The development of geographical knowledge in the Epoch of the Middle Ages (III - the end of the XV centuries) is characterized by the development of almost only the country. Other directions related to mathematics and fundamental natural sciences did not receive any development and even largely forgotten.
Only in the Arab world, some of the ideas of antiquity remained, not receiving, however, further development. The main carriers of geographic knowledge were merchants, officials, military and missionaries, for whom countries of knowledge amounted to the basis of their practical activity or civil service.
The greatest development of country studies (mainly in the form of special geographical works) received in the Arab world. It was associated with the vastness of the Arab Caliphate, which, starting from the VIII century, gradually expanded from Central Asia to the Pyrenean Peninsula. One of the important factors for the development of country studies was the integrative nature of Arab trade between East and West in their traditional understanding.
Arab country houses were referenced, they gave information about the peoples, wealth, crossing, settlements and trade subjects. An example is the earliest summary of this kind, relating to the middle of the 9th century., - "Book of ways and states" Ibn Hardadback, an official at Baghdad Califa. This is the most complete multi-volume "geographic dictionary" of the first quarter of the XIII century, written by Musulmanin from the Byzantine Greeks by Yakut (1179-1229) 14.
One of the largest connoisseurs of Arabic geographic literature Academician I. Yu. Krachkovsky so characterizes the scientific importance of the traveler's notes: "He has no interest in places in all of them, and, of course, he did not think about any research Behave his book turned out to be the only description of Muslim and Eastern Society in its kind in the XIV century. This is a rich treasury not only for the historical geography of its time, but for the whole culture of that era "15.
The ecological direction of geography in Arabs was the nature of vulgar determinism, praising the climate of the Arabian Peninsula, one of the seven climates, which, unlike the latitudinal climates of the Greeks, was large regions of the world.
Some great Arab scientists rose to genetic and cosmogonical reasoning, however, they could not rise to the level of ancient Greek scientists. So, Baghdad Arab Masidi, in the X century. Having visited the Mozambique Strait, made the first description of monsoons, and also wrote about evaporation of moisture from the surface of the water and subsequent condensation in the form of clouds. The Great Khorezmian Scientist Encyclopedist of Biruni was the largest geographer XI century. During his long journeys, he studied the Iranian Highlands and most of Central Asia. Accompanying the conqueror of the Khorezma of the Afghan Sultan Mahmud Gaznevi in \u200b\u200bhis devastating campaign on Punjab, Biruni collected extensive materials about Indian culture there and put them together with personal observations of great work on India. In this work, Biruni, in particular, writes about erosion processes, about the sorting of Alluvia, about the finds of marine seashells high in the mountains. It provides information on the representations of the Hindus on the connection of tides with the Moon.
Outstanding scientist, philosopher, doctor and musician Ibn Sina (Latinized Avicenna) (approx. 980-1037) wrote about deanitation processes. He described the results of his direct observations on the development of the valley by large rivers of Central Asia and on this basis put forward an idea about the continuous destruction of mountain countries. He pointed out that the mountains begin to set up in the process of a bump and that this process is continuous. But, despite these (and others), individual achievements, Arab geography in the sense of theoretical ideas has not advanced further antique geographers. Her merit is mainly in expanding the spatial outlook and in conservation for descendants of antiquity ideas.
On the low stage of theoretical representations also say the maps of the Arabs, which until the XV century. Constructed without a degree grid. On these maps for the image of geographic objects, the correct geometric shapes were used - circles, straight lines, rectangles, ovals, which unrecognizable changed nature. "From fear of idolatry, Koran forbade people and animals. This ban was reflected in the geographical maps that were drawn as a circuit with a circulation and ruler."
The exceptions are Al-Idrisi maps (1100-1165). In 1154 its "geographical entertainment" appeared. This book, in contrast to the purely descriptive country headquarters of other Arab authors, contained checking the ideas of Ptolemy and correcting its errors based on the latest information. In addition, two world maps, circular and rectangular, on 70 sheets were drawn up in the book. It is these cards that moved away from Arab canons that geographical objects were depicted on them in natural outlines. True, these cards were also built without a degree mesh, i.e., in the sense of mathematical justification, they inferior to Ptolemyev, but they significantly exceeded them in the nomenclature part.
Now we turn to the early Middle Ages in Europe, which is characterized as a whole decline in science. From the geographical essays of this time is usually mentioned "Christian geography" Kozma In-Dicoplov (VI century), where there is a policy of a country in Europe, India, Sri Lanka and Ethiopia. The book was quite widely known due to the fact that the softenness of the earth was strongly rejected in it.
The domination of the natural economy in medieval Europe has sharply narrowed the significance of geographical knowledge. Only thanks to the crusades 1096, 1147-1149 and 1180-1192. Europeans began to need geographical information, and also met the Arab culture.
Subsequently, significant geographical information was obtained as a result of the Embassy missions of the Catholic Church in Mongolian Khanate, the greatest flourishing of which falls on the XIII century. Among these embassies, the first of such ambassadors, the Franciscan monk of the Carpini Outline (1245-1247) and Flemish Gilome of Rubruz-ka (1252-1256), which were reached by different ways the capital of the Great Khan Karakorum, collected a significant ethnographic, historical , political and country ground. Of particular interest is the report of the head of its Embassy Mission. For the first time, he correctly outlined the outlines of the Caspian Sea, as some experts believe, also first established the main features of the relief of Central Asia, and the fact that China from the East is washed by the ocean. P. Karpini and Rubruk "gave Western Europe. The first truly reliable description of Central Asia and Mongolian peoples and thereby discovered a whole new area for research ... Already one of it gives their works greater value, and, moreover, they were pioneers in Tom movement, which was opened by Asia, although for a short time, for intercourse with Europe. "
An outstanding geographical phenomenon of the XIII century. You should call the book of the Venetian merchant Marco Polo (1254 - 1344) "On the diversity of the world" or, as it is usually called, "Marco Polo Book" 18. This merchant was a long journey to East Asia (1271-1295), he served for a long time at Khan Khubila in Beijing, which gave him the opportunity for a wide acquaintance with the life of the peoples of East Asia. In his book, besides enough truthful description of many visited places, Marco Polo mentions Japan and Isle of Madagascar. Thus, it significantly expanded the spatial horizon of Europeans, first widely and accessible to introduce them to the wealth of the East.
