Interaction - these are the actions of individuals aimed at each other.Such an action can be considered as a set of methods used by a person to achieve certain purposes - solving practical tasks or valuables.

There are two main levels of research of social interaction: micro level and macro level.

The interaction of people with each other, in pairs, in small groups or interpersonal interaction is studied by micro level.

The macro level of social interactions includes major public structures, the main institutions of society: religion, family, economy.

Social life occurs and develops due to the presence of dependencies between people, which creates prerequisites for the interaction of people with each other. People come into cooperation, as they depend on each other.Social communications- This is the dependence of people implemented through social action carried out with the orientation on other people, with the expectation of the appropriate response of the partner. In social relationship, you can allocate:

subjects of communication(two people or thousands of people);

communication(about which communication is carried out);

relationship control mechanism.

The termination of communication can occur when the subject or loss of the subject of communication, or in disagreement of the participants in communication with the principles of its regulation. Social relationship can perform in the form social contact(the relationship between people is superficial, fleeting, partner in contact can be easily replaced by another person) and in the form interaction(Systematic, regular actions of partners aimed at each other, having a goal to cause a well-defined response from a partner, and the response reactor generates a new reaction to affecting).

Social relations- This is a steady interaction system between partners, having a self-prompt character.

Situation of contacttwo and more people can take various forms: 1) Simple concerns; 2) information sharing; 3) joint activities; 4) equal mutual or asymmetric activity, and activity can be of different types: social influence, cooperation, rivalry, manipulation, conflict anddr.

Interpersonal relationships and interactions

People have the strongest need for accession: enter other peopleat long tough Relationships guaranteedpositive experiences and results.

This need, being due to biologically social causes, promotes human survival: atour ancestors were associated with a circular lie, providing group survival (both on the hunt, and with the construction of the housing ten hands are better than one);

The social connectedness of children and their raising adults mutually increases their viability;

Finding a relative soul - a man who supports us and which we can trust, we feel happy, protected, life-in-law;

Having lost a relative soul, adults feel jealousy, loneliness, despair, pain, anger, closure athimself, deprivation.

A person is indeed a public, social being living in conditions of interaction and communication with people.

You can allocate a variety of forms of interpersonal interaction: affection, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, operation, game, social impact, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc.

Various forms of interaction of people are characterized by specific positions.

Ritual interaction- One of the common forms of interaction, which is built according to certain rules, symbolically expressing real social relations and the statue of a person in a group and society. Victor Tarner, considering rituals and rituals, understands them as prescribed formal behavior as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association". Ritual actions

important for the implementation of continuity between different generations in a particular organization, to maintain traditions and transfer of accumulated experience through symbols. Ritual interaction is a peculiar holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful means of maintaining stability, strength, continuity of social relations, the mechanism of cohesion of people, increasing their solidarity. Rituals, rites, customs are able to capture on the subconscious level of people, providing deep penetration of certain values \u200b\u200bin group and individual consciousness, in generic and personal memory.

Human cryanky has developed a huge number of diverse rituals throughout its history: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic raws, military rituals, secular rites, including holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous behaviors: reception, welcome acquaintances, appeal to unfamiliar, etc.

Competition- the form of social interaction under which there is a clearly defined goal, which should be achieved, all actions of various people are related to each other, taking into account this purpose in such a way that they do not conflict; At the same time, the person himself does not enter into conflict with himself, adhering to the installation of another team player, but nevertheless, a person is inherent in the desire to achieve better results than other team members.

Care - rather ordinary and natural forminteraction, but still more often people resort to people with interpersonal problems. If a person does not have other forms of interaction, except for care, then it is already pathology-psychosis.

The following type of approved fixed interactions - pastimeproviding at least minimum pleasant sensations, signs of attention, "stroking" between interacting people.

"Friendship is the strongest antidote from all the misfortunes," said Seneca.

Factors that contribute to the formation of an attraction (attachment, sympathy) :

Frequency of mutual social contacts, proximity, geographical neighborhood

Physical attractiveness

The phenomenon of "Roven" (people tend to choose their friends and especially marry with those who are me even not only in the intellectual level, but also by the level of attractiveness).

Fromm wrote: "" Often love is nothing more than a limit exchange between two people, in which the transaction participants receive a maximum of what they can count on, taking into account their value on the personal market. "

In pairs where attractiveness was different, usually less attractive has compensating quality. "" Men usually offer status and seek attractiveness, and women are more likely to make the opposite "

- the more attractive person, the most likely attributing to him positive personal qualities (this is a stereotype of physical attractiveness: what is beautiful, it is good; people unconsciously believe that, with other things being equal, more beautiful are happily, sexy, sociable, smart and lucky, although not more honest or caring towards other people. More attractive people have more prestigious work, more earn more);

A negative attraction can influence the "contrast effect" - for example, men who have just looked at the journal beauties, ordinary women, atincluding your own wives

- "Effective effect" - when we find some kind of features similar to our, it makes a person more attractive for us; The more two people love each other, the more physically attractive they find a friend

The similarity of social origin, the similarity of interests, is important to establish relationships ("We love those who look like us and does the same as we," said Aristotle);

And for their continuation, complementary is necessary, competence in the area close to our interests; we like those who like it;

If a sense of self-esteem was visible to some previous situation, then he will like a new acquaintance to him, goodwilling attention to him

The rewarding theory of attractiveness: the theory, according to which we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we associate the events beneficial to us;

The principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: the fact that you and your partner receive from your relationship should be in proportion to the fact that each of you is investing in them.

If two and more people associate a lot, the proximity factor is formed if their connections are improved, they make a pleasant one for each other - sympatia is formed ; If they see each other in dignity, recognize the right for themselves and others to be as they are, - formed respect .

friendship andlove, satisfy the need of people in acceptance. Friendship and love look like a pastime, but here there is always a clearly fixed partner, in relation to which sympathy is experienced.

Friendship \u003d.sympathy + respect.

Love \u003d.sexual attraction + sympathy + respect;

Love \u003d sexual attraction + sympathy.

People can discuss any problems, even at a completely adult and serious level, nevertheless in each of their words and gesture will be glanced: "I like you." Some features are characteristic of all friendly and love affections: understanding, self-dedication, pleasure from staying with loved ones, care, responsibility, intimate confidence, self-discharge (detection of intimate thoughts and experiences in front of another person).

"What is a friend? This is a person with whom you dare to be yourself "- F. Crain.

In connection with the problem of social influence, conformity and suggestibility should be distinguished.

Conformability- manlike man with group pressure, changing his behavior under the influence of other persons, the conscious concession of a person's opinion is the opinion of most groups to avoid conflict with her.

Suggest, or Suggestion,- involuntary person's compliance with the opinion of other individuals or groups (man himself did not notice how his views changed, behavior, this happens by itself, sincerely).

Distinguish:

a) the internal personal conformity (digestible conformal reaction) - the opinion of a person really changes under the influence of the group, a person agrees that the Group's Group, and changes its initial opinion in accordance with the opinion of the Group, subsequently showing learned group opinion, behavior even in the absence of a group;

b) Demonstrative agreement with the group for various reasons (most often to avoid conflicts, troubles personally or close people, while maintaining their own opinions in the depths of the soul - (external, public conformity).

If a person wants, looking for his adoption by a group, he is more often inferior to the group, and vice versa, if he does not value his group, then more boldly resists group pressure. Individuals with a higher status in the group (leaders) are capable of quite strongly resist the opinion of the group, because leadership is associated with some deviations from group templates. Most susceptible to group pressure of individuals with middle statuspersons of the polar categories are more capable of resisting group pressure.

What is the reason for conformity? From the point of view of the information approach (festinger), a modern person cannot check all the information that comes to him, and therefore relies on the opinion of other people when it is divided by many. The person is amenable to group pressure because he wants to have a more accurate reality manner (most cannot be wrong). From the point of view of the hypothesis of "regulatory influence", the person is amenable to group pressure because he wants to have some advantages given by membership in the group, wants to avoid conflicts, avoid sanctions when deviating from the adopted norm wants to support its further interaction with the group.

Excessively pronounced conformism - the phenomenon is psychologically detrimental: a person, like "Fluger", follows a group opinion, without having his own views, speaking with a puppet in other people's hands; Either a person sells himself as a hypocritical adaptator who can repeatedly change the behavior and externally expressed beliefs in accordance with the "where the wind blows" is at the moment, in favor of the "strong world of this". According to Western psychologists, many Soviet people are formed in the direction of such elevated conformism. The positive meaning of conformism is that it stands: 1) as a mechanism for cohesion of human groups, human society; 2) the mechanism of transmission of social inheritance, culture, traditions, social samples of behavior, social attitudes.

Nonconformismhe acts as a refutation by a person's opinion of the majority, as a protest of submission, as the apparent individual independence from the group's opinion, although in fact, the point of view of the majority is the basis for human behavior. Conformism and non-conformism are the relative properties of the individual, these are the properties of a positive or negative subordination to the influence of the group on the individual, but it is subordination. Therefore, the behavior of the nonconformist is as easy to manage, as well as the behavior of the conformist.

Social interactions act as sociocultural:three processes proceed simultaneously: interaction of norms, values, standards contained in the consciousness of a person and group;interaction of concrete people and groups;the interaction of materialized values \u200b\u200bof public life.

Depending on the unifying values, you can allocate:

"One-sided"groups built on one number of basic values \u200b\u200b(biosocial groups: racial, sex, age; sociocultural groups: genus, language group, religious group, professional union, political or scientific union);

"Multilateral"groups built around a combination of several rows of values: family, community, nation, social class.

Merton determines the group as a totality of people who interact in some way with each other is aware of their belonging to this group and are perceived by its members from the point of view of other people.The group has its identity in terms of outsiders.

Primarygroups consist from a small number of people, between which sustainable emotional relations are established, personal relationships based on their individual characteristics. Secondarygroups they are formed from people between which there are almost no emotional relations, their interaction is due to the desire to achieve certain goals, their social roles, business relations and communications methods are clearly defined. In critical and emergency situations

people give preference to the primary group, show devotion to members of the primary group.

People enter into groups for a number of reasons:

The group acts as a means of biological survival;

As a means of socialization and formation of a human psyche;

As a way to perform a certain work, which is impossible to perform one person (the instrumental function of the group);

As a means of meeting the need of a person in communication, in a gentle and friendly attitude towards himself, in obtaining social approval, respect, recognition, confidence (expressive function of the group);

As a means of weakening unpleasant feelings of fear, anxiety;

As a means of informational, material and other exchange.

Several emissions group species:1) conditional and real; 2) constant and temporary; 3) big and small.

Conditionalgroups people are combined at a certain sign (gender, age, profession, etc.).

Real personalities included in such a group do not have direct interpersonal relationships, may not know anything about each other, even never meet with each other.

Real groups people actually existed as a community in a certain space and time are characterized by the fact that its members are interconnected by objective relationships. Real human groups differ in magnitude, external and internal organization, appointment and public value. The contact group combines people who have common goals and interests in a particular area of \u200b\u200blife and activity.

Malaya group- This is a fairly sustainable association of people associated with mutual contacts.

The small group is a few group of people (from 3 to 15 people), which are combined with common social activities, are in direct communication, contribute to the emergence of emotional relations, developing group norms and development of group processes.

With more people, the group is usually divided into subgroups. Features ma.loi Group: Spatial and Temporary Suitof people. This concerns of people makes it possible to contact, which include interactive, information, perceptual aspects of communication and interaction. Perceptual aspects allow person perceive the individuality of all other peoplein a group; And only in this case can we talk about a small group.

