Flies and mosquitoes are a. Flies and mosquitoes belong to

Order of insects. Fossilized since the Late Triassic. A progressive group with a fast pace of evolution. They have only a front pair of wings (hence the name). The hind wings are transformed into flask-shaped organs - halteres, presumably the sense organs of balance and direction; in a few wingless forms, they are sometimes reduced. The head is rounded, with large faceted eyes on the sides. Oral apparatus - piercing-sucking or licking. Breast segments are fused together. The abdomen consists of 4-10 visible segments, the last of them are transformed in females into a telescopically retractable ovipositor, in males - into a copulatory apparatus, the structure of which is a systematic (specific) feature. Suborders; long-wattled (or mosquitoes), short-wattled (or flies) straight-seam and short-wattled round-seam; division is based on the structure of the antennae, head, features of hatching of adults from the shell of the pupa. Over 150 modern families. About 100 thousand species, widespread, over 10 thousand species are known in Russia. Most adult Diptera fly well; can hover, hang motionless in the air.

Latin name Diptera

A very large order of Diptera includes over 85,000 species of highly organized and specialized insects.

They are insects with only a pair of webbed front wings. Diptera are the best flyers among insects.

The rear pair of wings is reduced. Its rudiments are transformed into halteres, inside which are placed chordotonal organs, which are very important in the flight of dipterans. The wings are usually widened in the middle part, and at the very base they are strongly narrowed, sometimes forming a small projection - a winglet.

Diptera are characterized by a mobile head with very large faceted eyes, a powerful chest, where the mesothorax reaches the greatest development, to which the wings are attached, small anterior and metathorax; sessile, rarely pedunculated abdomen. The larvae are legless, with or without a head. Pupae are mobile or in a false cocoon - puparia.

Diptera classification

The order of Diptera is divided into two suborders: 1. Long-necked, or Mosquitoes (Nematocera), which include mosquitoes and similar forms; 2. Short-necked, or Flies (Brachicera). These suborders differ in a number of characters of adults, larvae, and pupae.

The suborder of long-wattled, or mosquitoes (Nematocera), is characterized by long, multi-segmented antennae, an elongated abdomen. Larvae with a head and a gnawing mouth apparatus. Pupae are free, often mobile, usually without a cocoon.

This suborder includes various mosquitoes and mosquitoes: mosquitoes, biting midges, midges, bloodworms, centipedes, gall midges, etc.

The mosquito family is especially important. Mosquitoes have a piercing-sucking mouth apparatus, and the males feed on flower nectar, and the females suck the blood of warm-blooded animals. After sucking in blood, they begin the process of maturation of eggs, and then egg-laying.

The mosquitoes of the genus Aedes are the most numerous of the blood-sucking mosquitoes, causing the greatest disturbance in summer, especially in the forest. Among the malaria mosquitoes, the common malaria mosquito (Anopheles maculipennis) is widespread. Mosquitoes of the genus Culex practically do not attack humans. The exception is the mosquitoes of the urban population - Culex pipiens molestus, which breed in warm basements all year round.

Anopheles females, starting at sunset and throughout the night, fly into living quarters, where they most often attack people. During the day, malaria mosquitoes are not active; they sit in dark rooms or in natural shelters. Female mosquitoes, like males, suck nectar from flowers. Bloodsuckers need additional carbohydrate nutrition. Mosquitoes lay their eggs in water, and in stagnant reservoirs, where the larvae develop, breathing atmospheric air. During the summer, there are from 2 to 5 generations of anopheles mosquito, depending on the latitude of the place. For the middle forest belt of Russia, 2-3 generations are common, of which one winters. The life span of males is several days, of females (summer) - up to two months. For wintering, female anopheles mosquitoes climb into basements, cellars, attics, cattle quarters, etc.

The biology of malaria mosquitoes and their larvae determines the methods of controlling them as vectors of malaria. Adult mosquitoes are destroyed in their day quarters and wintering grounds. The most effective fight against mosquito larvae. It boils down to the following: 1) drainage of the area and destruction of small reservoirs, convenient for breeding mosquitoes; 2) the destruction of larvae by treating reservoirs with persistent insecticides (hexachlorane, landrin, karbofos, etc.), used in the form of dusts, suspensions and granular preparations. For the treatment of swampy areas and large bodies of water, pollination from specially equipped aircraft is used, which gives the most effective results.

Not all mosquitoes are bloodsucking and cause some kind of harm. Harmless mosquitoes include the cirrus mosquito (Chaoborus). Transparent larvae of this mosquito are common in our waters.

Bloodworms, or bell mosquitoes (family Chironomidae) are very useful. On summer evenings these mosquitoes can be seen swarming in one place in the air. The larvae of various types of bloodworms often inhabit the muddy bottom of water bodies in huge numbers. The most common are the large red larvae of the bloodworm (Chironomus plumosus). They are interesting for the presence of hemoglobin in their hemolymph. Chironomus larvae are an essential part of fish food in pond farms; they are specially caught for feeding fish in aquariums.

Mosquitoes are tiny insects (2-2.5 mm long) and are a group similar to mosquitoes. Here they are common in the Crimea, the Caucasus and Central Asia. Mosquito larvae live in humid areas rich in organic debris. Mosquitoes enter homes and cause painful bites. The mosquito Phlebotomus papatasii, common in our Crimea, transmits papatacha fever. This fever passes quickly and does not recur, but it is very debilitating, despite the short duration of the disease (two to three days).