It is characteristic that in 1477 the first printed publication of this book was published in German, and it was one of the first printed books in Europe.
The literature of this kind refers and "Haming for the three seas" of the Tver merchant Afanasiya Nikitina, who traveled in 1466 -1475. In the South and Southwestern Asia, he lived in India for a long time. True, his book was open and published only in the XIX century., But as an indicator of the level of development and interests for geographic information, the work of A. Nikitina is deservedly mentioned in the history of geographic science. He "was the first European, who gave full truthful, of great value to the description of medieval India, which he outlined simply, realistic, delusito, without sticks. He convincingly proves that in the second half of the XV century, 30 years before the Portuguese" opening " India, the journey into this country from Europe could even make risks even lonely and poor, but energetic person, despite a number of exclusively unfavorable conditions. "
At the end of the period under consideration, geographic travel began to be made purposefully. In this regard, the activity of the Portuguese Prince Enrique (Heinrich), which is nimposed by the navigator (1394-1460), which was founded in 1415 in 1415 in the city of Segrish in the south of Portugal to the nautical school and the observatory. Captains Enriki Marithener Step by step opened the West Coast of Africa, and their geographical discoveries continued until, on the eve of the era of great geographical discoveries, in 1487 Bartolomeu Diash did not reach the Cape of Good Hope.
The characteristic genus of the geographical literature of the period under consideration is the so-called commercial geography. In 1333, the "practice of trade" of the Italian Pegoletti, which contained information about the quality and technology of manufacturing the most important goods, on weights and measures, monetary units of countries, description of duties and transport costs, as well as the caravan road from the Azov Sea to China. Starting from the XIII century, there is some similarity of the "quantitative" description of states (in the services of the governors and diplomatic agents of Italian cities-states). To a certain extent, they contained some of the origins of economic geography.
In the field of cartography, an important point should be considered the appearance of a compass, which caused the creation of so-called portalins - compass cards, where the degree mesh was replaced by crossed compass rumbes, for which ships courses were determined. After the advent of the art engraving on copper, these portalances became accessible to a wide range of stakeholders. Although they were missing the mathematical basis, the image of the coast objects was very complete and satisfied the unassicious needs of contemporaries.
Thus, a part is speculative, part of empirically and mathematically substantiated, the ancient natural philosophers and their Arab commentators laid the foundations of the main modern directions of the natural science branch of geography. However, their systems, closely related to history and the people, had a humanitarian character, and therefore in their works it is possible to find thoughts relating to the social science branch of geography.
Of course, other outstanding travels and geographical discoveries were made in the Middle Ages, but many of them did not affect the development of human civilization, the development of sciences and, in particular, geography. Among them, the most significant were Normanov's swimming in the VII-XI centuries, during which they were visited by the shores of the White Sea, Iceland, Greenland, a significant part of the eastern coast of North America were visited. Such travels, obviously, include the travel of Chinese officials to Central and Southeast Asia, the swimming of Polynesians in the Pacific Ocean, etc. The overall reason for the lowest fame of these outstanding achievements in the world is their economic prematurity. They had the meaning and language barriers, the lack of international declarations of scientific knowledge (for example, in Latin, as it took Europe).
The scientists of the period under consideration of the diversity of geography objects set out in some unity. The integrity of their thinking was manifested in the association of many parties to philosophy, history, mathematics, natural science, politicians, medicine, ethnography and primaries of other sciences. Geographical ideas, not excluding rare people who have come down to us in geography, deployed in the unity of these views, not to constitute something sharply specific - the geographical material was closed, and in many cases, and dissolved in other materials. "I believe that science is a geography that I now decided to do, as well as every other science, is included in the circle of classes of philosopher," wrote in I century. Our era Strabo (1964, p. 7). It could be said so: the geographical knowledge is one of the first forms of the reflection by the environment of the environment, and at the same time geographical objects (mountains, rivers, settlements, etc.) are easily perceived by human physiological receptors, and geographic information is needed to all - hunters , farmers, military, merchants, politicians. Therefore, it is not surprising that geography in the abstract-housing constructions of ancient scientists played an important role.
Topic 1. The main stages of the development of geography
Study of the content of the paragraph provides the opportunity
Ø supplement ideas about the origins of geographical knowledge;
Ø examine the stages and features of the development of geographical knowledge at each of the historical stages of the Company's development;
Initial stage In the history of the development of geographic science are the geographical knowledge of primitive peoples. The geographical knowledge was needed in everyday life, and the direction of knowledge was determined by the nature of the classes. They were associated with the need to search and determine the location of the best pastures, soils, land for hunting and fisheries, locations of settlements. Geographical knowledge was based on intuition, observation, knowledge of nature phenomena and the ability to see their relationships and patterns. Thanks to writing to our time, the geographical knowledge of the peoples of the ancient civilized countries (Egypt, Mesopotamia, Sumer, Babylon, China) have reached. ( Remember what studies were conducted in these countries.?).
Geography of ancient time. The geography of ancient time covers the VI century. BC E - IV in n. e, and it is distinguished by the ancient Greek (VI - I centuries. BC) and the ancient Roman (I-IV centuries. n. er) periods.
Antique scientists tried to create the theory about the origin and structure of the surrounding world, to portray the countries known to them in the form of drawings. The results of these seques were an idea of \u200b\u200bthe Earth as a ball, and then his scientific evidence; Creating cards and definition of geographic coordinates, introducing parallels and meridians, cartographic projections.
Summarizing the ideas about the land and the solar system, the Greeks created a knowledge system called music-numerical system of the universe. The name is due to the fact that the sequence of removal of the planets from the Sun and the distance between them was equal to the musical sound. Later appeared geocentric and heliocentric model of the Universe (remember from the course of history, what is this model of the universe?).