I - interaction - the activity of each, this is at the same time an incentive and reaction to all others.

II.- Availability permanent goaljoint activities.

III. Availability in group organizing start. It can be personified in someone from the group members (in the leader, head), and may not, but this does not mean that there is no organizing start. Simply atthis case, the guidance function is distributed among members of the group and leadership is a situationally specific character (in a certain situation, a person who is more advanced in this area than others, assumes the functions of the leader).

IV. Separation and differentiation of personal roles(division and cooperation of labor, power separation, i.e., the activity of the group members is not homogeneous, they contribute their different contributions to joint activities, play different roles).

V. The presence of emotional relations between members of the groupwhich affect group activity can lead to the separation of the group on the subgroups form the internal structure of interpersonal relations in the group.

Vi. Developingspecific group culture- norms, rules, standards of life, behavior that determine the expectations of the group members in relation to each other andconditioning group dynamics.

These norms are the most important sign of group integrity.

Deviation from group standards, norms, as a rule, is allowed only to leader.

The group has the following psychological characteristics: group interests, group needs, group opinions, group values, group norms, group purposes.

The following general patterns are inherent in the group: 1) the group will inevitably be structured; 2) the group develops (progress or regression, but dynamic processes in the group are occurring); 3) Fluctuation, changing the person's place in the group can occur repeatedly.

Psychological characteristics distinguish: 1) groups membership;2) reference groups(reference), the norms and rules of which serve for a personality sample.

Reference groups can be real or imaginary, positive or negative, may coincide or not to coincide with the membership, but they perform functions: 1) social comparison, since the reference group is a source of positive and negative samples; 2) the regulatory function, since the reference group is the source of the norms, the rules to which a person seeks to join.

The following levels of development of contact groups allocate the nature and forms of organization of activities.

Unorganized (nominal groups, conglomerates)or randomly organized groups (viewers in cinema, random members of sightseeing groups, etc.) are characterized by a voluntary temporary unification of people based on the similarities of the interests or community of space.

Association- A group in which relationships are mediated only by personally significant goals (a group of friends, buddies).

Cooperation- a group that is distinguished by the actual organizational structure; Interpersonal relationships are businesslike, subordinate to achieving the desired result in performing a specific task in a certain form of activity.

Corporation- This is a group, combined only by internal objectives that do not go beyond its framework, seeking their group targets at any cost, including at the expense of other groups. Sometimes the corporate spirit may occur in labor or training groups, when the group acquires the features of group egoism.

Collective- a resistant organizational group of interacting people with specific management bodies, united by joint community activities and the complex dynamics of formal (business) and informal relationships between members of the Group.

Head of the team (manager) needs to know these roles well. This is: 1) a coordinator who is essential and able to work with people;

2) idea's generator,the striving to get to the truth, to embody his ideas in practice, it is most often not able;

3) enthusiast,taking himself for a new business and encouraging others;

4) analyst controller,caulsily appreciate the idea nominated. He is executive, but the people will keep track of;

5) benefit seekerinterested in the outside of the case. Executive and can be a good mediator between people, because it is usually the most popular member of the team;

6) performerable to embody the idea of \u200b\u200blife, capable of painstaking work, but often "sinking" in trifles;

7) hard workernot seeking to take a nicer place;

8) Grinder- It is necessary that the last feature is not switched.

Dynamic processes flow in groups:

Pressure on members of a group that contributes to their conformism and suggestibility;

The formation of social roles, the distribution of group roles;

Changes in the activity of members: Possible phenomena fa-cylitation- enhancement of human energy in the presence of other people; Phenomena inhibition- Turning behavior and activity under the influence of other people, deterioration in the well-being and results of human activity in a situation where other people are observed;

Changes in opinions, assessments, norms of behavior of group members: phenomenon "Groupnormalization "- the formation of averaged group standard-norm;

Phenomenon "Group polarization", "Extreyashization"- Approaching the general group opinion to some pole of the continuum of all group opinions, often "shifting at risk" when a group solution is more risky than the decision taken individually;

Competition as a kind of social interaction- a vivid example of social fotilization, improving the results of people's activities in the presence and comparison with each other.But social stakes manifests itself when the personal efforts of each person can be appreciated individually.

The strength of any team is its cohesion.

Largelythe collective cohesion depends on the stage of its development, from the stage of maturity. There are five psychologists such stages.

The first stage is called "wipe". At this stage, people still look at each other, decide whether they are with the rest, they try to show their "me." The interaction occurs in the usual forms in the absence of collective creativity. A decisive role in the cohesion of the group at this stage is played by the head.

Second stage team Development - "Conflict" - It is characterized by the fact that clans and groupings are openly formed in its framework, disagreements are openly expressed, the strengths and weaknesses of individual people go out, they acquire personal relationships. The power struggle begins for leadership and search for compromises between the warring parties. At this stage, the absence of opposition between the head and individual subordinates is possible.

In the third stage - experimental stages - The potential of the collective increases, but it often works by jerks, so there is a desire and interest to work better, by other methods and means.

In the fourth stage, the team appears the experience of successful problem solving, which are suitable withone side, realistic, and on the other - creatively. Depending on the situation, the leader's function in such a team transfers from one of its member to another, each of which is proud of its belonging to it.

On the latter - fifth - stages inside the team formstrong connections people are accepted and evaluated for advantage, and personal disagreements between them are quickly eliminated. Relationships are basically informally, which allows to demonstrate high performance and standards of behavior. Not all teams go to higher (4, 5) levels.

§ 21.1. Communication functions

Communication is one of the main spheres of human life. Types and forms of communication are very diverse. It may be direct, "face to face", and mediated by those or other means, such as the technical (telephone, telegraph, etc.); included in the context of one or another professional activity and friendly; Subject-subject (dialogic, partner) or subject-object (monologic).

Communication is the process of interaction between people during which interpersonal relationships appear and form and form. Communication involves the exchange of thoughts, feelings, experiences, etc. Ascending the psychological community as similarities, unity, similar, on the one hand, facilitates communication ("We understand each other with a half-word", "We are talking to him in the same language"), On the other hand, there may be a situation where there is nothing already to exchange, everything is described, discussed, etc. This phenomenon is called the information deprivability of joint living partners. Complete identity, if it were possible, would lead to the impossibility of exchanging and, thus, communication between people. It encourages us even more to appreciate the uniqueness, dislike for every person.

The role and intensity of communication in modern society is constantly increasing. This is due to a number of reasons. First of all, the transition from industrial society to the information leads to an increase in the amount of information and according to the increase in the intensity of the exchange of this information. The second reason is an increasing specialization of workers engaged in different areas of professional activity, which requires their cooperation and interaction during the achievement of goals. In parallel, the number of technical means for sharing information is increasing very rapidly. We witnessed how it appeared and entered into the daily use of many people faxes, email, Internet, etc., there is another reason that encourages us to think about the increasing role of communication in modern society and make this problem of special consideration, - This increase in the number of people employed in professional activities associated with communication. For professionals of the sociationomic group (profession like "Man - Man") one of the components of their professional competence is competence in communication.

Exercise 1.

Think over the place of communication in your life. For one week, fix all interpersonal contacts, the situations of communication in which you participated. For systematization and further analysis, use Table. 8.

Table 8.

After analyzing the results obtained, you will see, in particular, in different situations the purpose of communication, as well as its results, effects can be different. In one case, during communication, you learned something completely new, in the other - they experienced a lot of pleasant feelings, emotions, in the third - increased their self-esteem and so on.

You can select a number of communication functions. First of all, communication is a decisive condition for the formation of every person as a person. If you have a small child to deprive the possibility of communication with other people, it will significantly detain its mental development, and in the case of very large restrictions, irreversible changes may occur. This is evidenced by cases where the children were raised by wild beasts. These children who came to people later were quite developed biologically, but not at all socialized. For the normal development of the child, constant contact with adults is needed, especially with the mother. The results of special studies and experiments suggest that the limitation of such contacts leads to a reduced level of development of cognitive abilities.

The influence of the impossibility of communicating with other people to the state and human well-being can be demonstrated in many examples. Special studies on the impact of individual insulation on a person show that a long stay in the thermocamera leads, as a rule, to a variety of violations in the field of perception, thinking, memory, emotional processes, etc. It should, however note that serious mental disorders Activities and human behavior are observed in insulation conditions only in the absence of targeted activities and with significant hypodynamics. An interesting and useful material for understanding how isolation acts on a person is evidence of people voluntarily or accidentally found out in a conclusion situation from society and devoid of interpersonal communication. These are people traveling alone in the seas and oceans, wintering in the polar areas, speleologists, voluntarily or forced in underground caves, sailors who saved during shipwreck.

These observations and special studies show that people in these conditions are characterized by such feelings: impassableness, increased sensitivity, anxiety, uncertainty, anxiety, despondency, lethargy, etc. Interesting is that all of them in insulation conditions soon begin to speak aloud. At first it is a kind of comment seen or what is happening. Then the need appears to contact someone (or something). Some talk to themselves: they are encouraged, give commands, ask questions. After a while, almost everyone finds themselves some interlocutor. Speleologist M. SIFR, which for the purpose of scientific research spent 63 days alone in the underground cave, caught on the floor of his spider tent. "And I started talking with him," he writes, "it was a strange dialogue! We two were the only alive creatures in the dead underground kingdom. I spoke with a spider, worried about his fate ... "

The main reason for such behavior of people in isolation is that they have no opportunity to meet the need for communication. Therefore, a person compensates for the lack of real interpersonal communication represented and imaginary.

Communication has a significant impact on the results of human activity. Scientists have long noticed that the degree of manifestation of certain properties of a person, the features of its behavior, the effectiveness of activities largely depend on whether it has one, in isolated conditions, or in the presence of other people, together with them. It turns out that even the passive presence of other people changes the results of an individual's activities. Especially large changes occur when other people perform the same task or when they communicate during its execution.

In his classical experiments, a well-known Russian psychologist and psychoneurologist V. M. Bekhterev studied observation, the ability to establish differences in similar and similarities of various objects, individual and group attitude to the situation and a number of other points. In the experiment, individual reactions were first recorded, then a collective discussion took place, a group decision was made, and each member of the group again recorded his opinion in the Protocol. This opinion was compared with the first registered individual reaction. The results of research made an opportunity to state the fact of the undoubted advantage of joint activities compared to individual. During communication, the volume of knowledge of each, errors were corrected.

Communication constitutes the internal mechanism of joint activities of people. The increase in the role of communication, the importance of its study is due to the fact that in modern society much more often in direct, direct communication between people are developed by decisions that were previously taken, as a rule, separate people. Psychologists are developing special decision-making methods in the group, propose ways to improve traditional methods. Such methods include a meeting, group discussion, brainstorming, synthetics and a number of others.

§ 21.2. Mutual influence of people in the process of interpersonal communication

Psychological influence is an impact on the mental state, feelings, thoughts and actions of other people with the help of psychological means: verbal, paralynguistic or non-verbal.

Verbalmeans verbal. Verbal means of exposure are words.

Paralyingvisticmeans a speech-related speech, but not the speech itself. For example, the volume or speed of speech, articulation, intonation, pauses in speech, semishes, yawns, sobbing, snorting, dying, gleaming, cracking, imitating animal sounds, etc. These signals can change the action of pronounced words, in some cases amplifying or weakening It, and in others - changing their meaning. If a person says: "I promise that I will definitely do it!" With confident and sincere intonation in a voice, then we believe him. However, if he says this "bored" tone, snorts, emphatically sobs or inadvertently yawns - we tend to doubt the sincerity of the promise.