Mosquitoes are also vectors of Leishmania.

Diptera flies

The suborder of short-whiskers, or flies (Brachicera), differs from the long-whiskers in short, usually three-segmented antennae, wide, mostly ovoid abdomen, mouth limbs of the licking or pricking type. Their larvae are headless or with a retractable head armed with hooks (modified mandibles). Pupa often with or without a false cocoon.

The common housefly (Musca domestica) is of great importance, since it often appears in large numbers and plays the role of a mechanical carrier of pathogens of various diseases (typhoid fever, dysentery, etc.). The housefly is very prolific. The female lays 130-150 eggs in one clutch, and up to 600 eggs throughout her life. She lays eggs in various decaying substances (in garbage dumps, landfills, etc.), in manure and human feces.

It looks like a housefly, but the housefly (Muscina stabulans) is somewhat larger and less mobile. The body length of the house fly is 6-8 mm, the house fly is 9 mm. Often, smaller flies also fly into rooms, usually hovering under a lamp or near the ceiling. This is a small housefly (Fannia canicularis) (body length 5-6 mm), it also lays eggs in manure and human feces. All fecal flies can participate in the transfer of pathogens of intestinal infections and transfer the eggs of worms. Bacterial infection is transmitted by licking proboscis and sticky pads on the paws. In addition, pathogenic bacteria are usually not digested in the intestines of the fly and, with its feces, end up on food.

They say that in autumn the flies become "angry" and bite painfully. However, none of the flies mentioned sting. At the end of summer and early autumn, a firebird (Stomoxys calcitrans) often flies into the rooms. She has a hard proboscis with piercing bristles. It pierces skin and sucks blood, attacking mainly pets.

In human habitation, large blue flies (Calliphora erythrocephala) and green carrion flies (Lucilia caesar) - small green flies, only 3 mm in length, flying with a strong buzz are often found large, painted blue with a metallic sheen. They lay their eggs on animal carcasses, on discarded or uncovered meat, etc.

Finally, a large, gray with black gray meatfly (Sarcophaga carnaria) is common, remarkable in that the eggs of this fly develop in the body of the female and she gives birth to larvae already hatched from the eggs (viviparity).

Houseflies are systematically close to the tsetse fly (Glossina palpalis), which is found in Africa, which carries sleeping sickness.

The damage caused by flies is not limited to the spread of infectious pathogens. Among flies, there are species that are very serious pests of agricultural crops. This is, for example, the cabbage fly (Hylemyia brassicae), which lays eggs in cabbage seedlings; its larvae eat up the cabbage roots. This is one of the most dangerous garden pests. Other types of flies harm cereals (cereal flies).

Also worth mentioning is the very large group of flies belonging to the family of hoverflies, or flower flies. They can usually be seen in large numbers flying near flowers and perching on them. Many of them are excellent examples of mimicry in shape and color, and for some the model is a bee (bee fly), for others - small wasps or bumblebees. Of the flower flies, the genus of sirfs is remarkable in that their predatory larvae live on the leaves of plants and eat aphids. Among the hoverflies, however, there are also agricultural pests, such as the onion hoverfly (Eumerus strigatus).

Flies are the common name for insects of the suborders short-wooded round-seam (Brachycera Cyclorrhapha) and short-tailed longitudinal (Brachycera Orthorrhapha) of the Diptera order.

The oldest specimen was found in the Republic of China. And its age is about 145 million years.

Few animals on earth evoke the antipathy that mosquitoes do. Their itchy, annoying bites and almost ubiquitous presence can ruin a backyard barbecue or hike in the woods. They have the uncanny ability to sense our murderous intent, fly and disappear milliseconds before the killing blow. And in our bedrooms, the persistent, whiney hum of their buzzing wings can awaken the most reliable sleepers.

In addition to being a nuisance, mosquitoes are carriers or vectors for some of humankind's deadliest diseases, and they are the number one public enemy in the fight against global infectious disease. Mosquito-borne diseases cause millions of deaths worldwide every year, with a disproportionate impact on children and the elderly in developing countries.

Flies description

How long does a fly live?

The fly lives from 1 to 2.5 months.

All flies have common characteristics.

Fly structure

Fly body

The massive body of flies is divided into 3 sections: head, chest and abdomen; the whole body is densely covered with hairs.

Body length of the smallest flies:

Mosquitoes use exhaled carbon dioxide, odors and body temperature, and move towards the house on their victims. Only female mosquitoes have mouth parts needed to suck blood. When biting the proboscis, they apply two tubes to the skin: one for the introduction of an enzyme that inhibits blood clotting; the other is to suck blood into their bodies. They do not use blood for their own food, but as a source of protein for their eggs. For food, both males and females eat nectar and other plant sugars.

• Megaphragma caribea is only 0.17 mm long,
• the fly Alaptus magnanimus from the Myrmaridae family has a body length of 0.21 mm.

Body length of the world's largest flies:

• Mydas heros, living in South America, is 5.5 - 6 cm, and the wingspan reaches 10 - 12 cm;
• the body of the New Zealand fly Egsul singularis is up to 5 cm long.

Fly eyes

How many eyes does a fly have?