The main source of geographic information and geographical knowledge in the ancient Greeks were land and sea travel. The description of the marine travel Greeks was called "Periplam", and land "Periegas". Periegas performers were "logographs", which traveled on land and made a description of the whole of what was observed in nature, but special attention was paid to the customs and life of the population.
From scientists of this time, contributed to the development of geographic thought, phables, Aristotle, Eratosthene, Strabo and Ptolemy ( Recall from the course of history when these scientists lived?).
At the beginning of the new era, the geographical knowledge of Greek scientists was systematized by the ancient Greek scientist Strama. He argued that the surface of the Earth is changing all the time, and the distribution of sushi and the sea is the result of raising and lowering the seabed.
Antique geography ends with labor Claudia Ptolemy. It is known that Ptolemy is the author of the "Almagest" - a classic astronomical work, in which the center of the Universe was proclaimed. Ptolemy made a lot for the development of cartography. He calculated the coordinates of 8,000 geographic points. Created about 30 geographical maps of various territories of the earth's surface.
Thus, there is already an antique time inside geography, the future began to be born country studies (Stram), mathematical geography (Eratosthene, Ptolemy) and some other natural geographic sciences.
Geography of the Middle Ages (VI-XV centuries).In the period of the Middle Ages, under the strong influence of religion, many materialistic views of the ancient scientists were forgotten or rejected as antireligious. But despite the common stagnation in the development of science, culture, education inherent in Middle Ages, at this time there were some geographical discoveries. First of all, they were associated with the campaigns and discoveries of new lands with the scandinals and geographical discoveries of the scientists of Arab countries (scientists and travelers Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Biruni, Idrisi, Ibn Batuta). ( Remember from history when and where did these scientists live?).
Vikings opened, and then founded in the IX-XI centuries. The first settlements in Iceland, Greenland and North America.
Arabic scientists in the x in. Created the first climatic atlas of the world, highlighting the climatic zones on the planet 14 and establishing that the climate changes not only by latitudes, but also from the West to the East.
Arab medieval geographical literature is diverse. There are such works of medieval Arab scientists as the "book of paths and states", "wonders of countries" or "earth wicnings", as well as geographical sections in historical writings.
Throughout the Middle Ages, a relatively high level of science and culture persisted in Byzantium. This is explained by the fact that the Byzantine scientists managed to adopt and develop many traditions of antique geographers.
The era of great geographical discoveries.The most significant discoveries on land and the sea perfect in the XV-XVIII centuries are called Great geographic discoveries. The era of the great geographical discoveries - the flourishing of geography against the background of universal lifting (revival) of culture and science. The era of great geographical discoveries was marked by ambitious achievements, both in the field of territorial discoveries and in the field of scientific theories and methods of research.
The search for new lands and paths was carried out with state-wide. The larger importance acquired the fixation of acquired knowledge, mapping and summarizing the information received ( What role in the opening of new lands in this historical period was played by F. Magellan, H. Columbus).
When opening new lands, there was a need for their cartographic image and description. This led to the formation scientific cartography. Flemish cartographer Gerhard Mercator(1512-1594) created the first cylindrical equanal projection of the world map, which is used and in our days and carries the name of the Mercator. He also developed a method of use isotherm for compiling climatic maps and method of plasterometric curves To characterize the relief, the collection of cards and descriptions of European countries, which, with the publication in 1595, was called "Atlas".
Questions and tasks:
1. What are the main differences between the geography of antiquity and the geography of the Middle Ages?
2. What do you think, why in Arab countries geography in the Middle Ages develops especially violently?
3. What advances in other areas of knowledge contributed to the development of geography?
4. * What are the needs of the Company satisfied geography in the era of great geographical discoveries?
In the Middle Ages, a more progressive feudal system came to replace the slave-owner. But at the beginning of the Middle Ages, the productive forces were underdeveloped, and a significant influence on science was religion. At this time, the materialistic views of the ancient scientists were forgotten, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe shag of the earth is rejected. Mospace Indicoples (VI century), the author of the "Christian topography of the Universe" claims that the Earth has the form of the tabernacle, that is, it is a quadrangle, resembling a box, which is surrounded by the ocean. The Ocean is invaded by the Roman (Mediterranean Sea), Arabian, Persian, Caspian bays. Other geographical views of this merchant, and then the monk is the same ridiculous. These and similar judgments were closely related to Christian concepts. They reflected on the cards of the time, in the center of which was Jerusalem, to the east of him - Paradise, etc. However, religion also had a positive effect on the development of science: the chronicles were conducted in the monasters, descriptions were created, books were collected and published. The main feature of the feudal period is insulation, disunity of people.
The main achievements of geography in the period from V to the XV century. Apply to territorial discoveries. There was no movement forward of the theoretical thought, moreover, in many ways, a step was made compared with the geography of ancient time. Nazad. From territorial discoveries we will focus on the travels of Normanov, Arabs, Marco Polo, as well as on the development of Russian areas of the North.
Normans are called the inhabitants of Scandinavia. They dwell near the coast and were skilled navigators, making raids in England, Holland, France, reached even to Constantinople and North America. The North France captured by them received the existing name "Normandy". The time when Normans lived, sometimes referred to as the "Epoch of Vikings". According to one of the interpretations, the word "Viking" means "man from the bay." Indeed, in Scandinavia there are many long winding bays - fjords.
Starting from the VIII century. Normans made raids on Orkney, Faroesk, Shetland Islands, located near Britain. In 867, Norman Naddot opened Iceland, however, it received such a name later (Iceland - Ice Country), and the colonists founded the village of Reykjavik (now the capital of this country). In 985, Norman Eric Redhead opened Greenland ("Green Country"), and after some time a colony was arose in the southern shore. Further floors of Normannes (Baryni and Leife happy) to the West led to the opening of North America. It happened between 987-1000. Exact indications of what North America visited North America, no. Whether they visited Labrador, or in Newfoundland, or in other locations, can not say historians with geography. With greater confidence, they talk about the territory named by Normands. Apparently, this area is located south of New York. Doubts of historians of geography are explained by the fact that Normans, giving their names with open areas, did not indicate their accurate geographical position. But the fact of the opening of North America's opening of North America long before Columbus disputes does not cause.