Non-verbalmeans non-loving. The relatively location of the interlocutors in space, for example, the distance between them, their movement and movement in this space, their poses, gestures, facial expansion, the direction of their poses, gestures, faithful, as well as visual, auditory, and sometimes spoken signals, which are One person is free or involuntarily transfers to another in parallel with the speech. The appearance of a person, the noise that it produces, the smell of spirits - all this is also non-verbal signals. Non-verbal signals can also strengthen the action of words, weakening it or completely change their meaning. For example, if a person turns to the door and, standing with his back to the interlocutors, says: "I was very happy to meet you," it can cause bewilderment or distrust.

The paradox is that most people, getting ready to influence whose decision or attitude, think primarily about the words they say. Meanwhile, it would be more correct to think primarily about how to pronounce words and what actions to accompany them. According to the well-known American formula, Megrabian, with the first meeting, each of us believes 55% with the non-verbal signals of another person, by 38% - paralynguistic and only 7% - the content of speech. In case of subsequent meetings, this ratio may change, but the value of non-verbal and paralyingvistic signals should not be underestimated.

Initiator influence -the partners who first take an attempt to influence any of the well-known (or unknown) methods.

Address in influence- That of the partners to which the first attempt is influenced. With further cooperation, the initiative can move from one partner to another in attempts to mutual influence, but every time the one who first began a series of interactions will be called the initiator, and the one who first experienced its influence is the addressee.

In the process of interpersonal communication, there is a constant mutual influence of people on each other, so in most cases a person is both the initiator and the addresmiating of the influence.

Objectives of influence

Impact in interpersonal communication is aimed at satisfying their motives and needs with the help of other people or through them. When the educator tries to instill certain ways of behavior, for example, the habit of telling the truth or bring the work started to the end, he does it not only because it considers these habits necessary, but also because he has the need to form such habits in young people in general To form other people. When the leader is achieved from subordinates to solve an important task or achievement, it not only reaches some socially significant result, but it realizes its own need to succeed (avoid failure, avoid uncertainty, etc.).

In many cases, the influence can be directed primarily to satisfying personal needs, although it is performed under the guise of use for the case, for society, for other people, etc. For example, a teacher can use the possibility of influence in order to meet the need for The feeling of one's own strength, to asserts at the expense of his students, experience a sense of satisfaction from the fact that they are forced to obey its requirements, perhaps even fair. The head can satisfy his need to achieve the approval of the higher chief or the need to quit its dissatisfaction, the criticism of life, so under the mask of criticism or unbearable requirements will humiliate or insult their subordinates. Parents may strive to satisfy their need for rest and peace when they require independence or excerpts from their children, etc.

Each of us may try to influence others to meet the needs, not directly related to educational, educational or professional tasks. However, for many people, it is intended to consider (or at least to declare) the goals of their influence on other noble, i.e., dictated the interests of the case, society, development, creativity, etc. The goals associated with other needs are often not recognized Or thoroughly hidden. Meanwhile, these goals are also not necessarily "non-denominated". They may be associated with quite justified human needs in sympathy, attention, making other people, approval, psychological comfort, loneliness, security, confirmation of their own significance and strength, etc. (see chapter 8).

A modern man is important to realize the true goals of its influence on others in order not to try to influence others by non-constructive ways, hiding behind the interests of the case or society. Realizing its goals, it can be solved as much as they deserve that we strive to implement them, and then find constructive ways to help help and support other people for their implementation.

Task 2.

Remember any recent situation when you tried to influence the feelings, thoughts or actions of another person. Try to determine what purpose you followed. What did you really want to achieve? Does this goal coincided with the one you declared the addressee of your influence or implied it? Do you think this goal is worthy to strive for it?

Types of influence

The formula of mutual influence can be expressed through the concept of distance of power:

Distance of power \u003d influence of the chief on the subordinate - the impact of the subordinate on the boss

This formula was opened by the American scientist Herre Hofsted in the study of the differences in national cultures: in those countries where managers have significantly great opportunities of influence than other people, the distance is large. Conversely, in those countries where people can influence general solutions, even if they are not leaders, the distance is small. Russia is considered a country with a large distance of power. Therefore, in relation to the young man who is not the leader, at first glance, the scheme presented in fig, 24.

Fig. 24. Scheme of mutual influence of people with different powers

Teachers, teachers, various kinds of leaders affect the young man from all sides, while his influence on them is quite slightly. In the figure, the relative power of influence is shown by the size of the corresponding circles.

However, in reality, the situation is not as shown in Fig. 24. This scheme describes only the direct subordination of the effect that is accepted by the term "coercion" (see Table 9). Meanwhile, there is a whole range of diverse types of influence that can be used bypassing or against him.

Table 9.

Types of psychological influence

Continuation of table. nine

Continuation of table. nine

???? Continuation of table. nine

Most of the presented in Table. 9 types of influence can be used regardless of the distance. At all, it is not necessary to possess official authority or seemingly an authoritative figure in order to influence other people. Moreover, some types of influence are more efficiently used by those people who not only do not have powerful powers, but also seems to be a man unauthorized. Such types of influence are requested, the formation of favor, destructive criticism, ignoring, manipulation.

In essence, more accurately than in Fig. 24, reflects the mutual influence in interpersonal communication, the scheme presented in Fig. 25

Fig. 25. Scheme of mutual influence in interpersonal communication

The effectiveness of the influence is largely determined by how skillfully the initiator was used to be used - both verbal and paralynguistic and non-verbal, such as the tempo and rhythm of speech, intonation, organization of space, view, design of appearance, etc. (see the third column in Table. nine). But is it always an influence that seems to be constructively?

Task 3.

Try to determine if all presented in table. 9 types of influence are constructive? Is it possible to argue that they do not violate the rights of the addressee of influence and contribute to the development of interpersonal relations?

The task4.

Try to determine what type of influence is a father in the story of L. N. Tolstoy "Bone".

"I bought a sink and wanted to give them to children after dinner. They lay on a plate. Vanya never ate plums and all sniffed them. And he really liked them. I really wanted to eat. He all went past the plums. When there was no one in the hubby, he could not resist, grabbed one plum and eaten. Before lunch, the mother found plums and sees one, there is no one. She said father.

For the dinner, the father says: "And what, children, did anyone have eaten one plum?" Everyone said: "No." Vanya blushed like cancer, and said too: "No, I did not eat."

Then the Father said: "What ate someone from you is not good; But not the trouble. The trouble is that there are bones in the plums, and if anyone does not know how to eat them and swallows the bone, then every day will die. I'm afraid of that. "

Vanya turned pale and said: "No, I threw the bone for the window."

And everyone laughed, and Vanya was crying. "

Is it possible to call this way of influence constructive? Why?

§ 21.3. Cognition in the process of interpersonal communication

The knowledge of other people in the process of interpersonal communication is both the result and condition of communication. The knowledge of another person involves the formation of the idea of \u200b\u200bit, which includes the characteristics of its appearance, the system of conclusions on the qualities, human abilities, its attitude to various sides of reality, to themselves, other people, as well as speaking of its socio-group affiliation.

The more complete and accurate representation of the other person we have, the more suitable way of behavior in communication with it we will choose.

The main sources of formation of the presentation of the personality of another person are its appearance, behavior, features and results of activity. Despite the fact that most people understand that there is no direct connection between the peculiarities of the physical appearance of a person and his personal qualities, conclusions about such dependencies are common. At the same time, there are people who deliberately connect features of appearance with the qualities of the individual. In a specially conducted study, they found out that out of 72 people surveyed 17 people believe that people with a big forehead - smart, 14 people said that full of people have a good-natured character, etc. Such generalizations may be the result of insufficient psychological competence, the result of surface Analysis of your own experience of communication. Nevertheless, these tendencies are a real fact, and they influence the nature of the ideas about the identity of other people.

Much more substantiated are the ideas about the identity of another person, formed on the basis of observations of the expressive characteristics of appearance, since the latter are functionally connected with the psychological qualities of the individual. And yet the main sources of formation of the idea of \u200b\u200banother person are his behavior and activity. At the same time, the content of the concepts of the personality of another person depends on the nature of the activity, its results, the peculiarities of the flow, from the contribution of each participant to the overall result.

Studies of social psychologists show that the most accurate, adequate ideas about other people add up for those who are characterized by the focus on another person. About the big meaning for normal communication, V. A. Sukhomlinsky wrote to the other human partners: "I'll feel a person next to me, able to feel his soul, his desire."

Another factor that along with a focus on another person provides the ability to adequately understand and evaluate other people, is the degree of development in the person of cognitive and emotional processes. Among the cognitive processes, perception, memory, thinking, imagination is particularly important for effective interpersonal communication. The development of the emotional sphere in the course of communication is checked first of all, whether a person can empathize with other people.

The choice of method of behavior during interpersonal communication depends largely on the level of self-impact and self-esteem, on the basis of which the ability to consciously manage their behavior in various communication situations. Special studies show that inadequate self-esteem makes it difficult for interpersonal communication. The nature of its inadequacy, in particular, affects the position of the individual in the structure of the group: people with a sharply overestimated self-esteem sociometric status in the group is significantly lower than those with understated self-esteem.

The process of approaching ideas about themselves and ideas of other people about this person to the most adequate is a very complex process that includes the knowledge of itself and the comprehensive knowledge of the other.

§ 21.4. Typical difficulties and techniques of interpersonal communication

Let's return to the results of analyzing our everyday communication. Apparently, all the situations that you entered in Table. 8, differ in the degree of importance, your personal satisfaction with this communication, as well as on other characteristics. Perhaps some of these situations you could highlight as the most difficult for you.

Thus, we can talk about a subjective assessment of the difficulty of one or another communication situation for a person. Most often, people experience difficulties in those situations in which there is no purpose, not enough resources and for one reason or another self-esteem is underestimated. As a result of the listed reasons, uncertainty arises. The state of insecurity arises periodically every person. However, if it is repeated, it can go into a sense, and then fix it as an identity property.

Task 5.

And now consult your experience to communicate and remember one or two situations in which you behaved and felt confident, and one or two situations in which you behaved and felt uncertainly. Describe your behavior in each of these situations, as well as the causes of confident and uncertain behavior.

After analyzing this, a number of situations of interpersonal communication, one can find that one of the total reasons for the difficulties in communication is the inability to establish contact with the interlocutor, listen and understand it.

"Small" conversation

In order to involve a person in a conversation, it is necessary to start with what is interesting or important for him. Therefore, the most important skill when conducting a conversation - the skill of a quick orientation is that it may be the subject of the introductory, so-called "small" conversation. "Small" conversation in most cases concerns those that the interlocutor is nice or interesting to discuss. Most often, they relate to the positive parties to his own life. The purpose of the "small" conversation is to create a favorable psychological atmosphere, lay the foundations of mutual sympathy and trust. He often has nothing to do with the "big" conversation, which was planned and must compile the essence of the meeting. The topic of the "small" conversation is born directly at the time of the meeting. It is important to remember the following rules of "small" conversation:

1. The topic should not be too serious and concerned with unresolved problems, worries and alarms. All this must be left for the "big" conversation.

2. It is useful to start with a clarifying issue of pleasant events in the life of the interlocutor, about which you already know something, for example: "I heard that you were on Sunday at this wonderful festival? ..."; "What a wonderful handle you have, this is a gift of your wife, did you say?"; "Now the subway line spent almost straight to your home, is it not true?"

3. Do as many positive statements about various subjects, about other people's ideas, achievements, people who do not participate in a conversation, but known to both interlocutors, etc. For example: "I like that now commercial transport has appeared in the city. When you rush, it is indispensable "; "I recently met Andrei. He was so passionate about his thoughts! Prepares invention. Wonderful!"; "Today I met so many interesting people!" etc.