On the sides of the head are large compound eyes. These compound eyes are formed by special structural units - ommatidia, the corneal lens of which looks like a convex hexagon - facet (from the French facette - facet; hence the name). There are about 4,000 such facets in a fly in each eye (in the eyes of other insects there are even more facets: in a worker bee - 5,000, in butterflies - up to 17,000, in dragonflies - up to 30,000). Each facet, looking at an object, sees a small part, and all of them are combined into a single picture by the brain.

How many eyes does a fly have?

The only silver lining to this mosquito cloud in your garden is that they are a reliable food source for thousands of animals, including birds, bats, dragonflies, and frogs. Plus, humans aren't really the first choice for most food-seeking mosquitoes. They usually prefer horses, cattle and birds.

All mosquitoes need water to breed, so eradication and promotion efforts usually involve removing or treating permanent sources of water. The distribution of insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes is also widespread. However, global efforts to stop the spread of mosquitoes are ineffective, and many scientists believe that global warming is likely to increase their number and range.

It is good to look at close objects with the compound eye - then their image is very clear.

Thanks to such eyes, the fly has an almost circular field of view, that is, it sees not only what is in front of it, but also what is happening around and behind. Large compound eyes allow the fly to look in different directions at the same time. She distinguishes a variety of colors, including ultraviolet, which is in the invisible part of the spectrum to humans.

Most of us might think that all mosquitoes suck blood, and that blood is their only food source. In fact, none of this is true. First of all, not all mosquitoes suck blood, but only female mosquitoes, male mosquitoes, do not have specific mouthpieces for piercing the skin and accessing blood vessels, so they could not suck blood if they wanted to. And secondly, blood is not the main food source for female mosquitoes, as they feed on plant nectar to obtain the sugar they need for energy.

In this article, we will look at the basic feeding habits of male and female mosquitoes. As you already know, mosquitoes don't bite us because they hate humans as a race or just want to eat. In fact, mosquito blood for women develops eggs. More specifically, the adult mosquito itself needs protein from the blood to develop its eggs before placing them in water. After the eggs have been laid in the water, the female mosquito can go looking for more blood to lay the next batch of eggs and repeat this process several times in the summer.

In females, these eyes are separated by the forehead. In males of many species, they are close together. Behind the compound eyes on the midline of the head, there are 3 simple eyes. Thus, a fly has 5 eyes.

To distinguish the outlines of an object, a fly needs 0.1 seconds, while a person takes 0.05 seconds.

Fly antennae

On the head of the fly, there are short three-segmented antennae (antennae). They consist of 3 segments, the last one longer than the other two. A naked or hairy seta sits on the dorsal side of the third segment.

This is why male mosquitoes don't bite people, they just don't need our blood because they don't lay eggs. So, naturally, male mosquitoes lack the mouthpieces needed to pierce human skin and suck blood. Recently, scientists have developed a way to interact with the chromosomes of mosquitoes in a way that the female mosquito only lays the eggs from which male mosquitoes are born, so the mosquito population will naturally end after several generations.

These experiments have proven successful in the laboratory, but we will have to wait and see how effective they are in real life conditions. Although male and female mosquitoes can be differentiated in such a way that one sucks blood and has certain mouth parts to do so, while others do not, in fact they have one thing in common to feed - both eat nectar from fruits and flowers.

The fly's mouth is formed from an organ that we are used to thinking of as a tongue, but in this insect, all parts of the mouth are gathered together in a long proboscis, with which the fly sucks in juice.

In most species, it is of the licking type. In blood-sucking flies, it is of the boring type.

The proboscis in non-blood-sucking flies is retractable, soft, ends with fleshy sucking lobes and chitinous rings (pseudotrachea). It consists of the tongue as well as the upper and lower lips. Single-segmented palps are attached anteriorly to the middle of the proboscis. The proboscis in a resting state is retracted into a depression on the lower surface of the head. Pseudotrachea on the lobes of the proboscis converge to the mouth opening and serve to filter liquid food.

Why do flies rub their paws?

Both male and female mosquitoes need energy to fly, reproduce and live. Although female mosquitoes may consume some energy from the blood they suck, this is not enough, so they, like male mosquitoes, must look for other foods to give them energy. Food mosquitoes eat for energy in the form of sugar, which is nectar from plants, fruit juices, honeydew, and other natural juices filled with sugars. The sweet liquids are kept in the belly of the mosquito, for the mosquitoes kept separate from the blood.

In blood-sucking flies, the proboscis is chitinized, hard, not retracted, but protrudes forward. Inside the proboscis there are stabbing parts - the epiglottis and the hypopharynx.

Fly wings

Most flies have a pair of so-called true wings with which they can fly. The fly, in addition to them, still has a pair of rear, or false, wings, called halteres, which help it to maintain balance during flight. Some species of flies, contrary to popular belief, have no wings at all.

This is why some species of mosquitoes can live in areas closer to the north, where there are very few people and animals, simply by sucking the nectar from flowers and plants found in these areas. Different types of mosquitoes use different plants for feeding, just as not all mosquitoes bite humans.

The male mosquito has a much shorter lifespan than the mosquito. Male mosquitoes live approx. 1 week, while female mosquitoes can live for more than a month, and some species can hibernate in winter to continue their population next spring. This is why female mosquitoes need more energy from sugar than male mosquitoes to live. In addition, before hibernating female mosquitoes eat more sugars to store more energy, they can live in cold weather without the need for food.