At first glance, it strikes the ease with which the Vikings reached the very remote and at the time of the hard to reach territories, overcoming large spaces of the Northern Atlantic. Do not detracting the courage and resourcefulness of Normanov, their arts to build strong, well-holding on the waves of the court, still it should be noted that they could hardly achieve such success if they had not contributed natural conditions. X - XII centuries. - This is the time of the climatic optimum of the historical period, i.e. the climate was then softer than now, and the architectivity of the seas is less. If not these natural conditions, the Vikings could hardly be swimming in the 65th parallel area. Recall that Greenland, they: called the "green country", it is known that the colonists were engaged in cattle breeding, i.e. there were pastures here. Only subsequently, these locals were covered with ice. In Icelandic sagas. (legends) ice as sampling obstacles are not mentioned. Approximately 1200 whale hunters and seals floated to the shores of Svalbard and New Earth.
Thus, in the era of Vikings in the Arctic there were less than perennial ice than now. This is confirmed by the finds; On Spitsbergen among the deposits of the glacier of the tundra plants belonging to this period. The warmer climate of the X - XII centuries. influenced the landscapes and human activity, especially in the northern regions.
Subsequently, the opening of Normans were forgotten, and they did not provide scientific influence. But the Vikings grew up new ways, which were used in the future in both military and trading purposes, such as the famous path of "Varyag in Greeks".
In the period of the Middle Ages, a prominent role in geographical; Science played Arab scientists. Starting with the VII century. The Arabs who lived in the Arabian Peninsula were intensively expanded their possessions and created a powerful state (calipheat), whose cultural centers were Baghdad in the East and Cordoba (in Spain) in the West. Attaching Syria and other countries to their possessions, they became acquainted with the writings of ancient scientists, preserved by Constantinople bishop; Nester and his followers.
The geographical horizon of Arabs was wide: they traded with many Mediterranean, oriental (including: China), African countries. Arab travelers wandered over the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, India, Central and Central Asia, Indonesia, etc. With the works of Arab geographers and travelers, you can get acquainted on the works of the famous Soviet Oriental Arabista, Acad. I. Yu. Krachkovsky.
One of the first geographers of this period was Ibn Hordadbeh (approx. 820 / 826-912 / 913). On the basis of archival data and reports of officials, he compiled a "book of paths and states", which contains information about Baghdad Calipheat, describes trading routes to India, Egypt and other countries.
A major scientist-encyclopedist of the Middle Ages is Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037), most of the life lived in Bukhara and Gurgandzh (current Urgench) and only in the end moved to Persia. The range of his interests was extremely wide and covered by philosophy, natural science, medicine, geology, etc. In the "Healing Book" along with other issues, he writes about the origin of the animal world, the formation of mountains, the life of plants, etc. The classification of the mineral bodies proposed by scientists included Stones, fusible bodies (metals,) sulfur (combustible) substances, salts. She was recognized as scientists until the middle of the XVIII century.
A great contribution to the development of mathematics, astronomy, botany, geology, ethnography and other sciences was made a wonderful, Central Asian scientist-encyclopedist of Biruni (973 - 1048). He traveled a lot on Iranian Highlands, Central and Central Asia, India. Biruni is the author of the famous labor "Canon Masuda", in which he described the trigonometric method of measuring geographic longitude, in principle, with a modern geodesic method, spoke about Nepal, Tibet, paths from Fergana to East Turkestan. Among medieval scientists, Biruni was the first to express; The idea of \u200b\u200bthe possibility of rotating the Earth around the Sun, measured the circumference of the Earth. Interesting considerations of a scientist about changes in the direction of the Amudarya River in the geological past. His Peru also owns the "Book of Reports for the Knowledge of Jewels", in which he placed information more than 50 minerals, ores, metals.
Famous geographer XII century. Idrisi (1100 -1161/1165) traveled through North Africa, Spain, Portugal, France, Malaya Asia. According to his impressions and in many literary sources, he wrote an essay of the "entertainment of the agony of travels by regions", which contains: information about Arab countries, as well as about Italy, France, Germany. Idrisi amounted to two cards: round and quadrangular. There are no degree mesh on the maps, and they do not differ great accuracy. But they testify to the wide range of the author: Eastern Europe is shown on them until p. Pechora. Idrisi knew Oz. Baikal, r. Amur, Tibet. He divided the land into seven climates, and each of them is 10 parts.
The best representatives of the Arab Science (Biruni, Ibn Sina, Idrisi, etc.) in their works were based on the shag-formation of the Earth, and the maps were based using the principles of an ancient scientist Ptolemy and its cartographic projections - conical and stereographic. Without making anything fundamentally new to the theory of geography, they retained for the descendants of the idea of \u200b\u200ban ancient world. Arabic scientists made a greater contribution: to country studies.
The Middle Ages (V-XV centuries) in Europe is characterized by a common decline in the development of science. The feudal closure and religious worldview of the Middle Ages did not contribute to the development of interest in the study of nature. The teachings of ancient scientists were eradicated by the Christian church as "pagan." However, the spatial geographical horizon of Europeans in the Middle Ages began to expand rapidly, which led to significant territorial discoveries in different parts of the globe.
Norman("Northern people") first floated from South Scandinavia to the Baltic and Black Sea ("Way of Varyag in Greeks"), then to the Mediterranean Sea. About 867, they colonized Iceland, in 982, headed by Lev Erickson, opened the east coast of North America, penetrating to the south to 45-40 ° C.
Arabs, moving towards the West, in 711, penetrated the Pyrenean Peninsula, in the south - to the Indian Ocean, right up to Madagascar (IX century), in the East - to China, from the south bypassed around Asia.
Only from the middle of the XIII century. The spatial horizon of Europeans began to expand noticeably (travel Carpini plan,Guillaum Rubrukka, Marco Poloand others).