Task 6.

Try to join the "Small" conversation for at least three people for one day. Find the themes, interesting and pleasant for your interlocutors. Analyze how successful you were to find the "small" conversation and in creating an atmosphere of sympathy and trust.

Art ask questions

It is known that in a scientific study, the question is exactly the question - this is half a solution to the problem. In communication with a well-set question there will be the one to which the interlocutor will want to answer, will be able to answer or on whom he wants to think.

Questions can be closed, open and alternative.

Closed question -this is a question that can be given an unequivocal answer, for example "yes", "no", call the exact date, name or number, etc. For example: "Do you live in Moscow?" - "No". "Do you like psychology?" - "Yes".

Open question- This is a question for which it is difficult to answer in one word. This question begins with the words "why", "why", "how", "what is your decision about", "what you could offer us", etc., and this requires a detailed answer.

Alternative questionit is an average: it is given in the form of an open question, but it is proposed somewhat pre-harvested response options. For example: "How did you decide to become an engineer: deliberately chose this specialty, went in the footsteps of the parents, decided to come together with each other or do not know why?"

In order to talk the interlocutor, it is better to use open questions to which he is interested in answering. You can try to use alternative questions, but it is important that none of the alternatives threw the interlocutor ("Oh, what kind of assumptions you have about me!"). In order to somehow organize a conversation with a too conversational interlocutor, it is better to apply closed questions. At the same time, it should be remembered that we only know what we ask about, while with open questions we can learn a lot such that does not concern the creature of the question.

It is recommended to soften the questions that can hurt the interlocutor and formulate them in the form of a conditional hypothesis. For example, instead of a question: "Are you afraid of him?" It is recommended to ask a question: "Or maybe it's so that sometimes you have a fear of this person?"

It is not recommended to start a question from the words: "You ..." or: "Why are you not ..." A truly competent question is a request for information, and not a hidden charge. If you are dissatisfied with the solution of the interlocutor or his actions, try tactfully to tell him about this in the form of approval, but not in the form of a question.

Similarly, if you know the answer to the question in advance, do not ask it.

Methods of active listening

Often it prevents us from listening to concentration on our own thoughts or desires. Sometimes it turns out that we have formally hearing a partner, but in essence - no. This is well illustrated by a dialogue from the vintage "Elash". Two boys are fat and thin - sit on the school window sill. One of them cleans the mandarin in front of the other and slowly, with appetite eats it. Another boy says: "Now, if I had Mandarin, I would share with you." Thick answers, looking into the space: "Yes ... It is a pity that you do not have a mandarin." Formally, the dialogue took place, but the understanding is not achieved.

Literal repetition- Play part of the partner's statement or the whole phrase. For example:

- I do not agree so that we perform this work together with Sergey. We can not be agreed. We will just get bogging in words.

- Wrong in words?

- Well, of course. Do you understand what to connect me with Sergey in one team? Everyone has their own ideas how to make this project, their ideas.

- Your ideas?

- Of course. So let there be two projects.

- Two projects ...

The literal repetition helps us to focus on the words of the partner and do not care about the thread of his reasoning. The partner repetitions make it clear that he is heard, and hear so good to be able to reproduce his words. In order for the repetitions naturally, it is possible to start them with an introductory phrase: "As I understand you ...", "So, you think ...", etc.

Perephrasing -brief reproduction of the main content of the partner's speech, the essence of his statement. For example:

- Let there be two projects, two solutions. Let there be a competition of projects, and not our personal competition within the project team. So it will be better for business. Let the best project defeat. If this is Sergey's project, not mine, that ... I agree with this, in the end. If you kill me, that this is true.

- So, do you suggest that you make two independent projects and then was the best one?

Here we reproduce the statements of the partner in the abbreviated, generalized form, briefly formulate the most significant in his words. You can start with the introductory phrase: "Your basic ideas, as I understand, are ..."; "In other words, you think that ..." and others.

Task 7.

Try to use literal repetition and rephrase in a conversation with familiar or unfamiliar people. Try to determine in what cases the first method is more efficient and in what is the second one. Install which methods are more suitable for you.

Summary

Communication is the process of interaction between people during which interpersonal relationships appear and form and form. Communication involves the exchange of thoughts, feelings, experiences and attempts of mutual influence. Communication functions are diverse: it is a decisive condition for the establishment of each person as a personality, personal objectives and meeting the most important needs; It constitutes the internal mechanism of joint activities of people and is the most important source of information for a person.

In the process of interpersonal communication, people consciously or unconsciously affect the mental state, feelings, thoughts and deeds of each other. The purpose of the influence is the realization by the person of his personal needs, such as the need for respect, approval, love, belonging to a group, public recognition, independence, psychological comfort, etc. Many of these needs cannot be satisfied without help or outside of other people. In the process of influence, various psychological means are effectively used: verbal, paralynguistic or non-verbal. However, not all the impact will be constructive for both participants in the interaction, i.e., satisfying the personal needs of both and at least not contradictory. Such types of influence as conviction and self-confusion can be considered in most cases as constructive; destructive criticism and manipulation - as destructive; suggestion, infection, stimulation to imitation, formation of favor, request, coercion and ignoring - as ambiguous. Their structurality depends on the specific purposes of influence, situations and features of the performance.

In the process of communication, each person is experiencing its individual difficulties. At the same time, some common difficulties can be avoided if you systematically use conversation methods, training your practical skills in their use daily. "Small" conversation and the art of asking questions can help you talk to the interlocutor, the methods of literal reproduction of his statements and paraphrasing is to understand it.

The answer to the task 3 (Table 10).

Table 10.

Continuation of table. ten

Reply to task 4.

Father used manipulation with the "innocent" deception in order to scare the boy and get involuntary recognition from him. The manipulation was successful, and the boy was osquean for his fear and his recognition. Forced honesty received a negative reinforcement.

This method of behavior from the Father can hardly be called constructive. The child next time will be cunning: now he got a manipulation model and will be able to use it before it is used against him. Each person has a "strings" in the soul, where you can "play." The father's father is not exceptions. He will have, apparently, "shake" what he "sowed".

On the other hand, the manipulation may turn out to be more preferable to coarse coercion or destructive criticism, since their action is even more destructive.

What determines whether people will come into contact with each other or not, will continue it or interrupt it?

There are several theories of interpersonal interaction (Table 7.1):

• exchange theory (J. Homans, P. Blau);
• theory of symbolic interactionism (J. MID, Bloomer);
• theory of Impressions Management (E. Gooffman);
• psychoanalytic theory (3. Freud) and others.

Interpersonal interactions

The dependence of people from each other as a problem of human relationship is the core of human existence. Each of us has the strongest need to join other people in prolonged close relationships that guarantee positive experiences and results.

It is due to biological and social reasons and promotes human survival. Our ancestors were associated with a circular order that ensures the preservation of the group: both on the hunt, and when the housing is erected ten pairs of hands.best one.

Table 7.1

Theories of interpersonal interaction

Exchange theory (Homans, Doych, Blau, Tibbo)	Theory of Symbolic Interactionism (Foreign Ministry)	Theory of attraction
A) People interact, exchanging with each other information, by some benefits. If a person gets the necessary benefits from interaction, then contact continues. B) A person is committed to the "maximum win" (the amount of benefits should exceed the amount of costs, and so that another person does not extract more benefit than you). B) The law of aggression: if a person does not receive remuneration, which was calculated, then aggression becomes more valuable for him than interaction. D) "Fat law": the more often the person received some remuneration, the less valuable will be repetition of this award for him. E) "The principle of the smallest interest": a person who is less interested in, that this social situation of exchange and communication is continued, has a greater ability to dictate their exchange conditions, receives power. (E) "The principle of monopoly": if a person has a monopoly right to some remuneration that other participants in the exchange wants, he imposes their will (relationship of power). G) people strive for a symmetrical exchange so that the awards of the participants are proportional to the costs.	A) People watch, comprehend each other's intentions, put themselves in place of another person, adapt their behavior to expectations and other people's actions. B) People implement social expectations - "inspections" of each other, the norms of behavior, the rights and obligations of their social role. B) a person sells social roles through "imitation" (in childhood), "execution" and "choice" of those roles and groups where this person is valued.	A) People interact with each other if they are experiencing mutual sympathy, the location, attraction. B) sympathy occurs if there are a number of conditions: contacts are frequent; obvious physical appeal; one is equal to another in attractiveness, intelligence, status; noticeably the similarity of interests, opinions; there is a community of origin; to continue the relationship, complement is important; we like those who like us; like those who are friendly and attentive to us, understands us; there is a sexual attraction.

Theory of Ethnomethodology (Garfinkel)	Psychoanalytic theories	The theory of the dramatic approach (Hoffman)
A) the interaction of people is governed by laws, norms, rules, values \u200b\u200b- this is the Center for Social Interaction. B) people themselves seek to establish consent, some rules.	(A) In the interaction of people, their childish experience is reproduced (they are subject to the leaders of the group, just as they obeyed the Father in childhood; conflict with people, if in childhood protested against their parents).	A) People like actors play roles, want to make a good impression on others, hide their shortcomings. The interaction of people is a theatrical play.
Balance theories (Heidre, Newcom)	Transaction Theory (E. Bern)	Conflict theory (Park, Rex)
A) The interaction of people depends on how balanced their opinions, installations in relation to each other and third objects (subjects, people) are balanced. B) the continuation of relations with the balance of opinions of people: "Friends of my friends are my friends"; "The enemies of my enemies are my friends." B) There is a breaking of relationships between people during the dissonance of their opinions (for example, "the husband loves his car, his wife does not like a car" -dissonance, which can lead to misunderstanding, cooling and rupture of relationships).	A) The interaction of people depends on the psychological positions occupied by them in the communication process. B) A person can occupy the position of an adult, parent or child in a particular situation of interaction. B) various forms of interaction of people are characterized by specific positions of participants. D) allocate forms of interaction: rituals, surgery, pastime, games, manipulation, care, competition, conflict.	A) The driving force of the development of people's interaction is competition that can lead to conflict. Competition, competition - conflict - adaptation - assimilation (conflict fading, transformation of personalities under the influence of close contacts). B) causes of conflicts: the presence of contradictory interests and goals, opinions of people.

The social relationships between children and their raising adults also increase the viability and first, and second. Finding a kindred "soul" supporting a person who can be trusted, we feel happy, protected, vitality. Having lost a soul soul, people experience jealousy, loneliness, despair, pain, anger, deprivation, closed in themselves.

A person is a public, social being living in conditions of interaction and communicating with other people.

Unit of interaction is called transaction.

Eric Bern wrote:

People, being together in the same group, will inevitably speak with each other or show their awareness of each other. The person to which the transaction stimulus is facing is in response to something will say or make. We call this answer by a transactional reaction. The transaction is considered additional if the incentive entails the expected reaction.

This psychologist allocates positions Parent, adult, child, which create a real interaction process. The position of the parent involves a tendency to dominate, competition, to the manifestation of the power and sense of high self-relief, to the teaching and critical condemnation. The position of an adult is a tendency to equal cooperation, recognizing and other equal rights and responsibility for the outcome of interaction. The position of the child is a tendency to be subordinate to the search for support and protection ("obedient child") or to an emotional impulsive protest, BunTu, unpredictable whims ("rioty child").

You can highlight a variety Forms of interpersonal interaction:affection, friendship, love, competition, care, pastime, operation, game, social impact, submission, conflicts, ritual interaction, etc. They are characterized by specific positions.