Fly feet

The fly has three pairs of legs. A fly's foot has five “joints”.

Why is a fly crawling on the ceiling?

The last joint of the foot has two claws and the finest hairs, as well as glands that secrete a sticky substance consisting of a mixture of carbohydrates and fats.

This structure allows the fly to quietly crawl along the ceiling. It is believed that the fly "sticks" to the surface with the help of a substance secreted by its paws. But then it is not entirely clear how exactly she lifts her legs from the surface. Scientists estimate that it would take a significant effort to do this. Studying the process of flies crawling on various ceilings, many researchers came to the conclusion that the fly can still easily tear off the glued legs, since it can rotate its claws around its axis, or move its leg in a special way.

Do all kinds of female mosquitoes suck blood from humans

Mosquitoes need food and develop in the larval stage when they are in the water. They feed on microscopic organic particles such as bacteria and plants. Mosquitoes do not feed during the pupal stage. Female mosquitoes need protein from their blood to create eggs. However, not all mosquito species require blood to produce eggs, and there are few mosquito species in the world that only need carbohydrates to produce eggs. In addition, there are also some types of mosquitoes that feed on the blood of other animals and do not bite humans.

In any case, the hairs on the legs play an important role in attaching the fly to the ceiling, which "clings" to the slightest irregularities in the surface. Some scientists believe that the fly usually uses this mechanism, and that the glue is only used when the surface is too smooth.

Why do flies rub their paws?

When a fly crawls on various surfaces, dirt collects on the sticky pads and bristles of its legs. So that because of this the grip of the paws with the surface during crawling does not deteriorate, the fly regularly cleans all six of its paws from adhering particles of debris.

Typically, mosquitoes suck blood from humans, animals, amphibians, reptiles, and birds, but there are some species that only choose to feed on a specific type of animal, such as livestock, birds, or frogs, before heading out and looking for humans.

Of these genera, most mosquitoes belong to three. These include species such as the yellow fever mosquito and the Asiatic tiger mosquito. They are strong pilots, capable of traveling long distances from their breeding grounds. Their bites are painful. They include several species, such as the common malaria mosquito, which can spread malaria to humans. They include several species such as the northern mosquito. They are weak fliers and generally only live for a few weeks during the summer months. They persistently bite and attack at dawn or after dusk. They persistently bite mammals, mainly at dawn and early evening. ... Some mosquitoes, such as the cat mosquito, are becoming more common pests as humans invade their habitat.

Fly's feet - sense organs

On the tips of the fly's legs, among other things, there are short bristles - the organs of touch and taste. That is, the fly tastes first of all ... with its feet, and only then with its proboscis and sucking blades! Moreover, a fly analyzes food with its feet 100-200 times better than a person with its tongue.

Let's take a look at how mosquitoes live and breed. Like all insects, mosquitoes hatch from eggs and go through several stages of their life cycle before becoming adults. The females lay their eggs in the water, while the larval and pupal stages live entirely in the water. When the pupa turns into adults, they leave the water and become free flying terrestrial insects. The life cycle of a mosquito can vary from one to several weeks, depending on the species.

Horse flies and deer flies are blood-sucking insects that can be serious pests in cattle, horses and humans. During the day, female horse flies and deer flies are active. Deer flies are usually active for specific periods of time during the summer. Follow label directions carefully because some people may develop allergies with repeated use, look for age restrictions. Horse flies, commonly known as yellow flies, can be a real annoyance, and some people can have quite extreme allergic reactions.

Order Diptera, or flies (Diptera).

1) Complete transformation;

2) The oral apparatus is piercing-sucking, cutting-sucking, licking, well adapted to feeding on liquid food;

3) Running or walking legs;

4) One pair of wings, uniform, webbed (sometimes wingless). The hind pair of wings is presented in the form of a humbug - a clavate form of small formations attached to the metathorax;

Please contact us to request delivery of the black ball. Ball - A beach ball that was either ordered black or painted black. Then we apply a transparent layer of glue-like substance and hang it on the tree. Yellow flies are attracted by the moving dark color of the syllohuet. Sandfly is a common name applied to minutes, biting fly. Sand flies are important as vectors of numerous human diseases, including kala azar or fever, oriental sore, and sand fever.

Six species are found in the United States, none of which are known to carry disease. All tabanids go through the ovum, larva, pupa and adult stage, called "complete metamorphosis", the same developmental process as mosquitoes. Tabanids laid egg masses containing from 50 to several hundred eggs. Most species lay their eggs around ponds, streams or marshes on overhanging vegetation such as grasses or cattails.

5) The larvae are worm-like, legless, in the lower forms they have retained the head capsule. Pupa open or hidden, in a false cocoon;

The order is subdivided into two suborders - long-mustache and short-mustache.

Suborder long-wattled (Nematocera): characterized by long, multi-segmented antennae and an elongated mosquito-like body. Larvae in most species have a fairly well-defined head capsule; the pupa is free. When an adult fly emerges, the pupal membrane is torn along the dorsal side of the body, i.e., along a straight seam.