Marco Polo(1254-1324), Italian merchant and traveler. In 1271-1295 Making a trip through Central Asia to China, where he lived for about 17 years. Being in the service of Mongolian Khan, visited different parts of China and the border areas with him. The first of Europeans described China, the countries of the front and Central Asia in the "Book of Marco Polo". It is characteristic that contemporaries reacted to her content with distrust, only in the second half of the XIV and in the XV century. She began to appreciate, and up to the XVI century. She served as one of the main sources to compile Asia map.
A series of similar travel should be attributed to the journey of the Russian merchant Athanasius Nikitin. With trading goals, he went in 1466 from Tathers along the Volga to Derbent, crossed the Caspian and through Persia reached India. On the way back, in three years, he returned through Persia and the Black Sea. Notes made by Afanasius Nikitin while traveling is known as "Hoggling for the Three Sea". They contain information about population, household, religion, customs and nature of India.
§ 3. Great geographical discoveries
The revival of geography begins in the XV century, when the Italian humanists began to translate the works of ancient geographers. Feudal relations were crowded with more progressive - capitalist. In Western Europe, this shift occurred earlier in Russia - later. Changes reflected the increase in production, which required new sources of raw materials and markets. They presented new conditions to science, contributed to the overall lifting of the intellectual life of human society. Geography also acquired new features. Travel enriched science with facts. They followed generalizations. Such a sequence, although not marked absolutely, is also characteristic of Western European, and for Russian science.
The era of the great discoveries of Western navigators.At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries in three decades, outstanding geographical events occurred: Genoese Swimming H. Columbusto the Bahamas, in Cuba, Haiti, to the mouth of the Orinoco river and on the coast of Central America (1492-1504); Portuguese Vasco da Gamaaround South Africa in Industan - Kallikut (1497-1498), F. Magellanand his satellites (Juan Sebastian Elkano, Antonio Pigafetta, etc.) around South America in the Pacific Ocean and around South Africa (1519-1521) - the first round-the-world swimming.
Three main paths of searching - Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Magellan - had, ultimately, one goal: to achieve by the sea through the richest space of the world - South Asia with India and Indonesia and other areas of this extensive space. Three different ways: right to the west, around South America and around South Africa - the navigators bypassed the state of Turk-Ommans, which blocked the Europeans to the Europeans to South Asia. It is characteristic that the variants of the indicated world routes of world swimming were repeatedly used by Russian navigators.
The era of the great Russian discoveries. The flourishing of Russian geographical discoveries falls at the XVI-XVII centuries. However, Russians and much earlier were collected by geographical information themselves through Western neighbors. Geographical data (from 852) contains the first Russian chronicle - "Tale of Bygone Years" Nestor. Russian states, developing, looking for new natural sources of wealth and markets of goods. In particular, Richar Novgorod. In the XII century Novgorod residents reached the White Sea. We began to swim to the West in Scandinavia, north - on Grummeta (Svalbard) and especially to the northeast - to the pelvis, where the Russians founded the trading city by Mangazei (1601-1652). Several earlier began to move to the east of the land, through Siberia ( Ermak, 1581-1584).
The rapid movement in the depths of Siberia and to the Pacific Ocean is the heroic feat of Russian landlords. Slightly more than half-power required them in order to cross the space from Ob to Bering Strait. In 1632, the Yakutsky Ostrog was founded. In 1639 Ivan Moskvitinreaching the Pacific Ocean at Okhotsk. Vasily Poyarkovin 1643-1646 He passed from Lena to Yana and Indigirki, the first of the Russian Cossacks-Zemlekhodets made swimming in the Amur Liman and the Sakhalin Bay of the Okhotsk Sea. In 1647-48. Erofey Khabarovamur passes to Sungari. Finally, in 1648 Semen Dezhe. inhe envelopes from the sea of \u200b\u200bthe Chukotka Peninsula, opens a cape who nowadas his name, and proves that Asia from North America is separated by the Strait.
Gradually, elements of generalization are gaining great importance in Russian geography. In 1675, the Russian ambassador formed by Greek Spaphyry(1675-1678) indicating "to portray all the land, cities and the path to the drawing." Drawings, i.e. Maps were in Russia documents of state importance.
Russian early cartography is known next four of its works.
Big drawing of the Russian state. Compiled in one copy in 1552. Sources for him were "Pisch books". Before us, the big drawing did not reach, although it was resumed in 1627. Geographer Petrovsky time was written about reality V.N. Tatishchev.
Book of big drawing- Text to the drawing. One of the late lists of the book was published by N.Novikov in 1773
Drawing of the Siberian Earthcompiled in 1667 to us reached the copy. The drawing accompanies the "manuscript against the drawing".
Drawing book Siberiacompiled in 1701 by order of Peter I in Tobolsk, S.Oreizov, with sons. it first Russian Geographical Atlasof 23 cards with drawings of individual areas and settlements.
So in Russia The method of generalizations has become before the entire cartographic.
In the first half of the XVIII century. Extensive geographical descriptions continued, but with an increase in the value of geographical generalizations. It is enough to list the main geographical events in order to understand the role of this period in the development of domestic geography. First, the extensive long-term study of the Russian coast of the Ice Ocean by the detachments of the Great Northern Expedition 1733-1743. And expeditions Vitus Bering.and Alexey ChirikovaWhich during the first and second Kamchatka expeditions opened the seaway from Kamchatka to North America (1741) and described part of the north-west coast of this mainland and some of the Aleutian islands. Secondly, in 1724, the Russian Academy of Sciences was established with the Geographical Department in its composition (from 1739). This institution was headed by the continuers of Peter I, the first Russian scientists geographers V.N. Tatishchev(1686-1750) and M.V. Lomonosov(1711-1765). They became the organizers of detailed geographical studies of the territory of Russia and themselves made a significant contribution to the development of theoretical geography, brought up pleany of remarkable geographers of researchers. In 1742, M.V. Lomonosov is written the first domestic essay with theoretical geographical content - "On the layers of the earth". In 1755, two Russians are published classic country monographs: "Description of the land of Kamchatka" S.P. Krashennikovaand "Orenburg Topography" P.I. Rychkov.Lomonosov started in domestic geography - time of reflection and generalizations.