One of the common forms - ritual interaction which is based on certain rules, symbolically expressed real social relations and human status in a group and society. The ritual acts as a special form of interaction invented by people to meet the need for recognition. In this case, the relationship between the parent-parent relationship is dominated, thanks to this interaction, the value of the group is detected, people express what their most affects their social value orientations.

English scientist Victor Tarner, considering rituals and rites, understands them as prescribed formal behavior as "a system of beliefs and actions performed by a special cult association." They are important for maintaining continuity between different generations in a particular organization, to preserve the traditions and transfer of accumulated experience through symbols.

Ritual interaction is a peculiar holiday that has a deep emotional impact on people, and a powerful means supporting stability, strength, continuity of social relations, a mechanism for cohesion of people who increase their solidarity. Rituals, rites, customs are able to capture at the subconscious level, providing deep penetration of certain values \u200b\u200bin group and individual consciousness, in generic and personal memory.

Humanity has developed many customs: religious rites, palace ceremonies, diplomatic raws, military rituals, secular customs, holidays and funerals. Rituals include numerous behaviors: reception, welcome acquaintances, appeal to unfamiliar, etc.

Ritual - This is a rigidly fixed sequence of transactions, and they are produced from the position of the parent and are facing the parent's position, allowing people to feel recognized.

If the need for a person is not realized in recognition, aggressive behavior begins to develop. The ritual is just designed to relieve this aggression, satisfy the need to be recognized at least minimal.

With a different form of interactions - Operations - Transaction is carried out from the standpoint "adult-adult". With it, we meet every day: at work, school, when we are preparing food, repair an apartment, etc. Successfully conducting an operation, a person is approved in its competence and receives confirmation of others.

Labor cooperation, distribution and execution of professional, family functions, skillful and effective implementation of these duties - these are the operations that fill the life of people.

Competition- Form of social interaction, when there is a clear goal, which must be achieved, and all the actions of various people are related to this goal so that they do not conflict. At the same time, a person does not enter into a conflict with himself, adhering to the installation of another team player, although he is inherent in the desire to achieve better results than other team members. As a person takes the installation of other people and allows you to determine what it will make in accordance with some common goal, he becomes an organic member of his group, society, taking his morality and becoming a significant member.

In some cases, being with other people in the same room and performing a joint activity, a person mentally dwells in a completely different place, talking with imaginary interlocutors, dreams of his. Such specific interaction is called Care. This is the usual and natural form of interaction, but still people who have problems with interpersonal interaction are resorted to it. If a person does not have other forms of interaction, except for care, then it is already pathology - psychosis.

The following type of approved fixed interactions - pastime Providing at least some pleasant sensations, signs of attention from partners.

Strengthening- Fixed form of transactions, designed to satisfy the need of people in recognition.

If this form is implemented from the Parent-Parent position, then it is most often expressed like this: everything deviating from the norm (children, women, men, power, television, etc.) is discussed and condemned. Or there is a discussion of the "things" (comparison of the possession of cars, televisions, etc.), "Who won yesterday" (football and other sports results) is the pastime of men; "Kitchen", "Shop", "Clothing", "Children", "How much is it?", "You know that she ..." - Topics for women. In the course of this, the partners and prospects for the development of relations with them are evaluated.

Sustainable interaction of people may be due to the emergence of mutual sympathy, Attraction. Close relationships that provide support and friendly feeling (i.e. we feel that we love us, approve and encourage friends and relatives), connected with the feeling of happiness. Studies have shown that such positive relationships improve health, reduce the likelihood of premature death. "Friendship is the strongest antidote from all the misfortunes," said Seneca.

Factors that contribute to the formation of an attraction (attachment, sympathy):

1. The frequency of mutual social contacts, geographical proximity (most people start to be friends and marry with those who live in the neighborhood, studying in the same class, works in one company, i.e. with those who live, studying, works nearby; people They may be part of meeting, to detect similarities in each other, exchange attention signs). Physical attractiveness (Men tend to love women for their appearance, but also women like attractive men - beauty like).
2. The phenomenon of "equal" (people tend to choose friends and especially marry with those who are equal to the intellectual level and are as attractive as they). E. Fromm wrote: "Often love is nothing more than a mutually beneficial exchange between two people, in which the transaction participants receive a maximum of what they can count on, taking into account their value in the market of personalities." In pairs where partners differed in the degree of attractiveness, the inferior usually has compensating quality. Men offer status for their part, trying to find an attractiveness, and women come rather the opposite, so young beauties often marry the elderly men who occupy a high position in society.
3. The more attractive man, the most likely attributing positive qualities to him (this is a stereotype of physical appeal: what is beautiful, then well). People unconsciously believe that, with other things being equal, more beautifully happier, sexier, sociable, smarter and lucky, although they are not at all honest or caring towards other people. Different attractive people have more prestigious work, earn more.
4. A negative attraction affects the "contrast effect": for example, men who have just looked at the journal beauties, ordinary women and wives seem less attractive; After watching pornographic films, sexual satisfaction with the partner decreases.
5. "Strengthening effect": When we find some kind of features similar to our, it makes a person more attractive to us. The stronger the two love each other, the physically more attractive they find each other and, the less attractive, they are presented to them all other people of the opposite sex.
6. The similarity of social origin, interests, is important for establishing relations ("We love those who look like us and does the same as we," said Aristotle).
7. To continue the relationship, a mutual addition is needed, competence in the area close to our interests.
8. We like those who like us.
9. If the sense of self-esteem has been visible in some previous situation, he will like a new acquaintance, goodwilling attention to him (it helps to explain why sometimes people are so passionate about them after their previously rejected the other, thereby taming them ).
10. The rewarding theory of attractiveness: according to it, we like those people whose behavior is beneficial to us, or those with whom we connect the events beneficial to us.
11. The principle of mutually beneficial exchange or equal participation: the fact that you and your partner receive from your relationship should be in proportion to the fact that each of you is investing in them.

If two and more people bind a lot, proximity factor is formed. With the strengthening of relationships when people make each other pleasant, sympathy is formed. When they mutually discover advantages and recognize the right of themselves and others to be as they are, - respect for them.

Such forms of interaction as Friendship and love Satisfy the need of people in acceptance. They are externally similar to the transmission of time, but the partner in these cases is fixed, in relation to it and sympathy arises. Friendship includes sympathy and respect, love differs from it enhanced sex component, i.e. it is a sexual attraction + sympathy + respect. In the case of love, there is only a combination of sexual attraction and sympathy.

These forms of interaction differ from all other the fact that they necessarily have hidden transactions "Child-child", expressing mutual recognition and sympathy. People can discuss any problems, even at a completely adult and a serious level, but in each of their words and gesture will be read: "I like you." Some features are characteristic of all friendly and love affections: mutual understanding, dedication, pleasure from staying with loved ones, care, responsibility, intimate confidence, self-discharge (detection of intimate thoughts and experiences in front of another person). ("What is a friend? This is a person with whom you dare to be ourselves," F. Crane noticed.)

E. Bern explored such interactions between people as Game, manipulation. The game is a distorted method of manifestation I, because all the interpersonal needs of a person are transformed into one - control: a person resorts to strength, if he wants recognition or acceptance. Regardless of the originality of the need and life situation, the game offers only a power solution.

Games (or "Games", from English. Game) - This is a stereotypical series of interactions leading to a predefinuous result, this is a series of manipulations that are designed to change the behavior of another person in the necessary transaction initiator.

side excluding the desires of this other. Games, unlike rituals, pasta, operations, friendship, love, - dishonest interactions, since they include traps, pensions, payback.

Games differ from other ways to structuring time with two parameters:

• hidden motives;
• the presence of a win.

Each Game Member, even the victim defeated, receives a win, but extremely specific - in the form of negative feelings of resentment, fear, guilt, hatred, suspicion, humiliation, contempt, arrogant, which serves as a kind of confirmation of the rightness of the vital position of these people, according to which "people are bad , I'm bad, the life is bad. "

Bern noted that many people play in these unconscious games, receiving specific negative winnings, because such an important part of the unconscious life plan or a person scenario. Each game begins with bait, which an active participant, the initiator, offers passive taking into account the characteristics of the character and "weakness" of that. Then a series of double transactions, which invariably lead to a planned result of a planned result. Having started the game, it is almost impossible to go out of it, especially if you are a passive member, resulting in paying or winning.

In order not to become a victim of other manipulations, it is important to turn double transactions into open, direct, as the game is possible only in the presence of a hidden subtext in words, transactions.

The analysis of manipulations shows that with all the differences they have a lot in common, and this allows you to build enough reliable protection from them.

It is possible to implement it according to the following flowchart:

1. Do not show weaknesses (Do not come to the bait, realize what your weakness is trying to use). All the scams - from small to the largest - are built, as a rule, on the use of the greed of people, the desire to get rich quickly. Thirst for lung lady so strong that paralyzes the most elementary caution. Another human weakness is curiosity, in particular the desire to learn their future, fate. This weakness of many centuries successfully exploit fortunelocks, sewers. Another is the thirst for acute sensations. It is implemented in gambling. It is mostly susceptible to a strong floor. The desire to impress is also used by manipulators.
2. Realize that you manipulate. The sign of manipulation is the feeling of inconvenience: you do not want to do something, speak, and you have to do - otherwise it is inconvenient, you will "look bad." Suffice to say yourself: "Stop, manipulation!"
3. Apply passive or active protection. The first is recommended to use if you do not know what to do how to answer the manipulator. Do not say anything. Make the view that they did not hear, do not understand or generally ask about something else.
4. With the active protection of "Arrangepoints over G" or resort to the counterclaim.
5. Controls. The manipulator usually exploits our desire to look good, so do not be afraid to seem bad: "I'm afraid you are very exaggerating my advantages" (generosity, opportunities, ability), - these words are removed from you any obligations and open unlimited space for improvisations.

So, if you decide to active protection, then, not embarrassed, tell me that you are worried about the partner's proposal.

If this is an optional borrower, sufficiently tell him, for example, about your insecurity in the fact that he will return the debt in time that he is to blame for this.

The meaning of the countercourse is to pretend to do not understand what they are trying to manipulate, start a counter game and complete her sudden question showing the manipulator your psychological superiority.

For example, he says: "And weakly you ...?" And offers something dangerous or criminal. The answer is: "Do you yourself do it yourself? Do It!"

Sometimes, feeling that we are manipulated, you can give in to the manipulator. It is advisable when the damage is less than from the deterioration of the relationship with the manipulator, or if it is obvious how other actions can compensate for your loss.

It is difficult to confront the manipulations that occur between people in family, production, household interactions, but even more difficult when fraudsters-professionals turn into a manipulation into the image of their lives in a way of existence. It is sad, but an objective fact should be recognized that now in Russia the number of fraudsters is growing rapidly, exciting wide social layers - from government circles and "rich Russians" to criminals and homeless people.

The cheater manipulator simultaneously makes three things:

• i search for people with a weak place, a tendency to "naive manipulations" (greed, faith "in miracles", the desire to get out of others, characterize them);
• inspires confidence, skillfully hiding his goals;
• successfully deceives people by creating a "plausible lie" and the right situation.

And if these three factors are implemented, then the fraudster reaches its goal, it is usually obvious: to assign someone else's property, finance, benefits, etc.

No person is able to live in complete isolation, some of the forms of interpersonal interaction will certainly be present. Such a need for close prolonged interactions lives in each of us. It is explained by social and biological reasons and aims to survive a person.

Forms and types of interpersonal interaction

Psychology has long been interested in the issue of interpersonal interactions and considers them through the prism, since these phenomena complement each other, but it is not worth mixing these concepts.