The so-called fruit flies belong to different genera, among which the main ones are Dakus, Rogalet, Serrat, Bactroker, Anastrefa and Toktotripana. The fly causes direct physical damage to the cellulose mass of fruits produced by larvae and secondary damage caused by the penetration of pathogenic microorganisms, as well as indirect consequences such as quarantine measures and post-harvest treatments.

Detection refers to the capture and sampling of fruits that lead to species recognition, distribution and host attitudes to determine which areas are free of pests or areas of low prevalence where a pest is present but low populations.Quarantine measures are used as regulatory measures, while mitigating measures are used to reduce risk.

Real mosquitoes(this. Culicidae) have long antennae and piercing-sucking mouth organs, no eyes, wings with scales along the posterior edge and on the veins. Male mosquitoes feed on nectar or plant sap, and females of many species feed on human and animal blood. Larvae and pupae live in stagnant water bodies, active. Malaria mosquitoes ( Anopheles) are spreading malaria.

Mosquitoes(this. Phlebotomidae) are small dipterans, the body length of which usually does not exceed 3 mm. The body is covered with hairs. Males suck on plant juices. Females feed on the blood of humans and warm-blooded animals. Mosquito bites are very painful and cause itchy skin. Pathogens of a number of human diseases are spread: leishmaniasis, summer flu (a disease such as a temporary fever).

Gall midges(this. Cecidomyiidae) - small mosquitoes often with beaded long antennae, elongated body, long legs. Wings with few longitudinal veins and no transverse ones. Gall midge larvae, settling in plant tissues, often cause the formation of outgrowths - galls. Adults live only 2-3 days, do not feed. Larvae of some species lead a predatory lifestyle, usually exterminating aphids and ticks. Some types of gall midges cause significant harm to agricultural plants. Such is, for example, the Hessian fly ( Mayetiola destructor), the larva of which lives in the stalks of cereals.

Centipedes(family Tipulidae) - large mosquito-like insects with very long legs, no eyes, dorsal thorax with a U-shaped transverse suture, female with a solid true ovipositor. Larvae with a small head and short antennae; the body is bluntly chopped off behind with fleshy outgrowths; live in damp soil, in decaying plant debris, some in water, feed on plant parts or decaying plant matter. Some species are serious pests (swamp centipede ( Tipula paludosa)).

Suborder short-necked (Brachycera): characterized by short, 3-segmented, often bristly antennae and a short stocky fly-like body. The larva does not have a pronounced head capsule, sometimes only with a rudimentary retractable head. Pupa with or without a false cocoon. Among short-wattled flies, there are straight-seam flies, in which, like long-wattled flies, the pupal shell is torn along a straight seam, and round-seam flies, in which the pupa is hidden and the shell of the false cocoon opens from above in the form of a round cap.

Straight seam (Orthorrhapha)

Blind(this. Tabanidae) - large or medium-sized blood-sucking flies with huge iridescent eyes, a body without bristles, legs with 3 suction cups. The larvae develop in or near water, in moist soil, under stones. Flies are demanding on moisture. Horsefly bites disturb livestock. They are carriers of anthrax.

Ktyri(this. Asilidae) - large or medium-sized carnivorous flies with a long belly, body with bristles, legs with 2 suckers and a bristle between them. They hunt spiders and especially various insects - beetles, bees, dragonflies, locusts, etc. Some species destroy up to 40-60% of harmful locust individuals, bringing undoubted benefits.

Circular (Cyclorrhapha)

Hoverflies, or flower flies(this. Syrphidae) - medium-sized or large flies, often with yellow or other bright markings, usually with a naked body. R on wings with 3 branches, there is a false vein between R and M, there is an anal cell, large. Some look like stinging hymenoptera - wasps and bees. Larvae with a hard or leathery cuticle, without clear articulation, are diverse in their way of life: 1) herbivorous, live in plant tissues; 2) saprophages, live in decaying organic matter and dirty water; 3) predators, keep openly on plants, exterminate aphids and larvae of other isoptera; 4) freeloaders in the nests of social insects (bees). Onion pests - onion hovers ( Eumerus strigatus).

Psilides(this. Psilidae) - small flies with a triangular head in profile, Sc on the wings is shortened, does not reach the break of the costal vein, there is an anal cell. The larvae are herbivorous; in the carrot fly (Psila rosae) they live in the roots of carrots and are very harmful.

Science and technology

Sexual dimorphism. One of the amazing phenomena that often occurs in Diptera is sexual dimorphism, i.e. significant differences in appearance between males and females of the same species. For example, as noted above, in males of many species, complex eyes are holoptic; touch each other, while in females they are separated by a frontal stripe (dichoptic). In female mosquitoes, antennae are weakly pubescent, while in males they are densely covered with long hairs. Sexual dimorphism can also be expressed in size: males are usually smaller. In females of some species, wings are absent or strongly reduced, while in males they are normally developed. In one of the families of Diptera, in females, two wing veins merge at its edge, while in rare males they are separated along the entire length. In another group, the legs, antennae, or other body parts of males often bear tufts of hairs with a metallic sheen that are absent in females. The legs of some mosquito males are trimmed with a wide scaly fringe; females do not have it. Differences between the sexes in color are common, but usually subtle. However, sometimes this difference is very significant; for example, the males of one American centipede are pale reddish, while the females are almost black.