On the rooks, in the saddle and walk
A number of scientists are inclined to be considered the beginning of the early Western European Middle Ages III century. n. e. You can agree with R. Hennigom that the end of ancient geography should be given the end of the II century. n. e. He writes: "It was in the second century that the Roman Empire reached the apogee of his power and territorial expansion ... The geographical horizontal of people of this era reached the latitude remaining unsurpassed until the XV century, if we exclude the study of the northern countries ... when the limits of the famous ancient world, the Great Genius Ptolemy 1 combined into a single whole set of geographical knowledge and filed them in a brilliant framework of broad generalizations ... For centuries, expired between the activities of Ptolemy and Columbus (i.e., from the III of the XV century. - A. D.), in the overwhelming majority of cases Research expeditions only led to re-conquest for geographic science of those countries that have already been known and often visited in antiquity "(Hennig, 1961. T. II. P. 21).
However, it is impossible to fully agree with the last statement of a scientist, since during the Middle Ages, Western Europeans had the opportunity to get acquainted not only with the northern regions of Europe and the districts of Northern Atlantic, unknown to the ancient peoples of Greece and Rome, but also with unknown extensive spaces of Europe, with its northern outskirts, with In the areas of Central and East Asia, with the Western banks of Africa, which ancient geographers almost had no idea or had troubled and half-legendary information. The Middle Ages, in particular Western European, contributed to the expansion of the spatial outlook due to numerous land hikes and marine floors.
The Touris Wheast Card 1080 can serve as an example of cards (drawings), performed in monasteries as illustrations of biblical essays. It is stored in the library of the city of Turin. It shows the continents of Africa, Europe and Asia, separated from each other by the Mediterranean Sea and Rivers Nile and Tanais (Don), which are located in the form of a large letter of the Latin alphabet. The outer circle in which the letter T is inscribed, corresponds to the ocean surrounding the whole land. Such a scheme for the location of the continents, as researchers suggest, was first offered by the Spanish encyclopedist, the bishop of the city of Seville Isidore, the author of the etymology famous in the Middle Ages. The map is focused on the east: Asia is placed in the upper half, in the lower left part of the map - Europe, in the right-Lower - Africa. Such a location was based on the religious representation of Christians: East, that is, Asia, where the "Holy Places" of Palestine and the "Merrian Coffin", as it were crossed by the map. In the upper part of the card figurine, Adam and Eve symbolized the biblical paradise; In the center of the map - the city of Jerusalem. On the Turin map, as well as on an oval map, compiled about 776 by Monkher Beat, is still the fourth, South Mainland (south of Africa), inhabited by antipodes, - undoubted echoes of ancient ideas.
If in the ancient time, the main factors that contributed to the expansion of the spatial outlook and led to the territorial geographical discoveries were military campaigns (Alexander Macedonsky in the IV century. BC er in the front and Central Asia and India, Roman legionnaires through Sahara and Nubia, Military expeditions of Julia Caesar in Gallia and Britain in the I century. BC. E. et al.), as well as trade relations between the Greco-Roman world and other peoples (swimming of Hippal in India and "Opening" by them periodically changing their direction of winds - monsoon, swimming in the Greek and Egyptian sailors to the shores of Indochina, which was reflected on the Ptolemy map, or the journey of Pyfheus from Massia to the North Atlantic, etc.), then in the Epoch of the Early Middle Ages, it begins to acquire a certain meaning of another factor, namely the distribution of Christian missionaries His teaching among the pagan peoples of Europe, Northeast Africa, the front, South and East Asia.
Of course, this factor could not be such a decisive as K. Ritter represented him, noting that the "History of Dissemination of Christianity" in medieval Europe "there is at the same time and the history of discoveries and success in the field of geography" (1864. P. 117 ). To some extent, he emitted A. Hettner, who wrote that "... The spatial expansion of geographical knowledge approximately coincides with the spread of Christianity" (1930. P. 36). Moreover, the ghettner argued that the spiritual persons were in that epoch the only carriers of science. However, at the same time, he noted that the main factor in the spread of Roman Christianity was that from the Mediterranean region, it spread to the north, covering all Western Europe, while North Africa was inaccessible for him in connection with the spread of Islam Arabs in VII in . A. Hettner draws attention to the fact that numerous pilgrimages in Rome and Palestine contributed to the spread of geographical knowledge in Western European countries. Several descriptions of this kind of travel preserved to our time. Ch. R. Bizli (1979) also believes that medieval pilgrims own a large role as the discoverers, especially since Karl the Great to the Crusades.
Apparently, the dissemination factor of Christianity should not be underestimated, as the pilgrimage to the largest religious centers of the Christian world played a big role in the history of medieval trade, since the pilgrims themselves often performed the functions of small merchants, and their routes served as the basis for the folding network of trade routes.
A completely definite role in expanding the spatial horizons of Western Europeans in the southeastern direction was played by pilgrimage in Palestine, to the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea to visit the "Holy Sepulcher" and other "holy places", which are told in the Bible. According to Bizley, these pilgrimages began with the time of Emperor Constantine
"Total Light map" Roman geographer Pomponia Chala (43).
(Made in 324-330. New Capital of the Roman Empire Constantinople). His mother Elena his visit to Palestine, the construction of the Christian Church in Bethlehem and "Finding" in Jerusalem Relics (the rest of the cross, at which Christ was crucified) contributed to the fact that the pilgrimage began to be considered a dominant fashion.
A. Gethtner showed that Greek, or Byzantine, East in the Epoch of the Early Middle Ages, was a completely different cultural area, which made up from the Western Roman Empire after separation in 395. The once unified Roman Empire into two independent states. In Byzantium, they spoke on another (Greek) language than in the countries of Western Europe, they also adhered to other religions - the Orthodox, and not a Catholic, characteristic Western Roman Empire; Here, in Byzantium, there was a different geographical horizon, since a lively trade was maintained with Malaya Asia.