Communication will certainly be a means of communication (information transmission) of two or more subjects, it may be personal or mediated (mail, Internet). But the interaction does not always imply communication, which makes the last private case of various types of contacts. In social psychology, the term "interpersonal interaction" is called the contact of two or more subjects, leading to a change in their behavior or mood. Three main tasks of such contact are: the formation of interpersonal relations, interpersonal perception and understanding of a person, the provision of psychological impact. To solve these problems, two main types of interactions are applied: cooperation - the promotion of one of the partners contributes to or does not prevent the success of others, and rivalry - the achievement of one of the partners excludes or makes it difficult to achieve successful completion of the rest.

There is also a separation of interpersonal interactions by type:

1. Depending on the purpose - business, personal.
2. Depending on the modality - positive, negative, ambivalent.
3. Depending on the direction - vertical, horizontal. An example of such relations may be working contacts, in the event of communication with the bosses or subordinates, the direction will be vertical, when conversations with colleagues - horizontal.

The complexity of the processes of interpersonal interaction gives rise to many classifications, some of which were presented above, but the concept will not be fully disclosed without mentioning the forms of their manifestation, which there are very many. The main ones are: friendship, affection, love, care, pastime, game, social impact, competition, conflicts and ritual interaction. The last form is very common, distinguished by special rules that are subject to relationships. This helps to symbolically express the social status of a person in the group, this form is invented specifically to ensure that everyone can meet their need for recognition. All rituals enjoy all - when communicating with parents and children, subordinate and bosses, civil servants and sellers in the store. Each of the forms of interaction performs one of three functions - assistance in adapting to a new environment, cognitive or satisfying the need of a person in contact with other people. This once again confirms the importance of the phenomenon as its complexity.

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Introduction

Chapter I. Concept and theory of interpersonal analysis

1.1 Basic interpersonal needs

1.1.1 Including need

1.1.2 Control need

1.2 Typology of interpersonal behavior

1.3 Needs theory (views of various authors on the structure of needs)

1.4 Intensification and acquisition of needs

2.1 Need as subject to satisfying

2.2 Understanding the need for the absence of good

2.3 Need as a need

2.4 Classification of needs

Conclusion

Applications

Introduction

Each person implements its social essence in interpersonal relationships. Interacting with others, people seek to satisfy various needs depending on many factors; biological, personal, situational, etc. Our study focuses on identifying personal features related to motivational aspects of interpersonal relations. Special attention, we believe should be paid to the tolerance for uncertainty, it is precisely the attitude towards uncertainty to be realized in recent times as one of the fundamental characteristics of a person. Psychologists, philosophers, sociologists and other scientists note that the attitude towards uncertainty lies at the heart of the interaction of a person with the world around and thereby - with other people (Frenkel-Brunswik E., 1949; Badner S., 1962; Norton R., 1975 ; Kahneman D., 1982; Lukovitskaya EG, 1998). The purpose of our study is to find out if there is a relationship between interpersonal needs with psychological determinants and is the gender differences of these connections. Therefore, we suggested that there should be a relationship between the tolerance for uncertainty and the needs implemented in interpersonal relationships.

To achieve the goal required:

1. To analyze existing techniques for research.

2. Based on the analysis, select the techniques most suitable for our research and test the tests.

3. Relying on test results to analyze using the Statistics program.

4. To analyze the results obtained and check the above hypothesis.

The sample is a group of 28 people aged 18 to 22, among which 14 men and 14 women.

ChapterI. Concepts and theories of interpersonal analysis theory

1. 1 Main interpersonal needs

The theoretical basis of the work is the concept of V. Grog, which agrees that there are three interpersonal needs and those areas of behavior that relate to these needs sufficient for predicting and explaining interpersonal phenomena. Skirt (1958) pointed out a close relationship between biological and interpersonal needs:

1. Biological needs arise as a reflection of the need to create and maintain a satisfactory equilibrium between the organism and the physical environment. Consequently, both biological and social needs are the requirement of optimal exchange between the environment or physical or social and organism.

2. dissatisfaction of biological needs leads to physical diseases and death; Mental disease, and sometimes death can be the result of inadequate satisfaction of interpersonal needs.

3. Although the body is capable of adapting to the insufficient satisfaction of biological and social needs, it brings only temporary success.

If the child has frequently satisfying interpersonal needs, then, as a result, he has formed characteristic ways of adaptation. These are methods formed in childhood, continue to exist in adulthood, determining the generally a typical way of orientation of the individual in the social environment.

1.1.1 Including need

This is the need to create and maintain a satisfactory relationship.with other people, on the basis of which interaction and cooperation arise.

Satisfactory relationships mean for individuals psychologically acceptable interactions with people who proceed in two directions:

1. From the individual to other people - the range from "establishes contacts with all people" until "does not establish contacts with anyone";

2. From other people to the individual - the range from "always install contacts with it" up to "Never install contacts with it".

At the level of emotions, the need for inclusion is defined as the need to create and maintain a sense of mutual interest. This feeling includes:

1. Interest interest to other people;

2. Interest of other people to the subject.

From the point of view of self-esteem, the need for inclusion is manifested in the desire to feel a valuable and meaningful person. The behavior corresponding to the need for inclusion is aimed at establishing links between people who can describe the concepts of exception or inclusion, accessories, cooperation. The need to be included is interpreted as a desire to like, attract attention, interest. Hooligan in the class, which rushes by erases, does this due to a lack of attention to him. Even if this attention is negative, it is partially satisfied, because Finally someone paid attention to him.

Being a person who does not look like others, i.e. Be an individual, this is another aspect of inclusion. Most of the aspirations are aimed at being noticed, i.e. attract attention. This man strives for this to differ from other people. It must be an individual. The main in this allocation from the mass of others is that it is necessary to achieve an understanding. A person considers herself to be understood when someone is interested in them, sees inherent in him features. However, this does not mean that it must be read and love.

The problem arising from often at the beginning of interpersonal relationship is the decision to be involved in this attitude or not. Usually, at the initial establishment of relationships, people are trying to introduce themselves to each other, often trying to find this line in themselves that could be interested in others. Often a man originally silent, because He is not sure that it is interesting to other people; It all concerns inclusion problem.

Inclusion involves such concepts as the relationship between people, attention, recognition, fame, approval, individuality and interest. From affect it differs in that it does not include strong emotional attachments to individual people; And from the control that his essence is the occupation of a prominent position, but never - dominance.

Characteristic methods of behavior in this area are formed, first of all, on the basis of children's experience. Relationship "Parent-child" can be either positive (the child is in constant contact and interaction with parents), or negative (parents ignore the child, and the minimum contact). In the latter case, the child is fear, the feeling that he is a minor person, feels a strong need to be adopted by the group. If the inclusion is inadequate, then he tries to suppress this fear or eliminate and climb or an intense attempt to engage in other groups.

1.1.2 Control need

This need is determined as the need to create and maintain a satisfactory relationship with people, OP RESTLY TO control and power.

Satisfactory relationships include psychologically acceptable relations with people in two directions:

1. From the individual to the rest of people in the range from "always controls the behavior of other people" until "never controls the behavior of others";

2. From other people to the individual - in the range from "always control" to "never control".

At the emotional level, this need is defined as the desire to create and maintain a sense of mutual respect, relying on competence and responsibility. This feeling includes:

1. Sufficient respect, in relation to others;

2. Getting sufficient respect from other people.

At the level of self-imaging, this need is manifested in the need to feel competent and responsible personality.

The behavior caused by the need of control refers to the decision-making process, and also affects the areas of force, influence and authority. The need for control varies in the continuum from the desire to power, authority and control over the other (and, moreover, on someone's future) to the need to be controlled, i.e. be delivered from liability. There are no tough bonds between behavior aimed at dominance over other, and behavior aimed at submissions to others in one person. Two people who dominate others may vary by how they allow others to manage themselves. For example, a domineering sergeant may comply with the orders of his lieutenant with pleasure, while the hooligan can constantly move to his parents. Behavior in this area, in addition to direct forms, also has indirect, especially in the environment of educated and polite people.

The difference between the behavior of controlling the behavior of inclusion is that it does not imply fame. "Power outside the throne" is an excellent example of a high level of need for control and low inclusion. "Spear" is a vivid example of a great need for inclusion and small - in control. The behavior of control from the behavior of the affect is characterized by the fact that it deals more with the relationship of power than with emotional proximity.

In relation to the "parent-child" there may be two extremum: from very limited; Regulated behavior (the parent fully controls the child and takes all the decisions for him) until complete freedom (the parent allows the child to solve everything independently). In both cases, the child feels fear that he will not be able to cope with the situation at a critical moment. The ideal relationship between the parent and child reduced this fear, however, too strong or too weak, control leads to the formation of defensive behavior. The child seeks to overcome fear or dominance over the rest and lead to the rules or rejects the control of other people or their control over themselves.

1.1.3 Interpersonal need for affect

It is determined as the need to create, and keep satisfyingdistrict relations with other people, based on love and emotional relations. The need for this type applies primarily by paired relationships.

Satisfactory relationships always include psychologically acceptable personal relationships with other people in two directions:

1. From the individual to the rest of the people in the range from "Tied close personal relationships with each" before "does not set close personal relations with anyone";

2. From other people to the individual - in the range of "Always tie up close personal relationships with the individual" to "never enter into close personal relations with the individual."

At the emotional level, this need is defined as the desire to create and maintain a sense of a mutual warm emotional relationship. It includes:

1. The ability to love other people sufficiently;

2. Understanding that man loves the rest of people to sufficiently.

The need for affect at the level of self-impact is defined as the need of an individual feel that he is worthy of love. It usually concerns close personal emotional relations between two people. Emotional attitude is a relationship that can exist, as a rule, between two people, while relations in the field of inclusion and control can exist both in a pair and between an individual and a group of persons. The need for affect leads to behavior, the purpose of which is an emotional convergence with a partner or partners.

The behavior corresponding to the need for emotional relations in groups indicates the establishment of friendly relations and differentiation between members of the Group. If such a need is absent, then the individual, as a rule, avoids a close connection. The general method of avoiding close relationship with any one person is a friendly attitude with all members of the group.

In childhood, if the child is raised inadequately in the emotional plan, then he can form a feeling of fear, which he may later try to overcome in many ways: either a closure in itself, i.e. Avoiding close emotional contacts, or an attempt to behave outwardly friendly.

In relation to interpersonal interactions, inclusion is considered primarily to form a relationship, while control and affection concerns relations that have already been formed. Among the existing relationships, control concerns those people who give orders and decide anything for someone, and the affection concerns how the relationship becomes emotionally close or distant.

In short, the inclusion can be described by the words "inside-outside", the control is "top-below", and the affection is "close-far". Further differentiation can be conducted at the level of the number of people included in the relationship. Affection is always a relationship in a pair, inclusion is usually the attitude of the individual to many people, control can be as an attitude to a pair and attitude to many people.

Previous formulations confirm the interpersonal nature of these needs. For the normal functioning of the individual, it is necessary that equilibrium existed in three areas of interpersonal needs between it and the surrounding people.

1.2 Typology of interpersonal behavior

Relationship between parents and child within each area of \u200b\u200binterpersonal needs may be optimal or low-digestive. Skazz describes three types of normal interpersonal behavior within each area that correspond to different steps of customer satisfaction. Pathological behavior is also described for each region.

The types of interpersonal behavior as adaptive mechanisms arose, according to the saccus, in a certain way: too much inclusion leads to socioly excessive, and too small - to socially deficient behavior; Too much control - to autocratic, too little - to abdicratic; Too severe affectionate leads to sensual excessive; And too weak - to sensually deficient behavior. Later, the junction came to the opinion that the too close or, on the contrary, the insufficient satisfaction of the need could go to any type of behavior.