Mimicry and protective coloration. Many species of harmless Diptera are strikingly similar in appearance to other insects, especially bees and wasps, which humans and probably other animals try to avoid. This phenomenon is called mimicry. Its typical example is the appearance of a series of hoverflies; they are so similar to wasps that even an entomologist will not always correctly identify an insect right away. Other hoverflies mimic the appearance of bees. Some flies are more or less like bumblebees. This similarity is reflected in the nomenclature of Diptera: the whole family Bombyliidae (buzzers) is named in Latin after bumblebees ( Bombus); there are bee-like hoverflies, bumblebee hoverflies, hornet hoverflies, etc .; one of the genera of ktyrs is called Bombomima("Imitating bumblebees").

Some dipterans avoid predators with the help of a protective one, i.e. camouflage, coloring. The dark color of mushroom gnats makes them invisible when they sit motionless in crevices under fallen trees. Other dipterans have a "dismembering" coloration. For example, in lyriopids, bright black and white stripes on the body are arranged in such a way that these insects, flying against a light or dark background, look just like sets of spots that do not add up into a single whole.

LIFE CYCLE Like other higher insects, the life cycle of Diptera is complex and includes complete metamorphosis. The eggs of most species are oblong and light colored. They hatch into larvae, usually elongated, approximately cylindrical, soft-bodied and legless. In most cases, the hard parts of the head are greatly reduced; such worm-like larvae are called maggots. The larva feeds intensively and periodically molts as it grows. The number of larval molts in Diptera is different, but usually there are two or three of them. Then comes the pupa stage. In some dipterans, it forms inside the larval skin, which turns into the so-called. Puparium. Eventually, the pupa's shell breaks open and an adult insect (imago) is born.

House fly life cycle. On the example of the housefly, one can trace the development of Diptera. To lay eggs, the female looks for accumulations of decaying organic matter, for example, manure or garbage heaps. Thus, the fly instinctively leaves the clutch where the sedentary larva will be provided with a sufficient amount of food. At a time, the female can lay 120 or slightly more narrow, whitish eggs of approx. 1 mm long. Their huge masses are found in places where several females leave their clutches at the same time. At summer temperatures of 24–35 ° C, egg development takes approx. 8 ocloc'k. The worm-like larvae hatched from them are approx. 2 mm begin to eat greedily. They grow so fast that the first molt occurs in 24–36 hours, and the second one about a day later. The larva at the third stage feeds for another 72–96 h and grows to a length of approx. 12 mm and then pupates.

The oblong pupa forms inside the last larval skin, which becomes the pupal sheath (puparium). This shell changes its off-white color to brown and hardens. Within 4–5 days, inside the externally inactive pupa, the larval tissues disintegrate and rearrange, forming the structures of an adult insect. In the end, the imago comes out with the help of a special frontal bladder, which, under the pressure of the "blood" (hemolymph) pumped into it, protrudes in the frontal part of the head. Under its pressure, the “lid” of the puparium is thrown back, releasing an adult insect. It crawls out of decaying waste or the soil in which pupation has occurred, spreads its initially crumpled wings and flies away to feed and mate, launching a new life cycle.

Another curious form of reproduction found in some Diptera is pedogenesis, i.e. the appearance of offspring in externally immature individuals. Thus, in gall midges, the adult female lays only 4 or 5 eggs, from which large larvae are formed. Inside each of them, from 5 to 30 (depending on the species and on the individual) daughter larvae develop. They feed on the mother's body and then reproduce themselves in the same way. After several such cycles, the next larvae pupate, and the generation of adults is formed. Reproduction of larvae occurs without mating. This development of unfertilized eggs is called parthenogenesis. This phenomenon, in the absence of pedogenesis, was found in other Diptera, for example, in some midges. Females lay unfertilized eggs, from which only females emerge. Parthenogenesis can be cyclical, permanent, or sporadic. See REPRODUCTION;

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION On land, perhaps, there is no such corner where Diptera do not live. This is the most common order of insects, although the ranges of many of its families are not fully known. Each of the large zoographic regions is characterized by its own set of taxa, but the genera and families to which they belong can be cosmopolitan, i.e. meet almost everywhere. About two dozen species of Diptera are also cosmopolitan. Man unwittingly settled about half of them all over the planet. These species include the ubiquitous housefly, the squeaky mosquito ( Culex pipiens), gastric equine gadfly and autumn flare. Among about 130 families of Diptera, less than 20 are truly cosmopolitan, although the ranges of many others are not much narrower, i.e. they are sub-cosmopolitan.

Diptera abound in the humid tropics. The distribution of most families is limited by this natural zone, while many others reach the maximum diversity and abundance here. In temperate or cold areas, fewer Diptera species are found per unit area, but their numbers are often no lower than in the tropics. In the windswept Arctic desert, on mountain tops and among the dunes, where the harsh climatic conditions are not suitable for most insects, Diptera remain the most prominent representatives of this group of invertebrates. In the north of Greenland, a few hundred kilometers from the North Pole, there are centipedes, carrion flies, flower girls, bells and mushroom gnats. On the other side of the Earth, on the Antarctic islands, there are several species of midges, hoverflies, centipedes, gall midges and some other groups. In Antarctica itself, only one species of wingless mosquito has so far been noted, but it is likely that other Diptera will be found there.