In 569-571. Byzantine Ambassador Zimah made a trip to the Turks to Altai. Description of this journey, during which the Aral Sea was opened as an independent pool, reached us in the historical essay of Menander Peticto-RA (who lived in the second half of the VI century) "On the reign of Emperor Justinian." Also in the VI century. Putting in India Konstantin Antioch (took the name of Indicoplov's Moskoplov) in India). Being a merchant and engaged in trade, Konstantin floated in three seas: Romainy (Mediterranean), Arabian (Red) and Persian (Persian Gulf). In the Eritrea Sea, as was customary to call the Indian Ocean, Konstantin got into a cruel storm. Whether he owed to Industan, it is unknown, but on the island of Tapanan (Ceylon, Sovr. Sri Lanka), which is described in the XI book (chapter) of his writings, he undoubtedly visited. In 522-525 Konstantin visited Ethiopia and the Somalia Peninsula (where the "Ploton Land" was located). Perhaps he visited the origins of the Blue Nile, originating from Lake Tana on Ethiopian Highlands. He was known to the Sinai Peninsula. The researchers believe that he was torn to the monks on Sinai, where he graduated from his life path and friend of mine. Becoming a monk, Kosma wrote "Christian Topography" (approx. 547-550), which, on the one hand, reports important information on distant countries, and on the other hand draws a completely fantastic picture of the world, which caused the criticism of Armenian scientists VII in. and Patriarch Konstantinople Fotoia. It is known that Mosnim was familiar with Persian Mar Ava, who learned the Syrian and ancient Greek culture. From him he borrowed his cosm documenants of Christians of Nestorian's sense.
"Christian topography", widespread in Byzantium and known in Armenia, has long remained unfamiliar Western European leaders. In any case, the name of the Junk of Indicoplov is found only in the parchment list of the VI century, stored in Florence in the Lavrentin library. The authors of the early Western European Middle Ages are not mentioned.
If you do not count the already named travels in the eastern direction - the showers of Indicoplov to India and Eastern Africa and the Embassy of Zimarka on Altai through Central Asia, - then the most early journey to East from Byzantium was a land travel of two Christian monks about 500 g. To the country "Serond" sent by Emperor Justinian for the Grenks of Slkovic Worms. The story about this is contained in the composition of the historian Prokodiya from Caesarea "War with Gotami". This journey was very important from an economic point of view, since before that time in Europe did not engage in silverhood and were forced to buy Chinese silk for a big price (through Persians or Ethiopians). True, it still remains unknown, where there was exactly the country called by Prokopiya "Serinda", since in the literature of that time nowhere is no more geographical name. Some researchers localize it with China or Indochite, but others, in particular R. Hennig (1961), convincingly show that the monks sent by the emperor did not visit China, but in Sogdian, i.e. in the region lying between the rivers Amudarya and Syrdarya , with the capital in Samarkand, where, as reported by some historical sources, in the VI century. They grown silkworms and produced silk. The monks secretly carried the grains of silkworms in their streams in Byzantium and thus created the possibility for the production of silk here.
In 636, a journey to China Christian Missionary Olopenna (Alopena). This is evidenced by the stone stele with the text in Chinese and Syrian languages, established in one of the Chinese cities around 780. This journey in time coincides with the spread of Christianity of the Nestorian sense in China, which is listed in this country in the VII century. Nestorian monks. There it flourished about 200 years, during which churches were built in many cities. According to scientists, the establishment of stone stele speaks of quite close connections between the East and the West Okumen of the time.
It should be said that Christianity in Western Europe spread quite quickly. Already by 380 g. A significant part of the extensive Roman Empire (before its separation on Eastern and Western) was considered Christian. After the Edict of Emperor Konstantin from 313. Christianity was recognized in the empire of the official religion, this religion began to spread among others, not Roman peoples.
So, in 330, Iberians were addressed to Christianity - residents of Western Transcaucasia, and soon the first Christian church was built on the southern slope of the Caucasian Range. In 354, Monk Feofil distributed Christianity in South Arabia. In Aden, Jafare and Oman, Roman merchants held sales agents, many of whom were Christians. Several earlier, in 340, the missionaries of Frumentes and Epezi preached their religion in the Aksum kingdom - an ancient state in modern Ethiopia. Their compositions (not reached us) served as the basis for the chapter on the plantation of Christianity in Northeast Africa, which entered the "history of the church" Rufin Turansky. This essay supplemented the work of the Bishop of Eusevia from Caesarea, written in IV century.
From the beginning of the IV century. The spread of Christianity in Armenia began. In 301, the baptism of Tsar Trudat (Tiridata) of the III and his courtyard was baptized in Bhagavane, together with the troops, made by the Presbyter Gregory by the Educator.
After 100-150 years after that, the Christian religion was spread from Gaul throughout Western Europe and penetrated the British Islands. About 450, the Irish bishop became a resident of Britain Patrick, in whose letters it is possible, possibly the first geographical description of the island of Ireland. It is called some mountain arrays (for example, antrim), lakes (Lokhni et al.), Rivers (Shannon, etc.). True, some modern researchers, the authenticity of Patrick's letters is disputed. So, there is an opinion that even before Patrick Ireland was already a Christian country, and Patrick himself was sent there to eradicate Yersi Pelagia 2 and his activity on the island was limited to the Wicklow District (in the east of the island). The legend of Patrick, as the "apostle of all Ireland," was created by the Roman Catholic Church only in the VII century, in order to have an alien eragy of the "patron of the country" (Magidovichi, 1970).
Apparently, around 670. To the north of the British Islands, the Farrera Islands were opened by the Irish Herrish Herringe Christians, where only wild sheep lived. This was for the first time in 825. The Irish Monk Monk Dicul, the author of the Treaty of Treaty "On Measuring Earth" - the first geography guide written in the Empire of Charles Great.
