the ecumenical movement. Protestantism is widespread in the USA, Great Britain, Germany, Scandinavian countries, Finland, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Australia, Canada, Latvia, Estonia.
Protestant dogmas
The dogmas of Protestantism were set forth by the theologians of the 16th century M. Luther, J. Calvin, W. Zwingli. One of the main dogmatic provisions that distinguish Protestantism from Catholicism and Orthodoxy is the doctrine of a direct "connection" between man and God. "Divine grace" was granted to man directly by God, without the mediation of the church, the clergy, and man's salvation is achieved only through his personal faith (the principle of "justification by faith") in the atoning sacrifice of Christ and by the will of God. Therefore, in Protestantism (with the exception of Anglicanism) there is no fundamental opposition of the clergy to the laity, and every believer has the right to interpret and expound the "word of God" - the principle of the "priesthood" of all believers. This justified the refusal of the Protestants from the church hierarchy characteristic of Catholicism and the non-recognition of the Pope as its head, opened the way for the demands of democratic freedoms and the development of individualism, for the creation of national churches independent of the papacy. In accordance with the Protestant views on the relationship of man to God and the church, the religious cult was simplified and made cheaper. It retains a minimum of religious holidays, there is no worship of icons and relics, the number of sacraments is reduced to two (baptism and communion), the service consists mainly of sermons, joint prayers and the singing of psalms. Protestants do not recognize saints, angels, the cult of the Mother of God, they deny the concept of purgatory adopted in the Catholic Church. Protestant clergy are elected by the laity, but in practice the clergy are appointed from above. In Protestantism there is no monasticism, celibacy of the clergy (celibacy).
In the reform of Catholicism, Protestantism appealed to the original Christianity and recognizes the Holy Scripture (Bible), translated into living national languages, as the source of the doctrine, rejecting the Catholic Holy Tradition as a human invention. The initial forms of Protestantism that emerged already in the 16th century were: Lutheranism, Calvinism, Zwinglianism, Anglicanism, Anabaptism, Mennonism. The Protestants were joined by the Unitarians, including the Polish Socinians and Czech brothers.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Protestantism became the banner of social revolutions in the Netherlands and England. From the 17th century, Protestantism began to spread in the North American colonies. In England and its colonies, Calvinism took the form of Presbyterianism, not significantly different from Calvinism on the continent, which absorbed Zwinglianism and is usually called Reformed. More democratic than Presbyterians, Congregationalists have established the autonomy of religious communities. Baptism and Quakerism developed in the 17th century.
Protestant ethics
The body of moral principles containing the essence of reformed Christianity was called Protestant ethics, the central concepts of which are the concepts of grace, predestination, vocation. Protestantism represents the fate of man and his salvation by a predetermined decision of God, which denied the independence of man and the importance for the salvation of "good deeds", among which the main one was the support of the Catholic Church. The main signs of a person being chosen by God are the power of faith, productivity of labor and business success, which, in turn, gave impetus to entrepreneurship, justifying sharpness, wealth, prosperity as godly ones, sanctifying work, condemning idleness. The interpretation of the profession as a response to the call of God made the acquisition of a profession and its constant improvement a moral duty. The charity of the poor, considered in Catholicism as a virtue, Protestantism condemned, instead of charity it was supposed to give the needy the opportunity to learn a craft and work. Thrift was considered a special virtue. Protestant ethics regulated the entire way of life: its requirements related to labor and social discipline, it condemned drunkenness and debauchery, demanded the creation of a family, the introduction of children to the Bible, and its daily reading. The main virtues of the Protestant were thrift, diligence to work, honesty.
Over time, Protestant churches in a number of countries received the status of a state church, and in other countries - equal rights with other churches. They showed a tendency towards formalism and outward piety. The new trends of Protestantism that emerged from the end of the 17th century were distinguished by sophisticated forms of religious influence, mystical and irrational elements intensified in them. These areas include pietism, which arose in Lutheranism in the late 17th century; Methodism, which broke away from Anglicanism in the 18th century; Adventists (since 1930s); Pentecostals, who emerged from the Baptists at the beginning of the 20th century. Protestantism is characterized by active missionary activity, as a result of which Protestant movements spread to the former colonial countries. From the second half of the 19th century, Protestantism occupied a prominent place in the movement of Christian socialism, in the creation of the so-called internal missions among the proletariat.
From the second half of the 19th century, within the framework of Protestantism, liberal theology developed, which sought a rationalistic interpretation of biblical texts. This trend until the beginning of the 20th century enjoyed a predominant influence in Protestant theology, its largest representatives being A. Richl, A. Harnack, E. Troelch. In the extreme manifestations of liberal theology, there has been a tendency to view Christianity as an ethical doctrine. In this case, Christianity lost the features of the "religion of revelation" and was interpreted as a side of the human spirit, merging with the idealistic directions of philosophy. Protestant theology of the first half of the 20th century was characterized by a crisis of religious liberalism, an increase in the influence of the reactionary fideistic direction - fundamentalism, and from the 1920s to the 1930s - the advancement of dialectical theology or theology of crisis as the leading direction (K. Barth, P. Tillich, R. . Niebuhr, E. Brunner). This trend, proclaiming a return to the teachings of Luther and Calvin, abandoned the belief in moral progress inherent in liberal theology, emphasizing the idea of the insolubility of the tragic contradictions of human existence, the impossibility of overcoming the "crisis" within a person. Since the 1960s, the influence of neo-orthodoxy began to decrease, there has been a revival of liberal movements in Protestantism, the search for ways to renew religion, adapt to modernity. Depending on the theological views of the followers, the theology of Protestantism is divided into classical, liberal, fundamentalist, postmodernist. In the 20th century, an ecumenical movement developed with the goal of uniting Christian, primarily Protestant churches. Since 1948, the governing body of the ecumenist movement has been the World Council of Churches. Protestantism is the second largest branch of Christianity in terms of the number of believers, with about 800 million adherents.