Diptera of mainland islands are usually close to those living on nearby continents, but on more isolated oceanic islands, they, even belonging to widespread groups, are often very peculiar. Apparently, a single, accidental entry of some species on such islands in the distant past led in the course of evolution to the emergence of a whole set of various forms. This may explain, for example, the fact that almost a third of the 246 Hawaiian Diptera species belong to just one family.

ECOLOGY Possessing thin integuments, most Diptera are unable to effectively retain water in the body. They would be constantly threatened with drying out if they did not live in more or less humid conditions. Although the larvae are in many cases aquatic, the adults are almost always terrestrial. The only exception is sea centipedes. Limonia monostromia, whose entire life cycle takes place in warm sea waters off the coast of Japan.

Larvae. The habitat of Diptera larvae is much more diverse than that of adults, and includes almost all types of ecological niches. Some attack aphids or gnaw the leaves of mosses and other plants, i.e. live openly. However, in most cases, they develop in the thickness of a moist substrate, for example, inside the leaves, stems and roots of plants. Larvae of many species make holes in rotting wood, fungi or soil, feeding on organic debris or microscopic invertebrates.

They often live in stagnant and flowing water bodies of all sizes, where they feed on vegetation, microorganisms or other insects. Most of these aquatic larvae prefer shallow places, but in some bell mosquitoes they dive deeper than 300 m. If their development requires a good supply of oxygen, they attach to the stones of river rapids or mountain streams. The larvae and pupae of some Diptera prefer water with a high alkali or salt content, and in one Californian species they inhabit oil puddles. Others are found in hot springs and geysers, where the water temperature reaches 50 ° C. The larvae of one of the mosquitoes survive even in the liquid filling the pitcher leaves of carnivorous plants, where other insects drown and digest.

EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY Judging by the fossil finds, insects existed already in the Devonian period, i.e. OK. 300 million years ago. However, until the Upper Triassic (about 160 million years ago), no diptera remains were found among them. The most primitive representatives of this order are similar to centipedes and are united in the extinct family Architipulidae. Many different dipterans, close to modern forms, are found in Baltic amber, the resin of coniferous trees, petrified in the Upper Oligocene, i.e. about 35 million years ago. In the Miocene schists from Florissant (Colorado), many fossil centipedes, mushroom gnats, and other dipterans characteristic of swampy habitats have been found. Among them, even the tsetse fly was noted, although at present this genus is found only in Africa. The study of Baltic amber and Florissant fossils showed that by the middle of the Cenozoic era Diptera had passed most of their evolutionary development.

VALUE IN HUMAN LIFE Many Diptera species are best known as vectors of disease, annoying bloodsuckers, and crop pests. The most effective chemical methods of dealing with them, however, even the latest insecticides cannot be considered a panacea, since insects quickly acquire resistance to them (resistance).

Carriers of human diseases. Listed below are just a few medically important Diptera.

Housefly mechanically transfers the causative agents of bacterial dysentery; it is possible that it can also spread the bacteria typhoid, paratyphoid, cholera and the polio virus.

Blind can transmit tularemia pathogens from an infected animal, as well as one of the filariasis - loiasis.

Cereal flies of kind Hippelates eating near the eyes, they easily introduce a bacterium into them that causes acute epidemic conjunctivitis.

Sucking blood. Blood-sucking dipterans, even without being carriers of diseases, for example, biting midges, an autumn flare, many mosquitoes and midges, in a massive attack, worsen the state of human health, causing itching and allergic reactions, dramatically reducing performance. In addition, all of these species remain potential carriers of disease-causing agents.

Pests of agricultural plants. Compared to beetles, butterflies, herbivorous bugs and representatives of some other orders of insects, Diptera do relatively little harm to agricultural plants. Representatives of only 5-6 families have a certain value in this sense. The Hessian fly from the gall midge family is one of the serious pests of cereals. This species mainly damages wheat, but also damages barley and rye. The larvae of the Hessian fly feed on plant sap at the base of the stems, causing their growth retardation and lodging. With the development of wheat varieties resistant to such damage, the importance of this agricultural pest has decreased. The variegated family includes many species that feed on the succulent fruits of various plants, but only a few of them cause serious damage. So, the larvae of the apple variegated wing spoil apples, damage the fruits of citrus and other fruit trees, significantly reducing the yield. Larvae of other Diptera gnaw holes in various plants. As an example, we can cite three species from the flower girl family: sprout, spring cabbage and onion flies. Representatives of the family of cereal flies, which live in many parts of the world, harm grain crops.

CLASSIFICATION The order Diptera is divided, according to different systems, into 121–138 families, which are grouped into two or three suborders. The classification most often uses such features as wing venation, the length of the antennae and the number of segments in them, the number and location of setae and spines on the body and legs, the configuration of the external genital appendages, the presence or absence of simple ocelli, and the shape of the opening through which the imago leaves the pupal skin or puparium. The color, size and shape of the body do not always allow us to judge the degree of kinship, because natural selection often leads to the external similarity of representatives of very distant groups. The scheme proposed below, which includes only the most important families, is just one of the possible ways to classify approximately 100,000 Diptera species; the number of species in families is approximate.