In addition, VII century. It applies very popular, which has triggered the legendary details of the Tale of Swimming on the Atlantic Ocean of the Monk Brandan, which has been preserved in Irish epic legends. In the literary work "Swimming of St. Brandan", which belongs to the X century, refers to the discoveries of this navigator of the shores of Greenland and Jan-Mayen Island in North Atlantic. I. P. and V. M. Magidovichi (1982) tend to consider Brandan face historical, to the activities of which can be attributed to the discoveries of these geographical objects, but R. Ramsey (1977) refers to the legend negatively, despite the fact that on the famous Herreford map The world created in 1260 by the monk Richard Haldingham, even the routes of Swimming of Brandan 3 are shown.
The most famous Western European travelers of the end of the VII century. There were Franksky or Gallic bishop Arkulf and Irish priest Willibald. The first one of them visited Palestine shortly after the conquest of Muslims by Muslims. Around 690, he visited Jerusalem, was in the Valley of the Jordan River (in the waters of this river, according to the biblical legend, Jesus Christ was baptized), visited the city of Nazareth and other "holy places". Then he visited Egypt, where the city of Alexandria had an impression on him with their dimensions of a huge Lighthouse (still considered one of the "seven miracles of the world"). Arkulfa struck the nature of Egypt. This country, according to him, "without rains is very fertile." Arkulf climbed up the Nile "to the city of Elephants" (as he called the ancient Elefantine - now Aswan), followed by the thresholds "in the wild crash fell from the rock" River (Bizli, 1979. P. 39).
On the way back, when pilgrims were floating past Sicily, he was struck by the "Volcano Island" (in the group of Lepar Islands), "the flame erupting and night with noise, like thunder." Arkulf adds that, according to those who already visited here, this volcano produces a particularly strong noise on Fridays and Saturdays.
Willibald went from Ireland to the road in 721. In the description of the trip, he reports that when he sailed from Naples to Sicily, then I saw a volcano, which, with an eruption, if the holy agate was brought to him, "immediately subsides" (bizli, from 42) . Further, floating past the islands of Samos and Cyprus, he reached the "Country of Saracin", where the entire group of pilgrims went to prison on suspicion of espionage, from where, however, everyone was freed by any Spaniard to the intercession. Then Willibalda manages to visit Damascus, where he gets a pass to attend the "holy places" of Palestine. He walked on the "holy places" of Jerusalem, visited the sources of the Ior and Dan rivers, saw the "glorious Church of Elena" in Bethlehem, but he was particularly touched at the sight of columns in the Ascension Church on the oilseed mountain. These columns, according to legend, have a property of clearing a person from all sins if it can be sprinkled between them and the wall. On the way back, sailing among the Lippelish islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, Willibald, like Arkulf, saw an eruption of a volcano that emitted Pekme to the island's bank and to the sea. According to him, Tyrah theodorih was located in Zherle Volcano, who was doomed to eternal flour for his "Northern Arianism". Willibald wanted to see all this very, but he could not climb the steep slopes of the mountain.
So in the works of pilgrims, along with the description of the actually visible objects, fantastic information was reported and legendary explanations of natural phenomena were given.
As Bizli emphasizes (1979), the ratio of Catholicism of the time (VIII century) to the countries of the famous world contributed to the fact that the Willibald report was made public with the sanction of Pope Gregory III along with the report of Arkulf and gained recognition, becoming a good commentary to the old Bordeaux Itinear. compiled 400 years before.
Geographical information necessary for pilgrims and set forth in two main "guidebooks", compiled by Arkulf and Willibald, were confirmed and complemented by Fiotelian monks (who visited Egypt around 750) and Bernard Wise, who passed through all the "holy places" of Palestine around 867.
True, this information was rather historical-geographically, rather than purely geographical. So, Fidelia admire the "Hitters of Joseph" (so at that time, Christians were usually called the Egyptian pyramids that melted them with their sizes). According to the biblical legend, Joseph is a wonderful who served from the Egyptian pharaoh has accumulated overwhelming grain reserves for seven years, which kept in special residents. At the occurrence of hungry years, he began selling bread to the Egyptians and residents of other countries. (This legend was distributed in the Muslim world.) Fidelia describes in detail its swimming in the freshwater channel of the Nehhhho (who connected in ancient times, one of the Nile ducts with the Red Sea), where Moses, according to the Bible, moved with the Israelis to the sea, and then very briefly I report on swimming around the Sinai Peninsula to the Etion Gebere Pier (in the bay of Aqaba).
Bernard Wise, a monk from the French Peninsula Brittany, describing the sights of Jerusalem, did not forget to tell about the bodies that existed at the time at the time for pilgrims built by order of King Frank Karl the Great.
Finally, around 850. One of the pilgrims (his name remained unknown) also wrote a treatise called "On the houses of God in Jerusalem." This essay along with the "guidebooks" of Fidelia and Bernard wise was one of the last geographical monuments of this kind, which, according to Bizli (1979), were preceded by the Norman epoch.
Notes:
1 This refers to the Alexandrian geographer and astronomer of Claudius Ptolemy, who created a map of the world famous at the time and who compiled a description of the "Geographical Guide" in the work (abbreviated often called simply "geography").
2 About Pelagia (the author of the exercise on freedom of will as a source of virtuous and malicious actions, which was convicted as heresy at the Ephesian Cathedral in 430), see: Donini, 1979.
3 cm. REC. Kogan M. A. on KN. Ramseye R. "Opening, which has never been" (1978).
4 See: Majorov, 1978. Ch. 4, 5; Sokolov, 1979.
5 In the Old Russian literature, another Honoria writing was common in the manuscripts (Lut. "Elacidarium" - an enlightener), in which cosmographic and geographical views set out. (See: Rayakov, 1937.)
6 For Catchihodore, see: Glenchev-Kutuzov I. N. Medieval Latin Latin Literature. M., 1972.
7 See: "From the editors" in the book. Kiselevale L. I. "What a medieval manuscript is told" (1978).
Source: Biofile.ru.