For each of the areas of interpersonal behavior, the stem describes the following types of behavior:

1. The scarce is assumed that the face is not directly trying to satisfy its needs;

2. Excessive - Individual is tirelessly trying to satisfy his
needs;

3. Perfect - need adequately satisfied;

4. Pathology.

The diagnosis of these needs was carried out with the help of an OMO interpersonal relationship questionnaire. Adapted A.A. Mitvishnikov.

V. Commits determines compatibility as a characteristic of relations between two or more persons, between an individual and a role or between an individual and a workshop that has its result mutual satisfaction of individual or interpersonal needs and harmonious coexistence.

1 . 3 Need theory (views of various authors on the structure b. )

The basis of the theory of needs is the idea that energy charges, direction and stability of behavior is determined by the existence of needs. We are born with a limited set of needs, which can be changed in the process of learning.

1.3.1 Theory of Murray Needs

Henry Murray suggested that people can be described using a limited set of needs. Individual differences, he explained through the differences in the forces of needs among individual people, making an opposition that the causes of individual differences are associated with learning. The list of basic needs of a person compiled by Murrey.

1. humiliation - submission. Search and get pleasure from insults, offended, accusations, critics, punishments. Self-respect Masochism.

2. Achievement - overcoming obstacles and achieving high standards. Competition and superiority over others. Older and victory.

3. Affiliation (affect) - the formation of close and friendly relations. Entry into contact, communication, life next to other people. Cooperation and the establishment of social contacts.

4. Aggression is an attack or an insult to another person. Fight. Power confrontation. Humiliation, causing harm, accusation or accretion of the dignity of another person. Mission for resentment.

5. Autonomy - Resistance to attempts to influence or force for something. Call conventions. Independence and freedom of action in accordance with impulses.

6. Counteraction is the desire to defeat or resume efforts in case of failure. Overcoming weaknesses. Preservation of honor, pride and self-esteem.

7. Protection is to protect itself from accusations, critics, humiliations. Readiness for the provision of explanations and apologies. Check resistance.

8. Respect - admiration and willingness to follow the best, close to you by another person. Cooperation with the leader. Evaluation, West or Praise

9. Dominance (control) is an impact on others and control over them. Using convictions, prohibitions, prescriptions, orders. Restriction of others. Organization of behavior in the group.

10. Presentation - Attracting attention to yourself. The desire to make an impression, encourage to action, cheer, amaze, amazing, intriguing, shocking or horrifying other people.

11. Avoidance of harm is avoiding pain, physical damage, diseases and death. Care from a dangerous situation, taking precautions.

12. Avoiding "moral" is avoiding failures, shame, humiliation, ridicule. Failure to failed due to fear.

13. Care - care, assistance or sewn another. Expression of sympathy. Caring for a child. Feeding, help, support, creation of comfortable conditions, care, treatment.

14. Order - put in order, organize, remove objects. Be clean and tidy. To be scrupulously accurate.

15. Game - Relaxation Rest, Entertainment, Pleasant pastime. Fun, games. Laughter, jokes, joy. Entertainment for fun.

16. Rejection - tepping, ignoring or rejection of another person. Indifference and indifference. Discrimination of other people.

17. Sensitivity - search for impressions and pleasure by them.

18. Sex - the formation and further development of love relationships. Sex classes.

19. Obtaining support - search for assistance, protection, sympathy. Requests for help. Molver about mercy. The desire to be close to the loving, taking care of the parent. The desire to add support.

20. Understanding - Analysis of experience, abstraction, carrying out differences between concepts, identifying relationships, synthesis of ideas.

Above is a list of psychological needs. In some items, this list intersects with the needs of a joke theory. For example, the need for affiliations i.e. In the affect, the need for dominance, i.e. In control of others and the need to receive support.

David McKelland worked on the rationale for the need for achieving, as well as the need for affiliation and the needs of power. He was able to prove that the need for achieving largely determines our behavior.

1.3.2 Hierarchy of Maslow Needs

Abraham Maslu argued that basic physiological needs relate to some deficit, and the needs of more than super orders - with personal growth. This assumption is well combined with distinguishing the motivation of achievements (achieving oriented) and the motivation of avoidance (self-oriented). According to the butter, the needs may be grouped into separate categories located in a hierarchical order, while at the base of this hierarchy are basic or primary needs. Only after satisfying the needs of the lower base level can be transferred to the next set of needs.

1. Lower level. Physiological needs: Hunger, thirst, etc.

2. Security Needs: the desire to feel safe, feel protected outside the danger.

3. The need for belonging and love: the desire to establish close relations with other people, be accepted, belong.

4. The need for respect: the desire to achieve, competence, obtaining approval and recognition.

5. Cognitive needs: the desire to know, understand, explore.

6. Aesthetic needs: the desire for symmetry of order, beauty.

7. Higher level. Self-actualization needs: the desire for self-realization, the implementation of its potential.

1 . 4 Intensification and acquisition of needs

Previously, many psychologists believed that people are born with a certain set of basic needs, these needs may be intensified by using the remuneration system. They believed that the needs we born were something like predisposition to actions, the remuneration system could strengthen such predispositions and turn into sustainable and stable needs. Thus, a comparison of two concepts - the concept of needs and concepts of the remuneration system - contributed to the adoption of ideas that the environment turns out to be a factor that strongly influences the formation of human motivation. This idea was eagerly divided by psychologists who believed that learning plays an important role in the development of needs.

Some psychologists put forward an assumption about the existence of needs that are practically completely due to environmental influences. The work of David McKelland (ICCLLAND, 1985), devoted to the study of the achievement motive, was built on the basis of this assumption. In addition, he argued that children who receive remuneration for their achievements grow with a strongly developed motive of achievements. In his study, Mac-Claland managed to show that there are such styles of parental education, the use of which compared to others increases the likelihood of the form of a strong achievement need; These data are fully combined with the idea that remunerations play an important role in the process of forming and intensifying needs.

Chapter II. Various views on the concept of "needs" and the classification of needs

2 .1 Need as subject to satisfying

The widespread look at the need for a reflection in the consciousness of a person of that subject that can satisfy (eliminate) needs. V. G. Lenzhnev (1939) wrote that if the need does not imply the presence of what it can satisfy it, then it simply does not have the very need for psychological reality. Many need is not only the image of the subject, but the subject itself. With such an interpretation, the need for as it is believed beyond the subject. This point of view reflects domestic, ordinary understanding of the need. For example, when a person says "I want bread." A look at the need for the subject leads some psychologists to the fact that it is the subjects that are considered by them as a means of developing needs. This suggests that the development of the consumer sphere of man is not carried out according to the principle of "stimulus - reaction" (subject matter - need) due to the presentation of new items. It does not lead to a desire to have them precisely because a person does not have the need for these subjects. Why in the domestic consciousness and even in the minds of psychologists, the subject is identified with the need? The fact is that with the acquisition of life experience, a person begins to understand how much the need may be satisfied. Before his first satisfaction, the need noted by A. N. Leontiev (1971), he also "does not know" his subject, he still needs to be found, and add it, it is still necessary to remember. Therefore, the needs of infants initially with objects are not connected. The presence of needs they express common concern, crying. Over time, children will learn those objects that help get rid of unpleasant sensations or enjoy. A conditional and reflex relationship between the need and object of its satisfaction, in its manner (both primary and secondary representation), is gradually formed and fixed. A peculiar needs of the target complexes "COMPLETED NEEDS", according to A. N. Leontiev, in which the need is concrete, and the goal is often abstract (needed food, liquid, etc.). Therefore, in many stereotypical situations, following the emergence of the need and its awareness of a person immediately, according to the mechanism of the association, images of subjects emerge that satisfying this need earlier, and at the same time necessary for this action. The child does not say that he had a feeling of hunger, thirst, but he says: "I want to eat."

Thus, in the consciousness of the child, and then adult items become equivalents of needs, like how xylitis replaces sugar diabetics, without being such. However, in some cases, even adult associative communication needs with the subject of its satisfaction may be absent. This happens, for example, when a person falls into an indefinite situation or feels that he lacks something, but does not understand what exactly, or the right thing is incorrect. There may be an essence of the need of items to satisfy. For sociologists, the need advocate as values, and it is characteristic that many do not identify values \u200b\u200band needs.

2 . 2 Understanding the need for the absence of good

V. S. Magun believes that the economic tradition, uniting interim and final needs (benefits) within the framework of the general series, is more constructive than psychological. But does not mean that the need does not apply to the psychological area. The "Economic" approach, according to V. S. Maguna, will allow to understand the mechanisms of interaction between the needs of the individual with the needs of other people and social systems. The basis of its approach V. S. Magun laid the concept of preserving and developing (improving) the subject, scientific and everyday consciousness perceived as manifestations of human well-being. V. S. Magung denotes the states and processes of the subject and its external environment, which are reasons (it would be more correct to say the factors, conditions) of the preservation and development of this subject. V. S. Magun, after economists, introduces the concept of orders. At the same time, for the benefit of the first order, it understands, for example, the state of the satiety, under the good of the second order - the bread, then - grain, the mill field on which grain is grown, and so indefinitely. The state of the absence of good the author takes for the need. Being in such a state, the subject seems to require the restoration of its disturbed integrity (safety), or development, or the emergence of conditions that ensure these results. The missing benefit of V. S. Magung calls the subject of the need. Thus, the need for a good x is the state of the absence of the good X, and the presence of the good x means the lack of need for it.

This logical chain of reasoning suffers from many flaws. On the other hand, the emergence of some needs can be considered as a good (in the universal, and not economic understanding), for example, the emergence of the need to live after acute depression.

Seeing the reasons for changing the state of the subject (the emergence of the need) outside the person, he introduces the term "external need", although it understands that it sounds unusual. It also distinguishes potential needs under which everything is understood due to the lack of what the processes of preservation and development of the individual may violate. Here, he confesses again with himself, as the need for itself is becoming itself, and not its absence and the associated condition of the subject. In addition, the reasoning type: since I don't have it, it means that I have a need for this - far from reality.

V.S. Magoon concludes that satisfaction affects the need of two as satisfaction increases the need for the appropriate welfare can both weaken and strengthen. Causes doubt the opposite position: the more personality has satisfaction, the stronger it will have the need for the appropriate good. If you do not impose a clarification that we are talking about a knowledgeable need that has become a value for a person, and not the real need for a real moment, then agree with V. S. Magoon is difficult.

Positive connections (correlations) are detected between satisfaction (as an attitude) and the significance of one value or another value. The greater satisfaction is formed by this person from a particular factor, the greater value this factor becomes for him. But it is not directly related to the actually experienced need, which is trying to prove VS Magun. His idea is that the stronger satisfaction with some factor, the stronger the actual need for it in it is expressed, could be implemented when considering the experience of the need for anticipation of something.

2 . 3 Need as a need

B.F. Lomoms (1984) defines the need for objective necessity. The need can reflect not only the external objective necessity, but also internal, subjective. The need for something (its awareness) can be one of the human activity contemplates, not being in his own sense of the word need, and reflecting either the defense, sense of debt, or preventive feasibility, or need. But not only useful is a necessity and need. The need may reflect the dependence of the body and personality from specific conditions of existence, from the factors of the external environment, essential for their own conservation and development. Some authors just understand the need, as a dependence on something. Leontyev determined that the need is also the requirement of self-defined productive activities (creation); The body and personality are active not only because they need to consume something, but also because you need to produce something. B. I. Dodonov to the "theoretical" needs of belief, ideals, interests; As a need, he performs all affecting the motivational process. From the point of view of D.A. Leontyev need is an objective relationship between the object and the world.