Suborder Nematocera(long-necked). These insects are characterized by long antennae with more than three segments. The group includes 36 families. Antennae in adults consist of 6 or more approximately identical, movably connected segments, and the mandibular palps usually consist of 4 or 5. The larvae have a well-developed dark-colored head capsule. The pupa is not enclosed in a larval skin, i.e. puparium is not formed.

Tipulidae (centipedes): 10,000 species, cosmopolitan.

Psychodidae (butterflies): 400 species, subcosmopolitan.

Chironomidae (bells, or jerguns): 2000 species, cosmopolitan.

Ceratopogonidae (biting midges): 1500 species, subcosmopolitan.

Culicidae (true mosquitoes): 1600 species, cosmopolitan.

Mycetophilidae (mushroom gnats): 2,400 species, cosmopolitan.

Cecidomyiidae (gall midges): 4500 species, subcosmopolitan.

Bibionidae: 500 species, mainly in Eurasia and North America.

Simuliidae (midges): 600 species, subcosmopolitan, but especially numerous in Eurasia, North and South America.

Blepharoceridae (retinoptera): 75 species found in the highlands.

Suborder Brachycera(short-necked) includes about 100 families. Antennae of adult insects consist of three segments, of which the last (distal) is thickened and bears an appendage in the form of a bristle or rod on the dorsal side or apex. Palps with one or two segments. The head of the larva is poorly formed or rudimentary. In representatives of some families (longitudinal), the pupa is free; in other cases (round-seam dipterans) develops inside the puparium.

Tabanidae (horseflies): 3000 species, mainly in the tropics and subtropics.

Stratiomyiidae (lion cubs): 1500 species, subcosmopolitan.

Rhagionidae (snipe): 500 species, mainly in North America and Eurasia.

Nemestrinidae: 250 species, subcosmopolitan, but mainly in Central and North Africa.

Bombyliidae (buzzers): 2000 species, subcosmopolitan, but mainly in North America and the Mediterranean.

Asilidae (ktyri): 5000 species, subcosmopolitan, but most diverse in the tropics.

Mydaidae: 200 species, distributed in many but isolated regions.

Dolichopodidae (greenfinches): 2000 species, cosmopolitan.

Empididae (pushers): 3000 species, mainly in Eurasia, North and South America.

Phoridae (humpbacks): 1000 species, mostly in the tropics.

Platypezidae (mushroom flies): 100 species, mainly in Eurasia and North America.

Pipunculidae: 400 species, mostly in the northern continents.

Syrphidae (hoverflies): 4000 species, subcosmopolitan.

Conopidae (large heads): 500 species, subcosmopolitan.

Ortalidae (spotflies): 1200 species, cosmopolitan, but especially abundant in the tropics.

Trypetidae (variegated flies): 2000 species, mainly in the tropics and subtropics.

Sciomyzidae (Tennis): 200 species, mainly in the northern continents and southeast Asia.

Drosophilidae (fruit flies): 750 species, subcosmopolitan.

Ephydridae: 800 species, mainly in Eurasia and North America.

Chloropidae (cereal flies): 1200 species, cosmopolitan.

Agromyzidae (miner flies): 1000 species, cosmopolitan, but especially abundant in Eurasia.

Anthomyiidae (flower girls): 3000 species, cosmopolitan.

Calliphoridae (carrion flies): 500 species, subcosmopolitan, but mainly in the Northern Hemisphere.

Sarcophagidae (gray meat flies): 1000 species, subcosmopolitan, but mainly in the tropics.

Muscidae (real flies): 150 species, cosmopolitan.

Tachinidae: 5000 species, cosmopolitan, but most diverse in the tropics.

Oestridae (nasopharyngeal gadflies): 150 species, subcosmopolitan, but mainly in warm areas.

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In humans, the words "mosquitoes and flies" evoke the image of extremely annoying and annoying creatures, generated by nature in order to poison the life of man and his domestic animals.

Mosquitoes and flies or, as entomologists call them - Diptera, make up a special order of insects, numbering about one hundred thousand species. All of them have only one pair of wings, while from the second pair only tiny appendages remain, the so-called halteres, apparently playing the role of organs of balance. All of them are excellent flyers, and the flies among them are considered the most unsurpassed in speed, extraordinary virtuosity and flight perfection. Whether man will ever create a flying machine like the one possessed by flies, we do not know.

Many flies and mosquitoes have become completely wingless.

The Diptera detachment is divided into two well-defined suborders: Long-tailed Diptera or mosquitoes and Short-tailed Diptera or flies. The first of them includes insects, usually with a delicate structure, thin long legs and long antennae, sometimes equipped with various complex outgrowths. In the suborder Short-toed or flies, the antennae are tiny, short, consist of three segments, bear a bristle at the apex, and the physique is more stocky and dense. In the worm-like larvae of short-tailed Diptera, the mouth organs are undeveloped, which is due to the fact that they have the so-called extraintestinal digestion: the larvae secrete digestive juices outward, sucking out the food they have processed. Some of the larvae, pupating, dress on the outside with a hard shell-puparium.

Mosquitoes and flies in nature are extremely numerous and varied. They are very widespread from the tundra to the tropics, they live decisively everywhere and everywhere, they have adapted to various living conditions. The appearance of mosquitoes and flies is also different. But all of them, in general, are small in size, hardly noticeable, although they have the splendor of shapes and colors. And their life is so diverse that there is no way to describe them briefly in general terms.

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