M. S. Kagan with co-authors (1976) write that the need is a reflection of an objective relationship between what is needed to the subject for optimal functioning, and to what extent it really has it; This is a reflection of the relationship between the necessary and indulging.

V.L. Osovo (1985) notes that the relationship between the subject of the need to the outside world can be genetically programmed (in the form of software vital activity carried out through reflexes, instincts) or may be purchased in the process of ontogenetic human development.

V.P. Tugarinov (1969) defines the needs as items (phenomena, their properties), which are needed (are necessary, pleasant) to people as means of meeting the needs and interests.

In the stated position of philosophers and sociologists, it is referred to the requirements of the human to the world around the world not as the needs, but as a particular relationship of a person with this world.

2.4 Classification of needs

Since our research is a leading role in social needs, respectively, the classification of the needs of V. Government and the following views on understanding of needs are closely related to the ideas about the needs of V. Ground. In this regard, you can recognize the concept of a universal joke.

There are various classifications of the needs of a person who are divided as by the dependence of the body (or personality) from some objects, according to the needs that it is experiencing. A. N. Leontiev In 1956, accordingly, they divided the needs for subject and functional.

Also, the needs are divided into primary (basic, innate) and secondary (social, acquired). A. Pieron proposed to distinguish between several fundamental physiological and psychophysiological needs of giving base for any motivated behavior of animals and humans.

Behavioral, research attention, novelty, search for communication and assistance, competitive motivations, etc.

In domestic psychology, most often the need is divided into material (in food, clothes, dwelling), spiritual (the need for knowledge of the environment and themselves, the need for creativity, in aesthetic pleasures, etc.) and social (need for communication, in labor , in social activities, in recognition by other people, etc.).

Spiritual and social needs reflect the social nature of man, its socialization. Even the need for food in humans has a socialized appearance: after all, a person uses food is not raw, as animals, but as a result of a complex process of its preparation.

P. V. Simonov (1987) believes that the needs of a person can be divided into three groups: vital, social and ideal. In each of these groups, the needs of preservation and development are allocated, and in the Social Group - also the needs of "for themselves" (aware of the right to him) and "for others" (Recognized as "duties").

A. V. Petrovsky (1986) divides needs: by origin - on natural and cultural, on the subject (object) - on material and spiritual; Natural needs may be material, and cultural - material and spiritual.

P. A. Rudik (1967) allocates public and personal needs, which is hardly correct: every need is personal. Another thing - what goals (public or personal) meets the satisfaction of the need of a person. But this will already characterize the motive, not the need.

V. A. Kruttsky (1980) needs are divided into natural and spiritual, social needs.

W. Makdaugal (W. Msdougall, 1923), based on the understanding of the needs of both instincts, allocated the following instinct-like motivational dispositions (ready-made ways of response):

n Food; search and accumulation of food;

n disgust; rejection and avoiding harmful substances;

n sexuality; Cleaning and marriage relationships;

n fear; escape and dragging in response to injuries, causing pain and suffering or threatening these impacts;

n curiosity; Study of strangers and subjects;

n patronage and parental care; feeding, protection and shelter of younger;

n communication; stay in society yourself equal, and alone - the search for such a society;

n Self-assertion: dominance, leadership, approval or demonstration of themselves to others;

n submission; assignment, obedience, summary, subordination to those who demonstrate superior force;

n anger; indignation and violent elimination of any interference or obstacles that prevent any other trends interfering with the free implementation of any other trend;

n call for help; Active appeal for help when one's own efforts end in complete failure;

n creation; creation of shelters and instruments of labor;

n acquirement; the acquisition, possession and protection of everything that seems useful or attractive;

n laughter; riding the shortcomings and failures of the people around us;

n Comfort; elimination or avoidment of what diskcomports (shift poses, location);

n rest and sleep; a tendency to immobility, rest and sleep in a state of fatigue;

n vagrancy; Movement in search of new impressions.

Among them, courtship needs coincide with the needs of the concept of V. Ground in loved ones, intimate relations. The need to communicate with the need of an individual belong to various groups. The need for dominance is associated with the need to control and influence others. The need for submission closely borders with the need of a person in the fact that others control it.

Murray (N. Murrey, 1938) allocates the following psychogenic needs: aggression, affiliates, dominance, achievement, protection, game, avoidance of harm, avoidance, avoidance of accusations, independence, rejection, understanding, knowledge, help, patronage, understanding, order, attracting attention to yourself, recognition, acquisition, counteraction, clarification (training), creating, preservation (leaning), respect, humiliation.

E. Fromm (1998) believes that the person has the following social needs: in human relationships (assigning themselves to the group, the feeling of "we", avoiding (loneliness); in self-affirmation (the need to make sure of their own significance) in order to avoid the feeling of inferiority , imbalance, attachment (warm feelings for a living being and the need for animals - otherwise apathy and disgust for life); in self-consciousness (consciousness of themselves by unique individuality); in the system of orientation and the object of worship (involvement in culture and ideology, predensive attitude to ideal subjects ). In this classification, the need for human relationships coincides with the need for inclusion, the need for self-esteem with the need for control, the need for affection with the need for affect.

Only A. Oil gave a slender classification and a system of needs, highlighting their groups: physiological needs, needs, security, social relationships, self-esteem, self-actualization. The needs of the lower levels he calls the need, and the highest levels of growth. At the same time, he believes that these groups of needs are in hierarchical dependence on the first to last

Chapter III. Conducting the study of interpersonal relationships with psychological characteristics and analysis of results

Diagnostics of the need to include, the need for control and need for affect was carried out with the help of an OMO interpersonal relationship questionnaire, adapted A.A. Mitvishnikov. Lich-weak features were diagnosed using the FRI questionnaire (Form B) adapted to St. Petersburg State University. Tolerance to uncertainty was measured by the Tolerance scale to the uncertainty of Badner, co-standing of three subishkl: novelty, complexity and insoluability. At the same time, the tolerance towards uncertainty is understood as a tendency to recreak indefinite situations as desired and, the investigator, but, strive for them.

The study involved 28 people aged 18 to 22 years old, among which 14 men and 14 women. I processed the results using Statistics. At the same time, the coefficient of the rank correlation of the spirit was used, as it gives a more accurate result with a small sampling volume.

The results of statistical analysis indicate numerous significant relationships of tolerance to uncertainty with interpersonal needs, but I looked at the most significant. In particular, the lower the tolerance of a person to difficult situations, the higher its need to be included in the social group (g S \u003d 0.47). Apparently, membership in the group is one of the mechanisms by which a person reduces the uncertainty of the situation. The established relationships, knowledge of norms and rules of conduct in various situations allow a person to respond to the external world of stereotypically, and the stability of the environment acts as a guarantor of certainty (the correlation matrix is \u200b\u200bgiven in Appendix 2).

Interesting is the following relationship: the more man is tolerant to uncertainty, especially since he is expressed by the desire to trill and influence others, to take into his hands the leadership and decision-making for itself and others (g s \u003d -0.43). In our opinion, this fact indicates the close relationship of leadership and human ability to actively interact with uncertainty. As an additional guess, it can be noted that people who are untold to uncertainty may have the need for a manual from a person who does not lose confidence in such a situation and the ability to make decisions (see Appendix 2).

The following should not be noted: the lower the person the tolerance for uncertainty, the higher his need for intimate relationships (g s \u003d 0.39). Perhaps a person, intenitious to the situation of uncertainty, seeks to close, intimate relations because it is comfortable in them, since it can predict the further development of events and thereby avoid uncertainty (see Appendix 2).

As for the relationship between interpersonal needs with other personality characteristics, we would like to note the following. The higher the human need in control from others, the lower its irritability (g s \u003d -0.66). Supposed, calm and equative people, others are more willing to help than irritable (correlation matrix is \u200b\u200bgiven in Appendix 1).

More sociable individuals have a stronger desire to belong to various groups (g S \u003d 0.49). This connection seems to us quite obvious, since it is in the group of people most easily satisfy the need for communication (see Appendix 1).

Individual, inclined to control and influence others, is more extracerted (g S \u003d 0.47). Perhaps the extrovers facing the outside world are needed to control others more than intro-verts to meet their social needs (see Appendix 1).

If we talk about gender differences, we found the following. In men, the need for control and leadership from others is more than in women (p \u003d 0.018). This fact contradicts the generally accepted kill-zealing. It is possible that he may explain that the differences between the floors are gradually erased in co-temporary society, that is, women become more masculine, and men acquire features that are traditionally considered female. It is not worth discounting and age features of the sample, which could also affect the difference detected (see Appendix 4).

Women are less tolerant to hard-time problems than men (p \u003d 0.039). Perhaps this is due to psychological differences between men and women (see Appendix 4). As studies carried out in the framework of evolutionary psychology, the perfect man is smart, creative and easily adapts. All these characteristics are associated with high tolerance for uncertainty. At the same time, I would like to note that - it is quite possible - the men who participated in the study do not have similar characteristics, but only respond to questions so as to give the desired for the actual. In other words, in this case a distorting role can play a factor of social desirability.

The higher irritability, the lower the tolerance to unresolved problems (R s \u003d 0.58). Perhaps because in insoluble problems, the individual increases irritability (the correlation matrix is \u200b\u200bshown in Appendix 3).

Conclusion

To achieve the goal of the work, the following was done:

· The following techniques related to the topic of work are considered: OMO interpersonal questionnaire, FPI questionnaire, Form B, Tolerance scale to the uncertainty of Badner.

· A study was conducted using the above methods, most subjects are NSU students, but it could not affect the results obtained, that is, the sample is sufficiently represented.

· Based on the results obtained, a correlation analysis was carried out using the Statistics program, the results of the analysis - see Appendices 1,2,3,4.

After conducting all the necessary calculations, I received the following dependencies:

· The lower the tolerance of a person to difficult situations, the higher its need to be included in the social group.

· The more person is tolerant to uncertainty, especially since he has expressed a desire to control and influence others, take into account the leadership and decision-making for himself and others.

· The lower the person has tolerance to uncertainty, the higher he has a need for intimate relationships.

· The higher the need for a person in control from others, the lower his irritability

· More sociable individuals are experiencing a stronger desire to belong to various groups.

· Individual, inclined to control and influence others, more extracerted

· In men, the need for monitoring and manual from other pains than women

· Women are less tolerant to hard-time problems than men

Analysis and interpretation of the data obtained allows us to say that personality features are really associated with interpersonal needs. And a particular role in their determination plays a person's tolerance for uncertainty.

List of used literature

1. Mitavishnikov A.A. The questionnaire of interpersonal relations. - Yaroslavl, 1992.

2. Frenkin R. Motivation of behavior. - SPb.: Peter, 2003.

3. Ilyin E. Motives and motivation. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006.

4. Budner, S. (1962). INTOLERANCE OF AMBIGUITY AS A PERSONALITY VARIABLE. Journal of Personality, 30, 29-50.

5. Palmer J., Palmer L. Evolutionary psychology. Secrets of Homo Sapiens behavior. - SPb.: Prime - Evro not, 2003.

6. The problem of psychological compatibility in modern social psychology O.I. Matyukhina, S.E. Poddubnye // Modern problems of management psychology: Sat. Scientific Tr. / RAS. Institute of Psychology, Tver. State un-t; Ot. Ed .: T.P. Emelyanova, A.L. Zhuravlev, G.V. Veal. - M., 2002.

7. Krichevsky R.L., Dubovskaya E.M. Psychology of the Small Group: theoretical and applied aspects. M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1991.

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